(PSY 304) Chapter 1 - Nerve Cells and Nerve Impulses

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1. Neurons receive information and transmit it to other cells.

approximately 86 billion - adult human brain

form at the hippocampus

2. Santiago Ramon staining techniques to show that a SMALL GAP SEPA-

y Cajal RATES the tip of a neuron's fiber from the surface of the
next neuron.

NERVE CELLS REMAIN SEPARATE instead of merging

into one another.

3. Membrane a structure that separates the inside of the cell from the
outside environment.

permit a controlled flow of water, oxygen, sodium, potas-

sium, calcium, chloride, and other important chemicals.

4. nucleus structure that contains the chromosomes.

5. Mitochondria a powerhouse of the cell

is the structure that PERFORMS METABOLIC ACTIV-

ITIES, PROVIDING ENERGY that the cell uses for all
activities.

have genes separate from those in the nucleus of a cell,

and mitochondria differ from one another genetically

1. OVERACTIVE mitochondria
- tend to burn their fuel rapidly and overheat, even in a cool
environment.

2. LESS ACTIVE than normal

- are predisposed to depression and pains. Mutated mito-
chondrial genes are a possible cause of AUTISM.

6. Ribosomes

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are the sites within a cell that synthesize new protein
molecules

some float freely within the cell, but others are attached to
the endoplasmic reticulum

7. Proteins provide building materials for the cell and facilitate chem-
ical reactions.

8. endoplasmic network of thin tubes that transport newly synthesized

reticulum proteins to other locations.

9. motor neuron with its soma in the spinal cord, RECEIVE EXCITATION
through its dendrites and CONDUCTS impulses along its
axon to a MUSCLE

EVERY MOTOR NEURON is an efferent from the nervous

system.

10. sensory neuron is specialized at one end to be highly SENSITIVE to a

particular type of STIMULATION, such as light, sound, or
touch.

EVERY SENSORY NEURON is an afferent to the rest of

the nervous system.

11. Dendrites are BRANCHING FIBERS (Greek root word meaning

TREE) that get narrower near their ends.

12. synaptic recep- at which the DENDRITE RECEIVES information from oth-
tors er neurons.

13. dendritic spines short outgrowths that INCREASE the SURFACE AREA
available for synapses

14. cell body or contains the nucleus, ribosomes, and mitochondria.

soma (Greek for
"body"; plural: Most of a neuron's metabolic work occurs here.
somata)

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is like the dendrites— covered with synapses on its sur-
face.

15. axon CONVEYS IMPULSE toward other neurons, an organ, or

a muscle.

a thin fiber of constant diameter

16. myelin sheath insulating material

white fatty cells

PNS

transmembrane currents can only occur at the NODES OF

RANVIER

form first at the SPINAL CORD, then in the hindbrain,

midbrain, and forebrain.

17. presynaptic ter- end of each branch has a swelling

minal
an end bulb or bouton

axon releases chemicals that cross through the junction

between that neuron and another cell.

18. afferent axon brings information INTO a structure

afferent starts with a as in ADMIT

19. efferent axon carries information AWAY from a structure.

efferent starts with e as in EXIT

20. interneuron or in- a cell's dendrites and axon are entirely contained within a
trinsic neuron single structure

ex: an intrinsic neuron of the thalamus has its axon and all
its dendrites within the thalamus.
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21. Glia glue," reflects early investigators' idea that glia were like
GLUE that HOLD the NEURONS TOGETHER.

OUTNUMBER neurons in the CEREBRAL CORTEX, but

neurons outnumber glia in several other brain areas, es-
pecially the cerebellum. Overall, the numbers are almost
equal.

22. astrocytes a type of glia

star-shaped wrap around the synapses of functionally re-

lated axons

regulators of synapse formation and function during devel-

opment.

shields neurons from chemicals circulating in the surround

helps synchronize closely related neurons, enabling their

axons to send messages in waves

dilate the blood vessels to bring more nutrients into brain

areas that have heightened activity

are active partners of neurons in many ways.

23. tripartite the tip of an axon releases chemicals that cause the
synapse neighboring astrocyte to release chemicals of its own, thus
magnifying or modifying the message to the next neuron

possible contributor to learning and memory

24. microglia tiny cells that act as part of the immune system, removing
viruses and fungi from the brain

They proliferate after brain damage, removing dead or

damaged neurons.

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They also contribute to learning by removing the weakest
synapses.

25. Oligodendro- build the myelin sheaths that surround and insulate certain
cytes and vertebrate axons. They also supply an axon with nutrients
Schwann cells necessary for proper functioning.

26. radial glia GUIDE the MIGRATION of neurons and their axons and
dendrites during embryonic development.

when embryological development finishes, they differenti-

ate into neurons, and a smaller number differentiate into
astrocytes and oligodendrocytes

27. blood-brain bar- The mechanism that excludes most chemicals from the
rier vertebrate brain

mechanisms within the cell EXTRUDE (force out) virus

particles through the membrane so that the immune sys-
tem can find them.

they the virus and the cell that contains it.

works fine if the virus-infected cell is, a skin cell or a blood

cell, which the body replaces easily.

the brain does not replace damaged neurons.

may cross BBB

1. RABIES (INFECTS the brain and leads to DEATH)
2. Syphilis
3. Chicken pox virus to SHINGLES (virus for genital her-
pes, though not fatal, may cause new genital infections.)
4. Insulin
5. Fat-soluble molecules

28. active transport protein-mediated process that expends energy to pump

chemicals from the blood into the brain.

1. glucose (the brain's main fuel)

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2. amino acids (the building blocks of proteins)
3. purines
4. choline
5. vitamins
6. iron

29. thiamine may cause inability to use glucose

deficiency, common in chronic alcoholism, leads to the

death of neurons and a condition called Korsakoff's syn-
drome, marked by SEVERE MEMORY IMPAIRMENTS.

30. properties of im- axons from more distant parts of your retina transmit im-
pulse conduction pulses slightly faster than those closer to the brain
in an axon are
amazingly well
adapted to your
needs for infor-
mation transfer

31. polarization the membrane maintains an electrical gradient

difference in electrical charge between the inside and

outside of the cell.

32. resting potential The electrical potential inside the membrane is slightly
negative with respect to the outside, mainly because of
negatively charged proteins inside the cell.

33. selective perme- some chemicals pass through it more freely than others
ability do.

Oxygen, carbon dioxide, urea, and water cross freely

through channels that are ALWAYS OPEN.

sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride, cross through

membrane channels (or gates) that are SOMETIMES
OPEN and SOMETIMES CLOSED

the membrane is at REST, and the sodium and potassium

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channels are CLOSED, permitting almost no flow of sodi-
um and only a small flow of potassium.

Certain types of stimulation can open these channels,

permitting freer flow of either or both ions.

34. sodium-potassi- protein complex repeatedly transports three sodium ions

um pump out of the cell while drawing two potassium ions into it.

is an active transport that requires energy. As a result,

sodium ions are more than 10 times more concentrated
outside the membrane than inside, and potassium ions are
more concentrated inside than outside.

is effective only because of the selective permeability of

the membrane, which prevents the sodium ions that were
pumped out of the neuron from leaking right back in again.

ELECTRICAL GRADIENT - Sodium is positively charged

and the inside of the cell is negatively charged. Opposite
electrical charges attract, so the electrical gradient tends
to pull sodium into the cell.

35. concentration the difference in distribution of ions across the membrane.

gradient
Sodium is MORE CONCENTRATED OUTSIDE than in-
side, so just by the laws of probability, sodium is more likely
to ENTER the cell than to leave it.

36. action potentials messages sent by axons

resting potential is disturbed.

peak of varies from one neuron to another

depolarization that reaches or passes the threshold

37. hyperpolariza- Axon membrane - at rest, NEGATIVE POTENTIAL

tion Different electrodes to apply a negative charge - a further
increase of negative charge
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resting to lower to resting

increased polarization.

38. depolarize reduce its polarization toward zero

resting to higher to resting

39. threshold of exci- produces a massive depolarization of the membrane.

tation
resting to highest to resting

40. sub threshold stimulation produces a small response that quickly de-
cays.

41. all-or-none law is that the AMPLITUDE and VELOCITY of an action poten-
tial are INDEPENDENT of the INTENSITY of the stimulus
that initiated it, provided that the stimulus reaches the
threshold

ex: flushing a toilet

you have to make a press of at least a certain strength (the

threshold), but pressing harder does not make the toilet
flush faster or more vigorously.

42. voltage-gated axon channels regulating sodium and potassium

channels

43. propagation of describes the transmission of an action potential down an

the action poten- axon.
tial
propagation of an animal species is the production of
offspring. In a sense, the action potential gives birth to a
new action potential at each point along the axon.

44. action potential 1. Sodium ions are mostly outside the neuron, and potas-
sium ions are mostly inside.

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2. When the membrane is depolarized, sodium and potas-
sium channels in the membrane open.

3. At the peak of the action potential, the sodium channels

close.

45. saltatory con- jumping of action potentials from node to node

duction

46. refractory period resists the production of further action potentials.

depends on two facts: The sodium channels are

closed, and potassium is flowing out of the cell at a
faster-than-usual rate.

47. absolute refrac- the membrane cannot produce another action potential,
tory period regardless of the stimulation.

48. relative refracto- stronger than-usual stimulus is necessary to initiate an

ry period action potential

49. myelin an insulating material composed of fats and proteins.

form first at the SPINAL CORD, then in the hindbrain,

midbrain, and forebrain.

50. myelinated ax- those covered with a myelin sheath

ons
found only in vertebrates, are covered with layers of fats
and proteins.

51. local neurons Neurons without an axon exchange information with only
their closest neighbors.

52. graded potential a membrane potential that varies in magnitude in propor-

tion to the intensity of the stimulus.

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