O Level Physics

Unit 11: Thermal Properties of Matter

Internal energy
1) The internal energy of a body is the sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy of atoms in
the body.
2) Of the same mass, gases have most internal energy while solids have least internal energy.
3) When a body is heated, the particles gain thermal energy, causing the kinetic and potential
energy of the particles to increase. Thus, the internal energy of the body also increases.

Symbols, Representations and Units

4) Symbol Representation Unit
Q Thermal energy absorbed J (Candidates are advised to state
the representation of the
m Mass kg
symbols used in their
Δθ Change in temperature °C calculations.)
C Heat capacity J/°C
c Specific heat capacity J/k °C
ℓ Specific latent heat J/kg

Specific Heat Capacity

5)
Heat Capacity, C Specific Heat Capacity, c
Definition The amount of thermal energy The amount of thermal energy
required to raise the temperature required to raise the temperature
of a body by 1°C. of 1 kg of a substance by 1°C.
SI Unit J/°C J/kg °C
Dependent on The mass and material of the The material of the object.
object.
Formula

Q Q
C Δθ c mΔθ
[Physics] Unit 11: Thermal Properties of Matter

Relationship

C
c m

6) For the same mass, materials with a lower specific heat capacity will gain thermal energy
faster than materials with a higher specific heat capacity.

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Specific Latent Heat
7)
Latent Heat, L Specific Latent Heat, ℓ
Definition (Lf/Lv) is the amount of thermal (ℓf/ℓv) is the amount of thermal
energy required to change a energy required to change 1kg of a
substance from (solid to liquid/ liquid substance from (solid to liquid/liquid
to vapour) state or vice versa, without to vapour) state or vice versa, without
changes in temperature. changes in temperature.
SI Unit J J/kg
Formula Amt of heat absorbed/released

Q
ℓ m

Melting, Freezing and Boiling

8)
Melting
Stage  As a solid is heated, heat energy absorbed by the particles is converted into
1 kinetic energy.
 The particles vibrate more vigorously in their fixed positions.
Stage  When the melting point is reached, the solid absorbs latent heat of fusion to
2 break the intermolecular bonds between the particles. They begin to break away
from their fixed positions.
 During the process, there is no temperature change and a mixture of solid and
liquid is present.
Stage  Once the melting process has ended, the particles will move out of their fixed
3 positions.
 The solid has melted to become a liquid.

9) Freezing
Stage  As a liquid is cooled, the particles lose their kinetic energy and slow down.
1
Stage  When the freezing point is reached, latent heat of fusion is released to the
[Physics] Unit 11: Thermal Properties of Matter

2 surroundings to form intermolecular bonds between particles and for them to

take up fixed positions.
 During the process, there is no temperature change and a mixture of liquid and
solid is present.
Stage  Once the freezing process has ended, the particles become attracted to each
3 other in fixed positions.
 The liquid has solidified.

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10) Boiling
Stage  As a liquid is heated, heat energy absorbed by the particles is converted into
1 kinetic energy.
 The particles move faster as the temperature rises.
Stage  When the boiling point is reached, latent heat of vaporisation is absorbed by the
2 liquid to break the intermolecular attraction between particles and to push back
on the surrounding atmosphere.
 During the process, there is no temperature change and a mixture of liquid and
gas is present.
Stage  Once the boiling process has ended, the particles are separated with negligible
3 attractive forces.
 The liquid has boiled off to become a gas.

Effect of impurities and pressure on melting and boiling points

11)
Freezing/Melting point
Boiling point
Freezing point Melting point
Adding Impurities Lowered Increased
Increased Pressure Lowered Increased

Evaporation
12) Evaporation is due to energetic liquid molecules at the liquid surface having greater than
average kinetic energy to escape into the surroundings as a gas.
 At the liquid surface, energetic liquid molecules with greater kinetic energy are able to
overcome the downward attraction forces of liquid molecules.
 They escape into the air carrying thermal energy away through evaporation.
 This leaves less energetic molecules behind and thus the liquid is at a lower temperature.
13) A liquid with less energetic/slower moving molecules is cooler as the temperature of liquids is
directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the molecules.
14)
Differences between Boiling and Evaporation
Boiling Evaporation
1) Occurs only at boiling point 1) Occurs at all temperatures
2) Occurs throughout liquid 2) Occurs only at liquid surface
[Physics] Unit 11: Thermal Properties of Matter

3) Rapid process 3) Slow process

15) Ways of increasing rate of evaporation

Increasing surface With more molecules near liquid surface, more molecules have a
area chance to escape from the liquid into the air as evaporation only occurs
at the liquid surface.
Increasing Increasing the temperature of the liquid also increases the average
temperature of kinetic energy of molecules; hence more molecules gain the required
liquid kinetic energy to escape.
Increasing wind Moving air (wind) carries vapour molecules away, reducing the number
conditions of molecules returning to the liquid surface through collisions with
vapour molecules. This allows more liquid molecules to escape.

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Examination Type Questions- Unit 10 & 11

1) Which material, plastic or metal, is more suitable for making a container to store ice?
Plastic. Plastics are poorer conductors of heat than metals. As the temperature in the box is
lower than the surroundings, the plastic wall acts as an insulator to prevent heat from being
conducted into the box.

2) Explain how windows made of double-layered glass can keep a house warm in cold
countries.
The air trapped between the double-layered glass is a poor conductor of heat. As the
temperature in the house is higher than the surroundings, the air trapped between the glasses
will act as an insulator of heat to reduce the amount of thermal energy conducted out of the
house through windows.

3) A door with a metal knob and wooden frame is cooled in an air-con room.
(a) Explain which part of the door will take a shorter time to cool to a fixed
temperature.
Metal knob. Metals have lower specific heat capacity than wood and thus the metal
knob will lose thermal energy faster.
(b) After 1 hour, the metal knob and the wooden frame are at the same temperature.
Which part of the door will feel warmer? Why?
The wooden frame. The wooden frame is a poorer conductor of heat and takes a
longer time to conduct thermal energy away from our hands, compared to the metal
knob. Thus the wooden frame will feel warmer.

4) Water cools down upon evaporation. Explain, in molecular terms, how evaporation causes a
loss of energy from water.
Molecules that have more energy will be closer to the water surface. Energetic water
molecules with greater kinetic energy are able to overcome the downward attraction forces of
other molecules and escape the water-air boundary carrying thermal energy away. This leaves
less energetic molecules in the liquid and thus the water cools as a result of a loss of thermal
energy through evaporation.

5) Explain why the liquid filling of an apple pie can burn your tongue but not the crust.
The filling, being liquid, has a higher specific heat capacity than the solid crust. More energy is
released by the filling to lower its temperature by 1°C. Hence, more time is needed for the
liquid filling to cool down than the crust. While the crust has cooled, the filling will still be hot
[Physics] Unit 11: Thermal Properties of Matter

and can burn your tongue.

6) Use the thermal properties of matter to explain how steam can be more dangerous than
boiling water even though both are at 100°C.
When steam condenses at 100°C, a large amount of latent heat of vaporisation is released to
the surroundings. This extra energy of steam makes it more dangerous than the boiling water.

Notes:

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