SCIENCE REVIEWER

I. Quantum Mechanical Model

Modern Atomic Theory

> Bohr’s model was accepted but needed to be revised
> We use Erwin Schrodinger’s Electron Cloud Model
> Niel Bohr’s model helped us understand and further develop

Quantum Mechanical Model (Electron Cloud model)

> Electrons are no longer viewed as a particle only, but rather as wave because of the
dual nature of electrons — as a wave and a particle
> Views electrons as cloud of negative charge

Orbitals (Probability clouds)

> the region in space where electrons are most likely to be found

Orbitals different shapes:

Quantum Mechanical Model States that:

1.) Electrons that surrounds the nucleus are confined to regions called Principal Energy
Level or Shell.

Principal Energy Level or Shell (n)

> region of space around a nucleus containing electrons showing approximately the
same energy

1.1) Shells are numbered n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 named as K, L, M, N, O, P, Q

1.2) Electrons closer to the nucleus are held tightly and are lower in energy

1.3) Electrons farther from the nucleus are held less tightly and are higher in energy

1.4) It takes an energy to move an electron away from the nucleus to an outer circle

1.5) The farther the shell from the nucleus, the more electron it can hold
Note !
– Electrons go down a level by emitting energy through light
– Electrons go up a level when sufficient energy is contained by the electron

Excited Electron
> Electrons with higher energy level is in an excited state

Aufbau Principle
> Electrons fill atomic orbitals of the lowest energy level before occupying higher levels

2.) Shells are divided into subshells or sublevels identified as s (sharp), p (principal),
d (diffused), f (fundamental)

Sublevel or Subshell
> region of space within electron

3.) The number of sublevel / subshells in each principal energy is equal to the
number of that energy level

4.) These subshells consist orbitals

4.1) Each subshell contains a specific number of orbitals

4.2) Each orbital can hold two electrons

Subshell Number of Orbitals Number of max electrons

s 1 2

p 3 6

d 5 10

f 7 14

ANALOGY:
Energy level – street Note!
Subshell – house – to find the max electron, use the formula
Orbitals – room 2(n)²
Electrons – person
II. Electron Configuration

Electron Configuration
> Chemist use this notation in order to track where all the electrons are
> The representation of arrangement of electrons

Steps in writing Electron Configuration in neutral state:

1. Determine the element’s atomic number
2. Apply the rules in deriving the electron configuration

a.) Aufbau Principle

> Electrons occupy orbitals in order of increasing energy
> Aufbau is a german word for “to build”

b.) Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

> Electrons occupying the same orbital must have opposite spin (start with upward)
> proposed by Wolfgang Pauli

c.) Hund’s Rule

> When electrons enter a sublevel with more than one orbital, they will spread out the
Available orbitals with the same spin before pairing
> proposed by Friedrich Hund

Electron spin:

s =1 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶

p =2 4s² 3d¹⁰ 4p⁶ 5s² 4d¹⁰
d =3 5p⁶ 6s² 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6p⁶
f =4
7s² 5f¹⁴ 6d¹⁰ 7p⁶
III. Formation of Ions

Ions
> atoms that carry either a positive or negative charge
> result of the atom losing or gaining electrons

Simple Ions
> single, charged atoms
Example: Na+ , Cl- , Ca+²

Polyatomic Ions
> small charged molecules
Example: NH+4 , OH-

Two types of Ions:

Cation
> positive ion
> produced when one or more electrons are lost from a neutral atom

Anion
> negative ion
> produced when a neutral atom gains one or more extra electrons

Octet Rule
> refers to the tendency of atoms to prefer to have eight electrons in the valence shell
> atoms that has less than 8 valence electrons tend to be reactive

Duet Rule
> hydrogen becomes chemically stable by sharing an electron with another hydrogen atom

Metals
> have free valence electrons
> tend to lose their extra electrons and become cations

Non-metals
> lack valence electrons and cannot complete their octet
> if it gains extra electrons, they tend to become anions
Lewis Dot Structure
> invented by Gilbert Newton Lewis
> very simplified representation of the valence shell electrons in a molecule
> used to show how the electrons are arranged around individual atoms in a molecule
> electrons are shown as “dots” for bonding electrons as a line between the two atoms

Valence Electrons
> are electrons located in the outermost electron shell of an atom
> the number of valence electrons in an element, determines its reactivity, electronegativity,
and the number of bonds it can form

Chemical Formula:
Metal - Non-metal

IV. Naming of Ions and Writing Chemical Formula

Cation
> named by simply adding the term “ion” after the name of the parent
Examples:
Sodium - Sodium ion/cation
Calcium - Calcium ion/cation
Aluminum - Aluminum ion/cation

Anion
> named by taking the root name of the atom and changing the ending with –ide
Examples:
Fluorine - Fluoride ion/anion
Bromine - Bromide ion/anion

Ionic Compounds
> named by writing the name of the cation first followed by the name of the anion
Examples:
KCl - Potassium Chloride
BaS - Barium Sulfide

crisscross method
> method of finding out the chemical formula of a metal and non-metal that combine to
form ionic bond
Oxidation number
> total number of electrons that an atom either gains or loses in order to form a chemical
bond with another atom

How to write chemical formula:

V. Chemical Bonding

Chemical Bond
> is a force that holds groups of two or more atoms together and makes them function as
one unit

Electrostatic Attraction
> attraction between positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons

Note!
– atoms form chemical bonds to achieve stability
– stability of atoms are measured by duet and octet rule
– atoms that doesn't satisfy the octet rule tend to be reactive

Types of Chemical Bond:

1. Covalent Bonding (between non-metals)

> formed by mutual sharing of electrons between atoms

Types of Covalent Bond:

Single Covalent Bond

– two atoms share one pair of electrons ( H – H)

Double Covalent Bond

– two atoms share two pairs of electrons (O = O)

Triple Covalent Bond

– two atoms share three pairs of electrons (N ≡ N)
2. Ionic bonding
> between metals and non-metals
> also called electrovalent bond
> complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms
> type of chemical bond that generates two oppositely charged ions

Note!
– metals tend to lose extra electrons to achieve stability
– nonmetals gain electrons to satisfy the octet rule
– metals that lose electrons gain positive charge
– Non-metals that gain electrons gains negative charge

3. Metallic bonding
> between metals
> occurs when a group of metal atoms shares a cloud of valence electrons

Electron Sea Theory

> Iron is a transition metal. It has two valence electrons. It will give off its two extra electrons and
will gain +2 charge

VI. Carbon Atom

Carbon
> 4th most abundant element in the universe
> 15th most abundant element in the Earth's crust
> 2nd most abundant element in our body after oxygen
> can be found in the human body, in the clothes you wear, the food that you eat, and even in
the vehicles that you ride.
> carbon atoms’ most unique ability are its ability to combine with itself

Properties of carbon:
1. Carbon belongs to the Group IV of the Periodic Table
2. It has an atomic number of 6, and an atomic weight of 12.01 g
3. Carbon is a non-metal element
4. Electron Configuration is: 1s²2s²2p²
5. It has four electrons in its outermost orbit, so its valency is four
Allotropy
> existence of a chemical element in two or more forms
> its form may differ in the occurrence of molecules that contain different numbers of atoms

Allotropes of carbon atom:

1. Graphite
> soft and abundant
> arranged in sheets or layers, held together by weak attraction forces
> used in making pencils

Van Der Waal's forces

> weaker force that holds the layer together in graphite

2. Graphene
> one atomic layer of graphite arranged in a honeycomb lattice
> each carbon atom is bonded covalently to three other atoms, leaving the fourth electron
free to travel in the plane, hence its electrical conductivity.

3. Diamond
> carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral pattern
> the bonds between carbon atoms are extremely strong
> the hardest natural substance known on earth

4. Amorphous Carbon
> the other carbon allotropes that are produced when carbon compounds decompose
> amorphous means 'shapeless' or 'harmless'
> has no definite arrangement

5. Buckminsterfullerene (C60)
> fullerenes are globe-shaped, cage-like arrangements of carbon atoms
> also called carbon balls because they resemble tiny soccer balls
> a research team has discovered fullerene that attacks an enzyme that is found in the virus that
causes AIDS

Buckminster Fuller (1895 - 1983)

> fullerene was named after him
> famous for his geodesic dome designs

6. Fullerite (C540)
7. Buckyball (C70)
8. Carbon Nanotube
VII. The Organic Compounds

Organic compounds
> contain the element carbon which are chemically bonded with Hydrogen
> Carbon is the most common element present in all biodegradable materials
> Carbon forms organic compounds with many other atoms, such as Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Nitrogen, Sulfur and Halogens

Examples:
– Methane (CH4)
– Carbohydrates (C6H12O6)
– Ethanol (C2H5OH)
– DNA (deoxyribonucleicacid)

Carbon Octet Rule

> a stable molecule results when the valence shell of eight electrons has been achieved for all
atoms in a molecule

Carbon Electron Sharing

> occurs when two or more atoms approach and their atomic orbitals overlap

Properties of Organic and Inorganic Compounds:

Organic Inorganic

Insoluble in water Soluble in water

Low melting and boiling points High melting and boiling points

Combustible Incombustible

Does not conduct electric current Conduct electric current

Easily decompose when heated Decomposition occurs at a very high temp

Covalent bonding lonic bonding

VIII. Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons
> simplest and most common class of organic compounds
> Their structures affect their properties such as their physical state and boiling point

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)

> responsible in naming hydrocarbons
naming hydrocarbons:
– determine the type of bond it has
– determine which type of carbon compound it is (saturated or unsaturated)
– add the suffix

Type of Bond Carbon Compound Hydrocarbon Suffix

Single Saturated Hydrocarbon Alkane –ane

Double Unsaturated Hydrocarbon Alkene –ene

Triple Unsaturated Hydrocarbon Alkyne –yne

Structures of Hydrocarbon:

Straight Rings Branched

Types of Formula:

1. Molecular Formula
> also the "regular formula"
> shows how many atoms of each element are in a compound

Example: C4H8

2. Condensed Structural Formula

> molecule's structure with bond as dashes, sometimes horizontal bonds are included to
indicate polyatomic groups with the symbols of atoms listed

Example: CH3-CH-CH-CH3

3. Expanded Structural Formula

> shows all the bonds connecting all of the atoms in the compound

Example:
IX. The Mole Concept

Mole
> counting unit which is equivalent to 6.02 x 10²³ particle
> known as Avogadro's number
> used to count particles such as atoms, molecules, or ions
> expressed as mol
> provides a bridge from the molecular scale to the real-world scale

Amedeo Avogadro (18th century)

> Italian Physicist
> the mole is named after him

The Mole Concept

> used in defining a specific number of particles
> one gram of a pure element is known to contain huge number of atoms
> Mol is a unit of measurement - a count of a very large particles

Molar Mass
> the mass (in grams) per 1 mole of a substance

for elements:
– the mass number for the element that we find on the Periodic Table

for molecules:
– the sum of the atomic masses of the atoms present in that molecule
X. Percentage Composition

Percentage %: part x 100

whole

Percentage Composition
> the mass percent of each element in the compound

% of element = mass of element in 1 mol of compound x 100

mass of compound in 1 mol of compound