eet see ates >» Workbook answers Chapter 1 A solid has a fixed mass and volume / shape. A liquid has a fixed mass but its shape changes to that of the container in which itis placed. ‘A gas has no fixed shape or volume, A gas, completely fills the container that it is in. 90% lo 2° S% > Woto B c A D A freezing (solidification) Brelting C condensation D evaporation or boiling radon radon and nitrogen nitrogen cobalt ‘The sample of ethanoie acid is impure. The presence of impurities raises the boiling point of a substance, ‘The student would need to use an oil bath (in place of the water bath) so that the higher temperature could be reached. ‘The substance is freezing (solidifying) | turing from liquid to solid ‘The temperature stays constant because energy is being released as the substance solidifies / the molecules are giving out heat as they stop moving from place to place and become organised in a structured lattice arrangement / in the solid the molecules can only vibrate about fixed points / the heat released by the formation of new interactions (forces) between the particles keeps the temperature constant until all the substance is solid. ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 1 continued Temperature /°C. Time / minutes ‘The curve flattens but the temperature does not stay constant while the wax solidifies. This is because wax is a mixture of substances, not a pure compound. Asolid B solid and liquid (melting is taking place) C liquid D liquid and gas (boiling is taking place) 17°C 11sec ‘The temperature remains constant until the change of state is complete. ‘The melting point and boiling point are not those of water. The carbon dioxide is under pressure in the fire extinguisher. Hoar frost is a powdery white frost caused ‘when solid iee Forms from humid air. The solid surface on which it is formed must. bbe colder than the surrounding air. Water vapour is deposited on a surface as fine ice erystals without going through the liquid phase. Evaporation: evaporation is a process that can take place at any temperature / it takes place at the surface of the liquid only / particles with enough energy can escape from the surface / these particles have sulficient kinetic energy to overcome the interactive forces between the particles and break free from the surface into the vapour (gas) phase / the rate of evaporation increases with temperature as the energy of the particles increases, with temperature Boiling: boiling takes place at a specific temperature (the boiling point of the liquid) / bubbles of gas form throughout the liquid as particles gain sufficient ‘energy to form a gas bubble /the gas bubbles then rise to escape the liquid and enter the gas phase (state) / the boiling point of a liquid changes with the atmospheric pressure / the lower the atmospheric pressure, the easier it is for the gas bubbles to form and the lower the boiling point. ‘The purple crystals are soluble in water, so the water begins to break up the crystals, and particles (ions) from the solid move into the water. This continues until all the solid dissolves. The particles then move through the liquid and spread out through the liquid until the solution is evenly coloured throughout. ‘A shorter time — if the temperature were higher, the particles would be moving faster, as they would have more energy / the process of diffusion would take place more quickly. ammonium chloride -* ammonia + hydrogen chloride NH) + HCI) + NH,Cl) ‘The smoke ring forms closer to the hydrochloric acid end of the tube because ammonia molecules diffuse (move) faster than hydrogen chloride molecules! this is because ammonia molecules have a lower relative molecular mass (1M, = 17) compared with hydrogen chloride ‘molecules (M, = 36.5) / ammonia molecules travel further in a given time. approximately 30cm / approximately two-thirds of the way along the tube hydrogen > methane > oxygen > chlorine G must have a molecular mass greater than that of methane, but less than that of oxygen /it must have an M, between 16 and 32, ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 1 continued The kinetic model states that the particles in a liquid and in a gas are constantly moving, In a «gas, the particles are far apart from each other and their movement is said to be random. The particles in a solid are held in fixed positions ina regular lattice. In a solid, the particles can only vibrate about their fixed positions. Liquids and gases are fluids. When particles ‘move in a fluid, they can collide with each other. When they collide, they bounce off each other in different directions. If two gases or liquids are mixed, the different types of particle spread out and get mixed up. This proces is called diffusion, In gases at the same temperature, particles that have @ lower mass move faster than those with higher mass. This means that the lighter particles will spread and mix more quickly ‘The lighter particles are said to diffuse faster than the heavier particles. When gaseous ‘molecules diffuse, the rate at which they do so is inversely related to the relative molecular mass (M,) of the gas. (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 2 Atoms are made up of three different particles protons, which are positively charged ‘neutrons, which have no charge ‘electrons, witich are negatively charged. The negatively charged particles are arranged in different shells (energy levels) around the aucleus of the atom, The particles with a negligible mass are the electrons. All atoms of the same element contain the same number of protons and neutrons. Atoms of the same clement with different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes. Li ‘The electrons in an atom are arranged in a series of shells around the central nucleus. ‘These shells are also called energy levels. In an atom, the shell elosest / nearest to the nucleus fills frst, then the next shell, and so on, There is room for: ‘up to two electrons in the first shell up to eight electrons in the second shell up to eight electrons in the third shell (There are 18 electrons in total when the three shells are completely full.) The elements in the Periodic Table are organised in the same way as the electrons fill the shells Shells fil from left to right across the rows of the Periodic Table. ‘The first shel fills up first from hydrogen to helium. The second shell fills next, from lithium to neon, Bight electrons go into the third shell, from sodium to argon. ‘Then the fourth shell starts to fill, from potassium. Mg (magnesium) F (fluorine) K (potassium) boron /2,3, phosphorus /2,8,5 2 5 3 3 3 5 3 9 3 one (the atoms of element B) Band 3 38 33 8 137-99 = 82 Isotopes are different atoms of the same element that have the same proton number but different nucleon numbers, ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 2 continued B E Aand © BandD 2 protons, 2 neutrons, +2 ‘The gold atoms are packed together in a regular arrangement (lattice) / in layers / the atoms can only vibrate about fixed positions ‘This suggests that the atoms were largely empty space through which the c-particles passed ‘These a-particles had made direct hits on the nuclei of the gold atoms. They are repelled backwards because the nucleus of the atom is positively charged and so are the a-particles. [ete [sen on Carbon 14 6 8 6 Hydrogen 1 1 0 1 Hydrogen (etiam) 3 ' 2 ' Phosphorus | 15 31 15 16 15 Phosphorus | 15 32 1s 7 15 Iodine 53 127 53 74 53 3 lodine 53 131 53 78 53 ‘The chemical properties of isotopes of the same element are the same because the ‘number and arrangement of electrons in the isotopes are the same / the atoms of the isotopes all have the same number of outer electrons. percentage of rhenium-187 in natural sample = 100 ~37.4 = 62.6% = (185 * 37.4) + (187 x 62.6) A, of rhenium im 6919 + 11 706.2 _ 18625.2 100 100 = 1863 (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 3 be separated by | canbe separated by physical methods, _| physical methods. The substances present stil show the properties that they have when by themselves. ‘The properties are different from those of the elements that went to make it. The elements are ‘combined ina definite proportion boy mass, ‘compounds: distilled water, carbon dioxide, sodium chloride, copper sulfate ‘mixtures: brass, lemonade, seawater, hydrochloric acid solution, air A compound Belement C mixture Delement The substances can Ammonia be present in any proportion by mass, Ecompound Fmixture sodium chloride is a white solid — different from the elements sodium chloride dissolves in water ~ different from the elements, particularly sodium a sodium chloride is neutral in solution ~ ww again different from the two elements iron is magnetic; sulfur is non-magnetic / iron is dark grey; sulfur is yellow firon reacts with hydrochloric acid; sulfur does | Water #0) not react with acid the fact that the mixture continues to glow [Hydrogen with heat shows that a chemical reaction chloride is continuing to take place, and that itis (Hc) an exothermic reaction the product is no longer magnetic / the product reacts with acid but gives a different product to that produced by the iron powder ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 3 continued Nitrogen (NJ Ethene (CH) Methanol (CH,OH) Ethanoie acid (CH,COOH) Note that in the answers to question 8, the dot-and-cross diagrams are drawn differently to those in question 7. Both methods are equally acceptable, but the drawings here have the advantage of showing the overlap between the atoms in covalent bonding. (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021DU ed cesaaer Lae ccrlel4 Chapter 3 continued the sodium ion (2,8) has one less electron TP MEIN than a sodium atom (2,8,1) the chloride ion (2,8,8) has one more electron than a chlorine atom (2,8,7) [«] Ey clectrostatc frees of attraction between the electrostatic forees between the ions with opposite charge metal ions and the delocalised sea of [NaCl has high melting point because the electrons are strong and soit needs a foroes between the fons are strong _it takes strong heat to overcome them 4 large amount of heat to disrupt them the fact that the layers can slide over cach other without the bonding being broken means that a metal can be Property Explanation drawn out into wires Pemeonctan The ions in the giant the layers of metal ions can move jenic compound janie structure aways over each other without the metallic in water is a goo tave the same regular bonds being broken, therefore the oa Hegpgsment eee delocalised electrons between the ions oe ‘8 in the metallic structure are free to Pascoe ‘move and can be made to flow in one direction faces ofthe crystal Glow the gular Diamond is very because al the sata sme : Diamond does not becouse all the outer ee reer terete eee conductelecticty | electrons of the atoms melting points. positive and negative bon involved in making ions can move ~ the ones ions can move tothe | | Graphite waippery |... because the layers leerodes wena inthe structure ore voltage is epplied. only held together by A molten ionic In a solution of an weak forces. ‘compound (i.e. an ionic compound, the Graphite conducts because there are ionic compound positive metal ions. ‘electricity some free electrons: heated above its and the negative non- that are able to move melting point) is 2 metal ions can move between the layers to eles rNhese fons ean move cant the current eae tothe elecvodes when votage is applied ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 3 continued Graphite conducts electricity because not all of the outer electrons of the carbon atoms are used in the covalent bonding that holds the atoms together in the layers, ‘These ‘ree’ electrons are able to move in. between the layers. They can be made to ‘move in one direction when a voltage is applied. Graphite acts asa lubricant because there are only weak forces between the layers of carbon atoms in the structure. The layers ‘can be made to move over each other if a force is applied. ‘The strong bonds between the atoms are covalent bonds, In the crystal, there are two oxygen atoms for every silicon atom, so the formula is SiO,. ‘The atoms of the lattice are organised in a tetrahedral arrangement like diamond, with a silicon atom at the centre of each. tetrahedron (pyramid) This is an example of a giant molecular (covalent) structure. Each oxygen atom forms two covalent bonds Each silicon atom forms four covalent bonds. ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021 Silicon(1V) oxide occurs naturally as mud / sand, It has a giant covalent / electrostatic structure very similar to graphite /diamond, Such a structure can also be described as a siant molecular /fonie structure as all the atoms in the crystal are joined together by covalent bonds. Each silicon atom is bonded to four / two oxygen atoms, while each oxygen atom is linked covalently to four / two silicon atoms. ‘The oxygen atoms are arranged hexagonally / tetrahedrally around the silicon atoms, ‘The fact that all the atoms are bonded together in a two-dimensional / three- dimensional structure like graphite / diamond ‘means that siicon(TV) oxide has similar physical properties to graphite / diamond, Silica is very hard /stippery and has a tow / high melting point. All the outer electrons of the atoms are used in making the covalent bonds between the atoms. This means that silicon(IV) oxide does / does not conduct electricity. There are no electrons free to carry the current through the crystal.eet see ates Chapter 4 1H; IN; 30 1Cu; 2N; 60 2N; 8H; 1S; 40 1K; Mn; 40, & ‘raration laments ‘rable val) Li, Na, K, Mg, Ca, Zn, AL N, 0, 5,S, Cl, Br BC HS BO, cs, NH, 12 carbon atoms + 22 hydrogen atoms + 11 oxygen atoms = 45 PR, (or R,P) QR (or RQ) Q ionic covalent MgBr,, Mg"Br- CaN, CaN ALO, AP"O™ ‘molecular formula C,0,H, ‘empirical formula COH, The formula of a simple molecular compound shows exactly how many atoms are bonded together in each molecule. For example, ethane has two carbon and six hydrogen atoms, s0 its formula is C,H, This is the molecular formula for ethane. This formula can be simplified to CH, by dividing through by 2. CCH, is the empirical formula of ethane. ‘The formulae used for giant covalent and ionic compounds are the simplest ratio of the different atoms or ions in each compound, ‘These formulae are known as the empirical formulae of these types of compounds ‘methane + oxygen + carbon dioxide + water CH,@) + 20g) + CO{g) + 24,00) zine + copper(I sulfate ~ zine sulfate + copper ammonium chloride + sodium hydroxide “+ ammonia + sodium chloride + water iron + oxygen ~+ iron(II) oxide 2Na + Cl, 2NaCl 280, +30, +280, Fe,0, + 360+ 2Fe + 3C0, 2PbO + C-+ 2Pb + CO, cuo Na,CO, ZnSO, AgNO, (NH),S0, KPO, Fe(OH), crcl, tl 1:3:3 D814 2a Ko (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 4 continued ee = Clg) + 2Br (ag) + 2C (ag) + Br.(aq) Mg(s) + 2H1(aq) + Mg" (aq) + H,(@) (aq) + OH (aq) + Fo(OH),(s) Zn*(aq) + Mts) —* Zn(s) + Mg(aa) Stonnes zine oxide “+ 4tonnes zine so 2tomersn ite -4 2) = 16tonnes zine or 5=x/20 so 22420 tomes of sine Moa itonsered daring atin, 0 the mass of the products equals the mass of reactants: mass of reactants = 68 +96 = 164g so, mass of water is 164 — 56 = 108g in the reaction shown, 68g of ammonia is burnt. Ifthe mass of ammonia burnt is 17g, this is wl ana so, mass of water formed is 1x 108 AME a 27g (One carbon atom is three times as heavy as one helium ator 4 He 1 2 3 4d (One helium atom i four times as heaw as one: hysrogen ator c won ww (One rivogen atom is tovce 3s heavy as one} lithium atom Carbon-12 is used as the standard for relative atomic mass (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 4 continued Onygen ©, 20 2x 16=32 Carbondioxide _[€0, 1C and 20 Teta 42% 16 = 44 Water #0 2H and 10 2x1+16=18 ‘enmnonia NH, Nand 3H Taeaxt=17 Calcium carbonate CaP and TCO 40+ 12+ 3% 16= 100 Magnesium oxide Mg and 10% Tx 2441 = 16 = 40 “Ammonium nitrate INH and 1NO,- 2x 1444x143" 16-60 Propanol 36, BH and 10. Fe 124 BxTe1x16~ 60 g 2 5 i i Mass of tg ‘The mass of magnesium oxide produced increases if more magnesium is used. The increase is inear (directly proportional) ‘mass of MgO produced = 0.195 ‘Note that your answer may differ slightly because your line of best fit may be slightly different. 0.19 = 0.12= 0.078 0.07 ag = Oye x 24= Mae from experiment: 0.12.¢ magnesium gives 0.19 g magnesium oxide 019. 1.00g will give 975 g magnesium oxide 0.19 therefore 3.5g will produce 5-75 5.54g of magnesium oxide Magnesium is sufficiently reactive to ‘combine with nitrogen from the air to produce magnesium nitride, Mg,N, ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 5 The formula of magnetite is The atoms present are The relative atomic mass is... 56. The relative formula mass of the iron oxide (Fe,0,) = 232 In this formula, there are three atoms of iron, Fe, ‘The relative mass of 3Fe = 168. This means that in 232g of Fe,O, there are 168g of iron. 168 So 1g of Fe,O, contains 935= 0.7248 of iron. So 100g of Fe,0, contains 72.4g of iron. In other words, the percentage (%) of iron in Fe,0, = 72.4%. Empirical formula of oxalic acid = CH Mass of empirical formula = 12+ 1+ (2x 16) = 45 But actual formula mass = 90 ‘Therefore, actual molecular formula of onalic acid = C,H,0, Empirical formula of compound = AsC,H, From equation: 1 mol Fe,O, gives 2mol Fe 100g of Fe= 2 mpi = 1 79mol eoied = "P= 995ml 1M, of FeO, = (56 * 2) + (16 * 3) = 160 ass of Fe,0, needed = 0.895 * 160 = 143.28 100. of iron is 1.79 moles of Fe, so (0.895 moles of Fe,O, are needed for the reaction, or 143.2g of iron(II1) oxide. From above: 143.2 Fe,O, gives 100 of iton so 143.2tonnes Fe,O, gives 100tonnes of Fe Therefore 71.6tonnes of Fe,O, are needed to produce 50 tonnes of Fe mol of Fe,0, (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 5 continued ‘mol FO, in 100tonnes = 100 « 12% 625000 0f 6.25 x 10'mol 160 mol Fe expected = 625000 x 2 = 1250000 or 1.25 x 10'mol mass of Fe expected = 1 250000 x 56 = 700000008 ot 70tonnes Fe actual yield = Ttonnes ‘Therefore, percentage yield = 10% CaCO, + Cad + C0, 1 mol CaCO, gives Imol CaO (quicklime) 100g CaCO, gives 56g CaO oF 100 tonnes CaCO, gives S6tonnes CaO x 100 _ 7 56 1 tonne CaCO, gives ;pp tonnes CaO 36 56 tonnes CaO = 0.56tonnes From above: I tonne CaCO, gives 0.S6tonnes Ca0 expected: 25 tonnes CaCO, would give (0.56 « 2.5)= 1 4tonnes C20 actual yield = 1.12tonnes therefore, percentage yield = 112% 100 - 80% “The yield is not 100% because the limestone may not be 100% calcium carbonate ~or other valid reason. Stage 1: 14.40em’ of NaOH(aq) containing 0.50 moles in 1000em* were used. Number of moles NaOH used = Pig x 14.40 = 7.20 10° moles (or 0.0072 moles) Stage Note that I mole of citric acid reacts with 3 moles of sodium hydroxide. Number of moles citric acid in sample 0 x 10" 3 (or 0.0024 moles) Stage 3: Rolative formula mass of citrie acid (M, of C,H,0,) = 192 Mass of citric acid in sample = 2.40 10° x 192 = 0.468 Percentage purity of sample = 40 x 10 moles 0.48 Dag 100 = 95.8% (Note that you have a clue that you are on the right lines in your calculation because your value for the mass of citric acid must be less than 0.48g) The citric acid ean be further purified by re-crystalisation, balance 1 selourless P [itn V= | 003 | (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 5 continued ‘Number of moles of H,SO, in 25cm’ of + solution = 2 x25 = 2mol/dm’ solution = 355 * 25 = 0.0Smoles Maximum number of moles of CuS0,SH,O that could be formed = 0.05 moles Maximum mass of erystals, CuSO,;SH,O, that could be formed = 0.05 250 = 12.5¢ (The mass of one mole of CuSO,'5H,O is 250g.) 13 Percentage yield = 713 x 100 = 58.4% Sodium chloride Hydrochloric acid ‘Sodium hydroxide Sulfuric acid Sodium thiosulfate Coppert sulfate = 2 79 3 2 128g Cu=2mol Cu ‘The three results are not equal because of the Amol = 6.02 10 atoms Cu difficulty in we eat eee se nol Cu = 602 * 10° = 1.20 % 10% magnesium ribbon. Also, the pieces of ribbon 2mol Cu= 2% 6.02 * 108 = 1.20 x 10% ‘may not be exactly the same thickness or atoms of copper “ width, or gas may be lost as the magnesium 4g H, = 2mol H, molecules is allowed to fall into the flask, or there 2mol H, molecules = 2 x 6.02 x 103 = ‘may have been air in the measuring cylinder 1.20 x 10H, molecules = 2.4 * 10H bofore starting atoms (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 5 continued From equation: 24g of magnesium (1 mole) + 24000em of hydrogen so Lem’ of hydrogen produced from 55 = 0.001 g of magnesium and 82cm’ of hydrogen produced from 0.001 X82 = 0.0828 24g of magnesium + 120g of ‘magnesium sulfate $0 0,082g will give"5q% 0.082 = 0.41 g “The answers to 12 and 13 could be calculated by other proportionality methods “The key factor here is that 24 of magnesium will produce 120g of dried anhydrous ‘magnesium sulfate (MgSO,) (see the equation). Weigh out a knowin mass of ‘magnesium ribbon, React it with excess dilute sulfuric acid until no more gas is given off and no magnesium remains. “Transfer the solution to a beaker of known mass. Feat the solution to dryness, taking care to avoid it spitting, Allow to cool and weigh the beaker and residue Fitter, dry and weigh the erystals carefully. From the data above, calculate the mass of crystals that Sem would have given (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 6 power supply ® | electroine 7 heat i necessary graphite and platinum A3,BA,C2,D-4 purple vapour given off ‘green gas, given off red-brown vapour given off ‘colourless gas given off Lead@) ree iodine | lead Magnesium megs | chlorine magnesium Zine a de | bromine Calcium Sese onygen calcium chromate ions Chromate ions are negatively charged and so move towards (are attracted to) the positive electrode, Anions: chromate (CrO,*) and sulfate (SO,") Cations: potassium (K*) and copper (Cu) A blue colour moves towards negative (Cu ions), and a yellow colour moves towards positive (Cr0,* ions) During electrolysis, ionic compounds are decomposed by the passage of an electric current. For this to happen, the compound ‘must be either molten or in solution in water. Electrolysis ean oceur when an electric current passes through a molten electrolyte. The two rods dipping into the electrolyte are called the electrodes. In this situation, metals are deposited at the cathode and non-metals are formed at the anode. When the ionie compound is dissolved in water, the electrolysis can be more complex. Generally, during electrolysis, positive ions move towards the eathode and negative ions ‘move towards the anode. At the negative electrode (cathode) the metal or hydrogen ions gain electrons and form metal atoms or hydrogen molecules. At the positive electrode, (anode) non-metals are formed as their ions or hydroxide ions from the water lose electrons. ‘concentrated potassium bromide bromine | hydrogen 2H"(aq) + 2e ,(g) + 411"(aq) + 4 + 214,00) 2H,@) + Oe) + 24,00) ‘The only waste product is non-polluting water / they do not need recharging / they are more efficient than a petrol engine. needs to be an increased avai ty of hydrogen refuelling stations / needs to be a move to ‘greener’ sustainable sources of hydrogen rather than from a fossil fuel source: ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 6 continued dic. power supply ‘A (anode) |_—-C (cathode) —E (electrolyte) copper copper(I) sulfate (or copper(II) chloride / copper(II) nitrate) ‘The anode dissolves away, and a sludge forms below it To protect the object from corrosion / for decorative purposes. copper(II) chloride + copper + chlorine CuCl (ag) + Cus) + CLYg) ‘The gas will bleach moist litmus paper. The reaction is endothermic / electrical ‘energy is being used to decompose the compound, cathode: Cu2*(aq) + 2e -+ Cu(s) anode: Cu(s) -+ Cu(aq) + 2¢ Change in mass at cathode: mass increases as copper deposited Change in mass at anode: mass decreases as copper dissolves away from anode ‘The blue colour is due to the copper ions present in the solution / the copper ions discharged at the cathode are replaced by those dissolving into solution at the anode 1/30 the colour does not fade. (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021Chapter 7 ‘When a physical change takes place, the substance undergoing the change is unchanged chemically. When a chemical change takes place, the substance or substances formed are different to the starting substance. Physical changes are easy to reverse so that we can easily go back to the starting substance. Chemical changes are difficult to reverse, soit is more difficult to form the starting substance again. Ice melting is a physical change, because the ice and water are chemically the same | both HO. Melting is also easy to reverse, Magnesium burning in air is a chemical change because a new compound, ‘magnesium oxide, is formed. Also, itis difficult to reverse the change and lots of ‘energy is given out in the reaction. Salt dissolving in water is a physical change because the salt and water are unchanged chemically (the sat is just, dissolved) — itis sodium chloride still The dissolving can be reversed by evaporation of the water. eet see ates ZnCO, + Zn0 + CO, (Chemical — new substances, zine oxide and carbon dioxide, are formed from the zine carbonate. The zine carbonate is broken up (decomposition) using heat (thermal). ‘When the zinc oxide cools down it changes colour from yellow to white, which is a physical change, This change is casily reversed because when itis heated it turns yellow agai colourless gas = carbon dioxide solid zine carbonate @nco,) hot solid (yellow) zine oxide cold solid (white) zine oxide (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 7 continued ‘ype of reaction Statement/ Fact The temperature decreases, Heat eneray is given out to the surroundings. The temperature Combustion isan example of this ‘ype of reaction. Heat eneray is taken in from the surroundings ‘exothermic The chemicals might burst the container and mix with the food/drink By Ieaving an empty space above the chemicals calcium oxide + water calcium hydroxide C20 + H,0 + Ca(OH), Advantage: can be used anywhere instantly. Disadvantage: cannot be re-used. Use a known amount of water, measure the temperature and then add a series of known masses of ammonium nitrate, Measure the temperature after each addition. Plot a graph to show temperature change against mass of ammonium nitrate added, Use the graph. to determine the mass needed to reduce the temperature to 5°C. Other methods are possible, but they must work. Inan exothermic reaction, the reactants / products have more thermal energy than the reactants / products, This means that thermal energy / potential energy is transferred to/ from the surroundings and therefore the temperature of the surroundings increases / decreases. Inan endothermic reaction, the reactants / products have more thermal energy than the reactants / products. This means that energy is transferred to /from the surroundings and the temperature of the surroundings inereases / decreases. Ca0+ C0, lendothermic exothermic 0, +2H,0 Progress of reaction Areactants| B activation energy Centhalpy of reaction D products Activation enetgy = 200017 a Eay change creation Smal Progress ofrwaction ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 7 continued 0.2mol of propane gives ~2054 x 0.2 = -A108kI 4mol of propane gives 2054 x 4 = -8216KT ‘The bond energy is the energy required to break onemole of covalent bonds. The energy is measured in kilojoules. When bonds are 3 broken energy has to be added to the system 33g of propane = j,mol = 0.7Smol and the sign for A/T is positive. When bonds are made energy is given out by the system ‘Therefore energy released = and the sign for AH is negative, The enthalpy 0.75 2054 = “1540.5kI change for the reaction is the difference ‘between the energy taken in when bonds are broken and the energy given out when bonds are made. If the overall change in enthalpy is negative then the reaction is exothermic. If itis positive then the reaction is an. endothermic one. ‘Weakest bond = C-C Strongest bond = C=O Number of moles of OH bonds = 4 Energy required = 4 x 464 = 1864kI Bonds broken = 4C-H + 2 = 6 bonds Bonds made = 2C=0 + 40-H = 6 bonds Number of moles of bonds broken: 2x C-C, 8C-Hand 5 x O=0 Energy required to break moles 2x CC = 2x 347 = 694 8x CH=8 x 413 = 3304 5x x 498 = 2490 ‘Total energy required for bond breaking 6488 kI/mol Bonds made: 6 x C=O and 8 x O-H Energy given out by making 6 x C=O bonds = 6 % 805 = 4830 Energy given out by making 8 x O-H bonds = 8 % 464 = 3712 Total energy given out = 8542K)/mol Enthalpy change for combustion of propane = (energy required to break bonds) ~ (energy given out when bonds formed) = 6488 ~ 8542 = -2054 kJ/mol (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021Exercise 8.1 1 6 a Bhas the greater surface area because more surfaces are exposed. b calcium carbonate(s) + hydrochloric acid(aq) + calcium chloride(ag) + water(l) + carbon dioxide(g) ‘The mass decreases because carbon dioxide is given off, leaves the solution and therefore the mass decreases. temperature of acid, concentration of acid, volume of acid, mass of marble chips ‘Temperature: if itis increased the particles of acid move more quickly, collide with the solid surface more frequently and with greater force so that there are more collisions with an energy greater than the activation energy, Concentration of acid: particles are more crowded and collide more frequently, so there is more chance of a reaction. ‘Volume of acid: if a greater volume of acid (of the same concentration) were present, then the reaction would take place for longer, As long as the acid ‘covers the chips, it does not affect the initial rate of reaction, Mass of solid (of same particle size): if more solid is present then reaction would continue for longer. In the reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid, the acid particles can only collide and react with the calcium carbonate particles on the ‘outside of the pieces, the ones on the inside cannot react. In the smaller pieces, ‘more of the inside particles are exposed to the acid and the acid particles can therefore react with more calcium carbonate particles and more reactions, take place. a For the large pieces of marble chips (flask B), readings (in grams) were: mass/g ima] 0 |» | © | » | 2 [mo | wo | 20 Mass/g | 22086 | aa0as [24040 | Bi021 | B00 | tos | Za9.95 | Bee tessin | ooo | oz: | oa | oes | ors | oor | oot | ose Time/s | 60 [90 | Mass/a_| 729.50 | 209.80 | 239.87 | 73086 | 20086 | 2ana6 | 23986 | 22986 tessin | ove | 098 | os | 1.00 | 1.00 | 100 | 100 | 1.00 For the small pees of mabe chips lask B), readings (in grams) were myo | » | © | ~ | | = | wo | 20 Mass/g_| 240.86 | 240.5 | m4008 | Zon. | Fen95 | Fae92 | 990 | Bn08 tes | om | os: | 07 | oar | om | om | ov | ove Time/s [240 [270 | 00 [00 [0 | 0) 00 [mo Mass/e_| 750.87 | 299.86 | 23986 | 75986 | 25086 | 29986 | 23986 | 25985 poe 0.99 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00eet see ates Chapter 8 continued 2 Hoss in mass for smaller pieces lose in maze for large piscer os 92 i 08: Loss in mats g oa 02. ofr 0 a0 oto Smaller pieces. The graph is steeper at the beginning and reaches the maximum amount of gas earlier. ‘The greater the surface area, the faster the rate The same amount of acid was used. ‘The concentration of a solution / solvent is a ‘measure of the number of particles of solute / solvent per unit volume / area. ‘The third box should have eight filled circles. The reason for this is that the concentration is equal to the first box which has two closed circles. But, the volume in the first box is 1 dm" and the third box is 4dm' which means we need four times as many solute particles for the same concentration, Mg(s) + 2HCK(aq) + MgCl (aq) + A= delivery tube B=clamp C= gas syringe time, volume of gas Volume of gas / em! 440s average rate - ‘maximum volume time taken to complete the reaction = 400 = o.23em"ss 0 100 20 260 «G0 S00 660 700 Time/s The line (X) should be steeper a first and level off to the same volume as the original line. The line should be as steep as the original line at first and then level off to SOcm* because half the mass of magnesium was used, ‘An example is shown. The slope of this 88-72 _ 16 5 line is SET2 = 16 = 0.16em'/s As the reaction proceeds the acid is used up and therefore its concentration decreases and the rate slows down, This means that the slope of the graph decreases and the line gradually gets less steep. ‘Na $,0,(ag) + 2HCK(aq) + H,O()) + 8O,(g) + S(s) + 2NaCl(aq) The sulfur formed isa solid and it ‘makes the solution cloudy. Therefore as it increases the reaction mixture gets cloudier. The cross will be obscured when there is enough sulfur in the reaction mixture to ‘make it so cloudy that it cannot be seen. This means that we are measuring the time it takes to make a certain amount of sulfur ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 8 continued The sulfur dioxide is toxic and causes respiratory distress, so we need a well-ventilated room. Also when the reaction mixture is discarded, it should be discarded in a fume cupboard sink. Safety specs are needed because of the acid used. ‘When the temperature of a reaction mixture is increased the particles move around more quickly and this increases their kinetic energy. Because they move around more quickly at higher temperatures, they collide more frequently and this increases the chance of a reaction taking place. More importantly, when the particles do collide the collisions are more efficient. This means that more collisions have an energy greater than the activation energy, Which is the energy required for reaction to occur. (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 8 continued o © & Mean average temperature /°C Experiment 5 ‘This was the experiment carried out at the highest temperature. Increasing the temperature increases the rate of a reaction because the particles are ‘moving faster and therefore collide more frequently. They also have more energy when they collide and so are more likely to react. As the reaction mixture gets cloudier, due to the production of sulfur, the intensity/ brightness of the light reaching the light datalogger decreases, Light intensity ‘The correct order is UW QPVTRS Copper(IT) sulfate. It speeds up the reaction because the formation of bubbles of hydrogen gas increase greatly but it is changed chemically. The red solid produced is copper (this newly-made copper acts as a catalyst and speeds up the reaction) Copper is the true catalyst because it speeds up the reaction and is unchanged and is still copper at the end, for uncataaed products Progrens of action ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 9 endothermic By adding water drop-wise to the powder, _[Allreactions are easly reversible. If the forward reaction is endothermic Reversible reactions are represented then the reverse reaction must be by the arrows = exothermic / because the water being When the concentrations of added becomes chemically combined reactants and products are equal, (with the cobalt ions) in the solid and reversible reactions stop. bonds are formed. IFihe forward reaction is, anhydrous ‘endothermic, the backward reaction is exothermic. CuSO, 5H.0 = CuSO, + 5H.O Heating always favours the blue white ‘endothermic reaction in 8 ‘The reaction is reversible. reversible reaction. ‘The white powder would turn blue, When equiliorium is reached, with heat given out / the test detects the reversible reactions stop. presence of water and the water does not Reversible reactions can go forwards have to be pure / the water can still react ‘or backwards depending on even though there is some ethanol there, the conditions ‘Test its boiling point (should be 100°C at sea level) / or its freezing point. 215.3ks/mol Crop plants are found to need three elements ‘The temperature increases. for healthy growth: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) The backward reaction is exothermic and potassium (K). Plants take up these ‘which means that heat is released elements in the form of salts such as ammonium to the surroundings and the nitrate, potassium nitrate, and potassium or temperature increases. ‘ammonium phosphate, These elements are needed for the new plants to make the proteins needed for growth. Farmers add fertilisers to the soil to replace the nutrients that previous crops ‘ction. have absorbed during growth. enetay [ews0, + 5H,9| NH, KCI: potassium chloride Ely change HINO, nitric acid H,PO,; phosphoric acid NH,NO,: ammonium nitrate potassium phosphate: phosphoric acid and potassium hydroxide ammonium sulfate: ammonia solution (ammonium hydroxide) and sulfuric acid ammonia + nitric acid + ammonium nitrate NH (aq) + HNO,(aq) + NH,NO,(aq) (180,380) Progress of eaction ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 9 continued forwards ‘The rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of backward reaction. Equilibrium shifts towards the ammonia and hydrogen chloride, ‘The system resists the decrease in pressure by making more gas molecules. Increase in pressure for reactions quiliorium shifts to favour the side of the reaction with mere / fewer involving gases gas molecules (the side which accupias mere / less space) Decrease in pressure forreactions | Equilibrium ahifts to favour the side of the reaction with more / fewer involving gases gas molecules (the side which occupies more / less space). Increase in temperature for any reaction_| Equilibrium shifts to favour the exethermie / endothermic reaction. Decreate in temperature for any reaction | Equillorium shifts to favour the exothermic / endothermic reaction. Forward and reverse reactions both sped up s0 no effect on equilibrium Addition of a catalyst position, but the reaction reaches equilibrium slower / faster. vanadium(V) oxide, V,0,, of vanadium pentoxide ‘The products side of the equation (the right-hand side) has fewer moles of gas (occupies a smaller volume) — s0 a higher pressure will favour this side of the equation. As pressure increases, the equilibrium mixture contains more sulfur trioxide. ‘The yield is good enough and reaction ‘vessels that withstand high pressures are expensive to build. Also high pressures need very strong pumps and a lot of energy. 450°C, 20000kPa pressure (and a powdered iron catalyst) soho Pressure /kPa 70% ammonia 46% ammonia (possible range is 42-50%) ‘The disadvantage of using a low temperature catalysed ‘would be that the ammonia would be produced at a slower rate, This slower rate could make the process uneconomic at the lower temperature. Using a high pressure: favours the production of ammonia / ‘moves the equilibrium position to the right (because there is a smaller volume of gas uncatalysed AH exothermic 2NH, Po ‘on the products side of the equation) Progress of reaction increases the rate of production of ammonia (pecause the reacting molecules are therefore closer together, and collide more often). ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 10 hydrocarbon carbon dioxide fuel BURNING onygen heat energy oxidation If a substance gains oxygen during a reaction, itis oxidised. If a substance loses oxygen during a reaction, itis reduced, ‘The substance that gives oxygen to another substance in a chemical reaction is the oxidising agent. The substance that accepts oxygen from another substance in a chemical reaction, is the reducing agent. J cuo + H, ts Cu + HO L___._| reducing Za(s) +O) + Zn0(5) + 2Az(s) €.,0)s) + 2A) + 2Fes) + A1,0,6) 3Mg(s) +LO}s) = 3MgO1s) + 2Al() + 2Mg{s) + C(s) + 2MgO(s) Carbon monoxide is the reducing agent, and oxygen is the oxidising agent. The carbon monoxide gains oxygen. Therefore oxidation and reduction have taken place. Nitrogen monoxide is the oxidising agent, and carbon monoxide is the reducing agent. The earbon monoxide gains oxygen. Therefore oxidation and ‘reduction have taken place. CH, + 110, 7C0, + 81,0 ‘The carbon and hydrogen both gain oxygen and are therefore oxidised. The heptane is therefore the reducing agent and oxygen is the oxidising agent. oxygen] RUSTING Oxidation is the loss of electrons. Reduction is the gain of electrons. Transfer_1_e Sodium (Na) 2,81 Chlorine (C1) 287 Sodium ion (Na*) 2,8 Chloride ion (CH) 2.88 Explanation: Sodium has lost one electron and is therefore oxidised; chlorine has gained one electron and is therefore reduced ‘Transfer_2_¢ Ca (Ca) 28,82 ‘Oxygen (0) 26 Explanation: Calcium has lost two electrons and is therefore oxidised; oxygen has gained two electrons and is therefore reduced. se Zn{s) + Cu?*(aq)—> Zn?*(aq) + Culs) ‘oxidation Copper(I1) ions are acting as oxidising agents, ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 10 continued Reducing agent = RA; Oxidising agent = OA ‘Cu(s) + 2Ag* (ag) + Cu(aq) + 2Ag(s) RA OA 3Mg(s) + 2AI"(ag) + 3Mg"(aq) + 2AK6) RA OA Cu (ag) + 26 + Culs) Electrode = cathode ‘Type of reaction = reduction 2CI (ag) + CL(g) + 2€ Electrode = anode ‘Type of reaction = oxidation AL*() + 3c > Ald) Chia) + 2K(aq) + 2KCllag) + Lea) CL (e) + 21 (aq) + 2CI (aq) + Lag) chlorine Ci, + 26+ 2cr Cl, + 2Br-—+ 2Cr + Br, (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021 2Mg(s) + CO(e) + 2MgOVs) + C6) ON.0 +4 +2 0 ‘The magnesium has been oxidised, because its oxidation number has increased from 0 to +2. ‘The carbon has been reduced, because its oxidation number has decreased from +4 to. (Oxygen remains as -2 throughout.) MnO, + Ma” oxidation number: +7 +2, colour: purple pink {almost colourless) 2H,@) + Oe) > 24,00), an oxidation reaction / electrons have been lost; oxygen has been gained by the hydrogen Og) + 2H,O() + 4e > 40H (aq) Hg) + 201-(aq) > H,0() + 2° (caultiply this equation by 2 in order to cancel out the electrons) O,(g) + 2H,O() + 4e- + 40H (aq) / add equations together 2H,g) + O(g) + 2H,0() J electrons and OH ions cancel out Hydrogen has greater energy efficiency / more energy produced fora given mass of fuel; water is the only product of burning hydrogen. Hydrogen must be transported and stored safely as it is highly explosive / hydrogen is currently expensive to produce / a itis a gas, hydrogen is difficult to transport.eet see ates Chapter 11 ‘Acids are substances that dissolve in water to give a solution with a pH less than 7. Hydrochlorie acid has the formula HCI and is a strong acid, Sulfurie acid (formula = H,SO,) and nitrie acid (formula = HNO,) are also strong acids. In acidic solutions the concentration of the hydrogen ions is greater than the concentration of hydroxide ions, Bases are the oxides and hydroxides of metals and ammonia. A base will neutralise an acid to form a salt and water. ‘Most bases are insoluble in water, but alkalis are bases that are soluble in water and their solutions have pH values greater than 7. KOH (potassium hydroxide) and NaOH (sodium hydroxide) are both strong alkalis, In alkaline solutions the concentration of hydroxide ions is greater than the concentration of hydrogen ions ‘A solution of the substance has a pH of 8. ‘A solution of the substance tums litmus paper blue. ‘A olution of the substance tums it mus paper red. ‘A substance that neutvalises an acid but is insoluble in water ‘A substance that neutvalises an acid and is soluble in water ‘A substance that is an insoluble oxide or hydroxide of a metal ‘A substance that is soluble hydroxide ofa metal ‘A solution with a pH of 9 that is produced when ammonia is dissolved in water. ‘A solution of the substance has a pH of 3. ‘A solution of the substance has a pH of 13, Colour at A=red Colour at B= orange Colour at C= purple Colour of thymolphthalein = blue Colour of methyl orange = yellow N placed at 2Sem’, pH7 on graph 25em* a burette pH=16 (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 11 continued “Type of reaction word equation: magnesium + hydrochloric acid -+ magnesium chloride + hydrogen symbol equation: Mg + 2HCI— MgCl, + H, word equation: calcium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid + calcium chloride + water symbol equation: Ca(OH), + HC CaCl, + 2H,0 ‘word equation: caleium oxide + nitric acid = calcium nitrate + water symbol equation: Ca + 2HNO, + Ca(NO,), + H,0 word equation: sodium hydroxide + sulfuric acid — sodium sulfate + water symbol equation: 2NaOH + H.SO, + Na,SO, + 24,0 word equation: sodium carbonate + nitric acid + sodium nitrate + carbon dioxide + water symbol equation: Na,CO, + 2HNO, + 2NaNO, + CO,+ 1,0 Statements about these reactions Gives H, gas as a product Gives a salt + water +a gasas the products Gives CO, a8 product Does give an effervescence (fizzing) Gives a salt and water as the only products, Gives a salt and gas only word equation: magnesium + nitric acid + magnesium nitrate + hydrogen symbol equation: Mg + 2HNO, + Mg(NO,), + H, Mg(OH), + 2HCI—+ MgCl, + 24,0 MgCO, + 2HCI— MgCl, + H,0 + CO, Take the sample of the antacid and place in a conical flask. Add some distilled water and make sure this is well mixed, ‘Add the methyl orange indicator to this mixture and place on the white tile. Fill the burette to the zero mark with the I moVfdm* hydrochloric acid. Slowly add the acid to the antacid/mixture until the methyl orange changes colour yellow to orange. Note the volume of acid used and repeat with the other antacid. The antacid that requires the greater volume of hydrochloric acid is the more effective antacid, ‘The magnesium carbonate reacts with the acid to form carbon dioxide, which will ‘cause bloating and burping. (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 11 continued Experiment 1 Using a beaker / pipette, 10cm of the sodium hydroxide solution was placed in a conical / round-bottomed flask. Thymolphthalein indicator was added to the flask turning the solution red / blue because of the aeidie/ alkaline conditions. A burette / volumetric pipette was filled to the 0.0/ '50.0cm’ mark with hydrochloric acid (solution P). The acid was then run into the flask until the colour changed to red / colourless showing that the alkali in the flask had been neutralised / naturalised by the acid. The volume of acid / alkali added was noted. The flask was washed thoroughly with tap / distilled water. Experiment 2 The experiment was repeated using the same volume of sodium hydroxide ‘cid / alkali in the flask but a different solution of acid (solution Q) in the burette / volumetric pipette. ‘The white tile gives a background that makes it easier to distinguish colour changes. Final reading 106 Initial reading 00 2 Difference 106) sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid -+ sodium chloride + water 11-€aq) + OF (ag) + H,00) blue to colourless experiment 2 ‘The acid used in experiment 1 (P) was the more concentrated. Less of it, \was required to neutralise the same amount of NaOH. 10.6cm’. The same volume because although it has been diluted, the amount of NaOH is the same. pure water: H* = OF acid solution: H* > OH alkali solution: OH" > H* ‘A solution of the substance containe an excess of hydroxide (OH) ions. ‘A solution of the substance contains an excess of hydrogen (H") ions. “The substance is a proton acceptor ‘The substance is a proton donor (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 11 continued Volume of CO, fn? 8 & 8 & Hydrochloric acid is a weak / strong acid, Hydrogen chloride gas consists of ‘covalent / ionic molecules. When they dissolve in water these molecules partly / ‘completely dissociate into hydrogen and chlorine / chloride ions, producing as many Ihydrogen ions in the solution as possible Ethanoie acid is a weak / stromg acid. ‘When it dissolves in water some / aif of the molecules dissociate into ions. The ‘majority of the molecules remain intact, ‘This means that the concentration of hydrogen ions is more /less than it could be if all the molecules had dissociated into ions. ‘Two solutions of hydrochloric acid and ethanoic acid have the same concentration, The hydrochloric acid solution will have the higher [lower DH value, It has the higher / ower concentration of hydrogen ions and is the ‘more / Tess acidic solution ethanoic acid: CH,COOH(aq) # CH,COO (ag) + Haq) hydrochloric acid: HClaq) + H'(aq) + Ch(aa) sulfuric acd: H,SO (aq) + HSO, (aq) + H*(aq) ‘The reaction is reversible and will reach, an equilibrium when the rate of the reverse reaction is equal to that of the forward reaction. hydrochloric acid YF ehancic acid Tine minutes Its the hydrogen ions from the acid that react with the ealcium carbonate. The hydrochloric acid is the strong acid and therefore its concentration of hydrogen ions is ereater than the weaker ethanoic acid, This means that the reaction with hydrochloric acid will be faster and end more quickly. This is shown by the steeper graph for hydrochloric acid Hydrochloric acid will have the greater conductivity because it isa strong acid, completely dissociated and therefore has a higher concentration of ions which will ‘conduct electricity. ‘The hydrochloric acid loses a proton to the ammonia and is therefore a proton donor, the ammonia gains a proton and is therefore a proton acceptor. ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 12 Hydrochloric acid always produces a chloride. Nitric acid always produces a nitrate, Phosphoric acid always produces «phosphate, dilute hydrochloric acid | zine oxide ine chloride water dilute sulfuric cid copper carbonate copper sulfate water and carbon water and carbon dilute sulfuric acid magnesium carbonate | magnesium sulfate Soe dilute hydrochloric acid | magnesium magnesium chloride hydrogen dilute nitric acid copper oxide copper nitrate water dilute ethanoic acid sodium hydroxide sodium ethanoate water dllute phosphoric acid | potassium hydroxide | potassium phosphate | water All salts are ionic compounds, Salts are produced when an alkali nutralises an acid In this reaction, the satis formed when a Sulfuric acid ‘metal jon or an ammonium ion from the alkali A Magnesium oxide/magnesium hydroxide! replaces one or more drogen fons of the acid Magoesum oniefnagaesum by Salts can be crystallised from the solution Warm the acid. Add the base until it stops produced by the neutralisation reaction. The Teamencngidiceling Ps salt erystas formed often contain chemically ‘combined water. These salts are called hydrated Filter. salts. The salt erystals ean be heated to drive ‘Warm the filtrate until crystals start off this water. The salt remaining is said to to appear. be anhydrous. Leave to cool so that the rest of the Salts ean be made by other reaetions of acids. crystals are formed Magnesium slate canbe made by rating Hydrochloric acid ‘magnesium carbonate with sulfuric acid. The ro sam carbonate ‘gas given off is carbon dioxide, Water i also Potassium hydroxide/potassium earbonat Seadin thisrenction Mae accurate ume of sltion of base in conical ask. All sodium and potassium salts are soluble "hid a ow drops of indicator in water, Insoluble salts are usually prepared by precipitation, Add hydrochloric acid from burette until the indicator changes colour. Note volume of acid used and repeat same experiment without indicator. Warm solution formed until crystals start to appear. Leave to cool so that the rest of the crystals are formed. ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 12 continued To make sure that all of the acid is reacted and none carries through into the stages of concentration and crystallisation. by filtration — itis the filtrate Heat the filtrate in an evaporating basin to concentrate the solution. Then allow to cool slowly to form crystals, Filter off the crystals and dry between filter papers. Zine + nitric avid — zine nitrate + hydrogen Zn\s) + 2HINO (aq) Zn(NO,) (20) +H) ECBAFD Because heating strongly would risk ‘driving off any water of crystallisation present which would destroy the structure of the erystals, giving a powder. ‘water of crystallisation soluble insoluble insoluble soluble. insoluble soluble Reagents used copper(II) nitrate and potassium or sodium carbonate Cu(NO,) (aq) + K,CO, + CaCO Js) + 2KNO (ag) Reagents used silver nitrate and potassium or sodium iodide AgNO,(aq) + KI(aq) + Agli(s) + KNO,(aq) Reagents used silver nitrate and potassium or sodium chloride AgNO,(ag) + KCl{aq) + AgCi(s) + KNO\(aq) Barium nitrate and potassium or sodium sulfate Ba(NO,).(aq) + K,SO, + BaSO,(s) + 2KNO(aq) One of the following equations Cu (aq) + CO,*(aq) + CuCOYS) Ag'(aq) + Taq) = Agl(s) Ag'(ag) + Cl(aq) > AgClG) Ba™(ag) + SO>(aq) + BaSO,3) ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021 ‘No further precipitate is formed after 4cm? of sodium phosphate solution is added Therefore the reacting rato of the two solutions is 6:4 or 3:2. ‘The two solutions have the same concentration, so the molar ratio of metal X ions and phosphate ions is 3:2. Formula of the phosphate of metal X is therefore X(PO)), 3X"(aq) + 2PO,"(aq) + X,(PO,) (8) filter off the precipitate as the residue / wash the precipitate / dry carefully ineet see ates Chapter 13 Melting point / °C ‘The Periodic Table is a way of arranging the elements according to their properties. They are arranged in order of their proton number. Elements with similar properties are placed together in vertical columns called groups. Periods are horizontal rows of the elements. ‘The table shows trends down the groups and patterns across the periods. ‘The placing of the elements in the table also corresponds to their electron arrangements (clectronic configurations). The number of ‘electrons in the outer electron shell is the same as its group number in the table. The number of occupied electron shells of the element is the period in which it is placed. Cuand Cr He Br c s He, Ne and Kr cu Ca 8 Cand Si (carbon and silicon) Group 4(1V) When the melting points of elements are plotted against atomic (or proton) number they show a repeating pattern. The highest melting points are given by the elements of Group number 4 IV and the lowest by the noble gases Gs Na one electron in outer shell conductor, lustrous, reactive, soft To stop them reacting with water and ait. two of; float on surface of water; move around; fiz; both melt; disappear at end of reaction ‘The potassium bursts into (lilac) lame. The sodium does not. 2Na + 2H,0 + 2NaOH + H, two of: grey solid; conducts electricity; sofveasily cut; lustrous/shiny 1 ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 13 continued floats and fizzes quickly on the 0.97 883 surface, disappears gradually and does not burst into flame reacts instantly, fizzes and bursts potassium into flame, may spit violently reacts instantaneously fizzes and rubidium 0.250 686 bursts into flame then spits violently and may explode 0.255-0.265 620-650, caesium reacts instantly and explosively (actual value 0.260) | (actual value 671) ‘The halogens are metals / non-metals and their vapours are coloured / colourless. ‘The halogens are toxic / non-toxie to humans, Halogen molecules are each made of one / two atoms; they are ‘monatomic / diatomic. Halogens react with metal / non-metal clements to form crystalline ‘compounds that are salts. Halogens can eolour / bleach vegetable dyes and kill bacteria. Chlorine ‘When iron wool was lowered into a gas jer, a very exothermic reaction could be seen and dark red solid formed, The iron woo! had to be heated at first, but there was a very exothermic reaction and a dark red solid was formed. Lots of heat was needed and a small amount of heat was given out, A dark red solid formed. Bromine lodine ‘The elements get less reactive as we descend the group, 2Fe(s) + 3C1,(g) + 2FeCL (3) 2Fo(s) + 3Br,(g) + 2FeBr(s) fluorine a pale yellow chlorine 7 pele green bromine 35 red/dark red) iodine 3 crey-black asiatine 35 black ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 13 continued 400. © 10 2% % 4 50 6 70 80 90 Proton number 4 = melting points += boiling points estimated boiling point = 90-115°C (actual value 114°C) colour: red-brown physical state: liquid fluorine and chlorine solid, black ‘The melting points increase as you go down the group. _———_ [rue Fase | ‘Some transition elements are non-metal. “Transition elements have high densities ‘Some transition elements make ‘good catalysts. “Transition elements form only white compounds. Alltransition elements ‘are magnetic, copper platinum copper iron manganese chromium, silver, gold oxidation number variable oxidation number iron(Ll) oxide: FeO iron(ITD oxide: Fe,0, ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 13 continued Electronic configuration 0.18 090) Argon 1.78 Kypton 375 enon 509 28.18,188 ‘The period number (row number) is equal to the number of occupied shells (energy levels) in the atom of the element. Helium is used in balloons because itis (@ lot) less dense than air. It will sink because argon is more dense than air, Selenium Tellurium 479 624 221 450 685, 988 0.198 0.221 (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 14 1 = strong 3 = sonorous = ductile They can be moulded or bent into shape. 2=high 4 = they can be beaten into shape malleability car bodies They transfer heat well. thermal conductivity cooking pots and pans They can be drawn into wires. _| they are ductile cabling and wiring They conduct electricity electrical conductivity electrical wiring ‘They are heavy for their volume. | high density building construction “They can bear weight and are not broken easily They make a ringing sound when struck by a hammer. strength bridges they are sonorous bells Metals show good electrical conductivity whereas non-metals are poor conductors of electricity Metals are malleable and ductile but non-metals are brittle Metals are good conductors of heat but ‘most non-metals are thermal insulators, Metals are usually grey in colour and can bbe polished whereas non-metals are a wide range of different colours and cannot bbe polished. Aluminium has a high electrical conductivity. ‘The low density of aluminium means that the overhead cables do not sag too much between pylons, Copper is an even better conductor of electricity and the weight of the wiring is not a factor. Titanium is light and strong — it is also expensive, so can only be used for specialist purposes. ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021 ‘magnesium > zine > iron > copper Magnesium produced the most vigorous bubbling of gas when added to the acid, copper produced no gas at all. Zine produced more effervescence than iron. hydrogen zinc + hydrochloric acid + zine chloride + hydrogen magnesium oxide Bis sodium / sodium hydroxide is the solution produced A99.75% i mid steel carbon: <0.25% car bodies ‘can be beaten into shape (malleable) iron: 74% cutlery, stainless steel | chromium: 18% nickel: 896 surgical instruments, chemical vessels for industry resistant to corrosion (does not rust easily) ‘copper: 70% zine: 30% ‘musical instruments, ornaments ‘gold’ colour, harder than copper ‘copper: 95% tin: 5% statues, church bells hard, does not corrode ‘aluminium: 90.25% aerospace | zine: 6% aluminium | magnesium: 2.5% copper: 1.25% aireraft construction light (low density) but strong solder lead: 40% circuitry ‘in: 60% ing wires it low melting point iron: 95% ingsten steel tungsten eel | sungsten: S% cutting edges of dil bits very hard. Ina pure metal the layers can slide over ‘each other so the metal can be shaped without breaking. Solder has a lower melting point and soit glecron is easier to melt. Iti also stronger and so the joints will be stronger. cchromitum and nickel / they are transition metals The presence of the different sized atoms of the added metal in the alloy means that the layers cannot slide over each other as, ‘easily as in the pure metal / the alloy is stronger and less malleable. ‘The presence of the added iron and silicon atoms make the commercial aluminium stronger and harder. positive metal ion DO 0.0\ Ceoeee eooeoe @ ‘The copper used in wiring needs to be very pure so thatthe delocalised electrons can move as freely as possible through the structure. The presence of impurities would interfere with ths flow. ‘The pins of the electric plugs have to be strong, so brass of composition Cu60:Zn40 is used. Brass instruments have to be shaped into tubes, 0 a softer alloy is needed. (Cu70:2n30 is therefore used. (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 15 All the metals in the group react with cold water to give an alkaline solution of the metal hydroxide. sodium: 2,8,1 potassium: 2,8,8,1 ‘They each contain one electron in their outer (valency) shell. Potassium is the more reactive, as the energy generated by the reaction is sufficient to ignite the hydrogen produced. potassium + water > potassium hydroxide + hydrogen 2K(s) + 2H,0() = 2KOH(ag) + Hg) ‘The sodium melts into a ball Yellow, because of the sodium ions present / yellow is the flame test colour for sodium. ‘magnesium + water (steam) —* magnesium oxide + hydrogen Mag(s) + H,O(@) > Mg0(s) + He) two outer electrons reacts vary slowly with cold magnesium 0.73 water, but reacts strongly with steam reacts strongly with cold water, calcium 0.231 unsafe to react with steam reacts strongly with cold water, strontium, 2.64 0249 unsafe to react with steam reacts strongly with cold water, barium 3.62 0.268 unsafe to react with steam Atomic size increases as you descend the group. Calcium appears to show values for density and boiling point that do not follow the general trends in the group. caleium + water + calcium hydroxide + hydrogen Ca(s) + 2H,0() + Ca(OH),(ag) + He) In Groups I and II the metals become more reactive with water as you descend the groups. (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 15 continued Temperature /*C ‘When metals react with cold water, the products are a metal hydroxide and hydrogen. The hydroxides formed are alkaline and they will tun red litmus blue Some metals do not react with cold water ‘but do with steam. The products in this reaction are the metal oxide and hydrogen Copper does not react with water or with, dilute acids, This is because itis lower in the reactivity series than hydrogen. Zine + steam (water) ~ zine oxide + hydrogen copper or silver (or another metal low in the series) iron, zinc or magnesium (not calcium or sodium, ete, because these are too reactive to be safe) 7 2 Time / minutes the reaction between zine and copper(II) sulfate because the reactions have finished and no ‘more heat is given out zine + copper sulfate — zine sulfate + copper Fe(s) + CuSO (aq) + FeSO (aq) + Culs) Zine gave the higher temperature rise because itis the more reactive metal. ‘This experiment scems to be a ‘fair test” in that most of the variables except the choice of metal are controlled, One difficulty is whether the two metals were powdered to the same extent so the surface area available for the reaction will be different in each case. Note that, although Sg is not an equal number of moles of the two metals itis an excess in both cases, ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 15 continued tint coppertt) | copper | coppertl) siver chlode | culate sulfte sulfate ritvate solution | sokition solution solution solution Colour sey ‘rey iver silver brown of metal coloured _| coloured Colour colourless | blue blue’ blue colourless of solution Colour ‘coated coated with [coated with | silver coated ofmetal |withsiver- | brown solid | brown solid | coloured | with silver coloured coloured cystals crystals Colour colourless [colourless | colouriess ‘blue of solution. zine > tin > copper > silver The first equation is correct as lanthanum is more reactive than aluminium and will displace aluminium from aluminium sulfate (reduce Al‘ ions to Al atoms), transition metals ‘They can be good catalysts; they form coloured compounds. Aluminium becomes coated with a very thin layer of aluminium oxide which ‘masks the true reactivity of the metal Magnesium is less ready to form a positive ion than sodium because there are more protons in the nucleus attracting the electrons. Potassium forms a positive ion more easily ‘because the outer electrons are further from the nucleus and this outweighs the fact that there are more protons in the ‘nucleus / there is also one more inner shell of electrons in potassium, ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 16 sodium magnesium ‘eatbon lead reduction by ‘copper heating with ‘aver carbon gold copper and silver no, zine is more reactive than hydrogen Sodium can be obtained by electrolysis of the ‘molten ore (energy costs high). Sodium is a good reducing agent, as it has a strong tendency to form positive ions; it does this more readily than aluminium and so can be used to extract aluminium from aluminium chloride. 3Na(s) + AICI) + 3NaCl\s) + Alls) 3Na(s) + AP*(3) > 3Na"(s) + Alls) ‘exothermic reactions aluminium + iron( III) oxide —* aluminium oxide + iron 2Al(6) + Fe,0,8) + Al,0,6) + 2Fe(s) iron < aluminium < sodium E Coca BoeD blast furnace: because hot air is blown (blasted) into the furnace at the base hematite at the centre of the furnace, half-way up carbon monoxide (CO) produced from burning the coke iron(II1) oxide + carbon monoxide iron + carbon dioxide ‘The iron is liquid at the temperature in the furnace and so it flows down to the bottom. Fe,O,(s) + 3CO(g) -+ 2Fe(l) + 3CO.(e) [state symbols as apply in the furnace) CaCO,(s) + Ca) + CO.) SiO, cao Ca0{s) + SiO (5) + CaSiO (1 [state symbols as apply in the furnace] Zine has a lower boiling point than iron and it boils atthe temperatures in the furnace. The zine vapour is collected and condensed at the top of the furnace. The liquid zine collected at the top of the furnace will be pure as it passed through the furnace as a gas. ron remains as a liquid at the furnace temperature and flows down to the bottom. The liquid iron dissolves impurities as it flows down through the furnace, bauxite AL,O,, AI" and O° The aluminium oxide must be molten so that the ions are able to move to the electrodes and be discharged oxygen aluminium any one correct, eg. aircraft, food ‘containers, overhead power cables ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 16 continued B A C outer casing, D molten aluminium Cryolite is solvent in which the aluminium oxide is dissolved; it lowers the melting point of the aluminium oxide and so reduces the energy costs of the extraction, ‘They burn away in the oxygen discharged by the electrolysis, AD'() + 3e > Ald) 20 () + 0,@) + 4e Aluminium oxide is amphoteric and so reacts with the sodium hydroxide; iron oxide is basic and does not react. (thermal) decomposition Anhydrous calcium chloride is a drying agent to dry the air in the tube. To boil any dissolved air (oxygen) out of the water. ‘To prevent any air dissolving in the water. tube 4 Dissolved salt would speed up the rusting process (seawater makes rusting take place faster). air (oxygen) and water ‘Two of: painting, coating in plastic, oiling, plating with a metal, The can could rust all the way through. ‘The zinc, being more reactive, would corrode in preference to the steel. It is reactive and could react with acids in the food. Tin is unreactive and does not react with acids. Lead is poisonous, and a little could dissolve and contaminate the food. If the layer of tin is broken it causes the iron beneath to corrode more rapidly. The tin coating is less reactive and no longer protects the can. (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021 Aluminium is not as strong and is more expensive. galvanisation Zine is more reactive than iron and so will ‘corrode away in preference to the iron / the zine provides sacrificial protection / the zine forms positive ions more readily than the iron, magnesium Za(s) —* Zn*(aq) + 2eeet see ates Chapter 17 ‘argon ‘carbon dioxide ‘carbon monoxide hydrogen methane g-anvcem nitrogen nitrogen dioxide oxygen sulfur dioxide HO | water vapour: pm> wansaz|zouri0Z> wazamenncrzcas LH zs ema a DVZa>NDODN nitrogen and argon oxygen /21% See completed table in a nitrogen and nitrogen dioxide ‘water Source Gas Adverse effect Tore gee can cause respiaioy carbon roblems menenide = methane ariclates ‘oxides of carbon donde causes acd ain nitrogen, causes global | it diane warming Phstochenical ane Increased cancer risk Carbon monoxide decreases the capacity ‘The easiest methods to implement do of the blood to carry oxygen. not impact on everyday human life but sulfuric acid, nitric acid (accept sulfurous do not make a major difference to levels acid, nitrous acid also) of pollution. The more difficult methods methane must be attempted, but will have a wider fanesbic) decay of vegetation range of impacts on society, {anaerobic) decay of vegetation in tnarshes and paddy fields! (anaerobic) Harmful nitrogen oxides (NO,) arise from 7 nitrogen and oxygen from the air reacting dezay of organic terial in anil ses inthe hot engine of th chic. (Diesl engines produce higher levels of NO, as a and ne ae Rm they have a higher operating temperature.) of carbon dioxide. Possibly D: a major ” contributor to methane, Carbon dioxide 2CO(E) + 2NO®) ~* 2C0,(8) + Nie) and methane are greenhouse pases Nitrogen(TD oxide is acting as an C and F: both can be done without oxidising agent impacting on the human population, The technology is already available. ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 17 continued ‘The greenhouse effect has kept the Earth at @ temperature suitable for the development of life for many thousands of years. As industrial activity has increased during the 20th century, more and more greenhouse gases have been released into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide and methane are the two gases causing the greatest problem. Methane is 25 times more potent as a greenhouse gas ‘but carbon dioxide is present in greater quantities, Because of these gases, more of the heat from the sun is kept within the Earth’s atmosphere and this causes global warming. Much of this heat warms water in the oceans, which cover about 70% of the Earth's surface. Increased temperatures in the oceans and in the atmosphere have an effect on the Earth's climate. This ellect means that extreme weather events are more likely. 164 162 160 158 156 154 152 150 148. 148 144 42 temperature so 88888 ges Mean average temperature /°C § i jx 5 4 i 138 136 134 132 2005 130 ‘eso 1900 1920 1980 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 Year sages dioxide Carbon dioxide: there has been a steady increase in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere since 1880. However, the curve has increased more sharply since the 1960s. This rate of inerease has remained steady over recent decades. ‘Mean temperature: the change in mean temperature is more variable, showing more peaks and troughs. However, since the 1940s, the broad trend is for the mean temperature to increase. ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021eet see ates Chapter 17 continued ‘No. It.was only a minor fluctuation as the trend is still upwards, carbon dioxide = 450-460 ppm / mean temperature = 15.4-15.5°C (values. depend on extrapolated line drawn) slaciers melt: sea level rises / coastal flooding more likely lack of rain: vegetation dries out / fire spreads more rapidly Dependent on student answers: Problems: increased land temperatures / droughts ete. Causes: industrialisation / burning fossil fuels / intensive livestock farming / deforestation, etc Solutions: increasing use of hydrogen and renewable energy / planting trees 1 decreasing reliance on fossil fuels / reduction in livestock farming, ete. Photosynthesis carbon dioxide + water + glucose + oxygen 6CO, + 60> CH,,0, +60, (Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry ~ Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021 The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon that warms the surface of the Earth, ‘When thermal energy (infrared radiation) from the Sun reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, around 30% is reflected back to space and around 70% is absorbed by the oceans and land to heat the planet. Some of this heat is then radiated back up into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere such as carbon dioxide and methane can absorb this infrared radiation and then re-emit it back toward the Earth. This reduces heat loss to space and keeps the Earth’s temperature warm enough to sustain life Human activities are increasing the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere, trapping extra heat and causing global temperatures to rise. This warming of both the atmosphere and the oceans gives rise to the different aspects of climate change.