Faloutsos - Pavlo CMU SCS 15-415/615

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Overview
Carnegie Mellon Univ.
School of Computer Science • history
15-415/615 - DB Applications • concepts
• Formal query languages
– relational algebra
C. Faloutsos & A. Pavlo
– rel. tuple calculus
Lecture #4: Relational Algebra – rel. domain calculus

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History Concepts - reminder

• before: records, pointers, sets etc • Database: a set of relations (= tables)
• introduced by E.F. Codd in 1970 • rows: tuples
• revolutionary! • columns: attributes (or keys)
• first systems: 1977-8 (System R; Ingres) • superkey, candidate key, primary key
• Turing award in 1981

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Example Example: cont’d

k-th attribute
Database: Database:
(Dk domain)

rel. schema (attr+domains)

tuple

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Example: cont’d Example: cont’d

• Di: the domain of the i-th attribute (eg., char(10)

rel. schema (attr+domains) rel. schema (attr+domains)

instance instance

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Overview Formal query languages

• history • How do we collect information?
• concepts • Eg., find ssn’s of people in 415
• Formal query languages • (recall: everything is a set!)
– relational algebra • One solution: Rel. algebra, ie., set operators
– rel. tuple calculus • Q1: Which ones??
– rel. domain calculus
• Q2: what is a minimal set of operators?

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Relational operators Example:

• . • Q: find all students (part or full time)
• . • A: PT-STUDENT union FT-STUDENT
• .
• set union U
• set difference ‘-’

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Observations: Observations:
• two tables are ‘union compatible’ if they • A: redundant:
have the same attributes (‘domains’) • STUDENT intersection STAFF =
U
• Q: how about intersection

STUDENT STAFF

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Observations: Observations:
• A: redundant: • A: redundant:
• STUDENT intersection STAFF = • STUDENT intersection STAFF =
STUDENT - (STUDENT - STAFF)

STUDENT STAFF STUDENT STAFF

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Observations: Relational operators

• A: redundant: • .
• STUDENT intersection STAFF = • .
STUDENT - (STUDENT - STAFF) • .
• set union U

Double negation: • set difference ‘-’

We’ll see it again, later…

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Other operators? Other operators?

• eg, find all students on ‘Main street’ • Notice: selection (and rest of operators)
• A: ‘selection’ expect tables, and produce tables (-> can be
cascaded!!)
• For selection, in general:

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Selection - examples Relational operators

• Find all ‘Smiths’ on ‘Forbes Ave’ • selection
• .
• .
• set union RUS
‘condition’ can be any boolean combination of ‘=‘,
• set difference R-S
‘>’, ‘>=‘, ...

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Relational operators Relational operators

• selection picks rows - how about columns? Cascading: ‘find ssn of students on ‘forbes
• A: ‘projection’ - eg.: ave’

finds all the ‘ssn’ - removing duplicates

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Relational operators Relational operators

• selection Are we done yet?
• projection Q: Give a query we can not answer yet!
• .
• set union RUS
• set difference R- S

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Relational operators Relational operators

A: any query across two or more tables, A: any query across two or more tables,
eg., ‘find names of students in 15-415’ eg., ‘find names of students in 15-415’
Q: what extra operator do we need?? Q: what extra operator do we need??
A: surprisingly, cartesian product is enough!

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Cartesian product so what?

• eg., dog-breeding: MALE x FEMALE
• gives all possible couples • Eg., how do we find names of students taking
415?

x =

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Cartesian product Cartesian product

• A:

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FUNDAMENTAL
Relational operators
• selection
• projection
• cartesian product MALE x FEMALE
• set union RUS
• set difference R- S

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Relational ops Joins

• Surprisingly, they are enough, to help us • Equijoin:
answer almost any query we want!!
• derived/convenience operators:
– set intersection
– join (theta join, equi-join, natural join)
– ‘rename’ operator
– division

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Cartesian product Joins

• A: • Equijoin:
• theta-joins:
generalization of equi-join - any condition

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Joins Joins
• very popular: natural join: R S • nat. join has 5 attributes
• like equi-join, but it drops duplicate
columns:
STUDENT (ssn, name, address)
TAKES (ssn, cid, grade)

equi-join: 6
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Natural Joins - nit-picking Overview - rel. algebra

• if no attributes in common between R, S: • fundamental operators
nat. join -> cartesian product • derived operators
– joins etc
– rename
– division
• examples

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Rename op. Rename op.

• Q: why? • PC (parent-id, child-id)
• A: shorthand; self-joins; …
• for example, find the grand-parents of
‘Tom’, given PC (parent-id, child-id)

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Rename op. Rename op.

• first, WRONG attempt: • we clearly need two different names for the
same table - hence, the ‘rename’ op.
• (why? how many columns?)
• Second WRONG attempt:

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Overview - rel. algebra Division

• fundamental operators • Rarely used, but powerful.
• derived operators • Example: find suspicious suppliers, ie.,
– joins etc suppliers that supplied all the parts in
– rename A_BOMB
– division
• examples

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Division Division
• Observations: ~reverse of cartesian product
• It can be derived from the 5 fundamental
operators (!!)
• How?

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Division Division
• Answer: • Answer:

• Observation: find ‘good’ suppliers, and • Observation: find ‘good’ suppliers, and
subtract! (double negation) subtract! (double negation)
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Division Division
• Answer: • Answer:

All suppliers
all possible
All bad parts suspicious shipments

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Division Division
• Answer: • Answer:

all possible
all suppliers who missed
suspicious shipments
at least one suspicious shipment,
that didn’t happen
i.e.: ‘good’ suppliers
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Overview - rel. algebra Sample schema

find names of students that take 15-415
• fundamental operators
• derived operators
– joins etc
– rename
– division
• examples

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Examples Examples
• find names of students that take 15-415 • find names of students that take 15-415

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Sample schema Examples

find course names of ‘smith’
• find course names of ‘smith’

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Examples Examples
• find ssn of ‘overworked’ students, ie., that • find ssn of ‘overworked’ students, ie., that
take 412, 413, 415 take 412, 413, 415: almost correct answer:

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Examples Examples
• find ssn of ‘overworked’ students, ie., that • find ssn of students that work at least as
take 412, 413, 415 - Correct answer: hard as ssn=123, ie., they take all the
courses of ssn=123, and maybe more

c-name=413

c-name=415

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Sample schema Examples

• find ssn of students that work at least as
hard as ssn=123 (ie., they take all the
courses of ssn=123, and maybe more

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Conclusions
• Relational model: only tables (‘relations’)
• relational algebra: powerful, minimal: 5
operators can handle almost any query!

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