English grammar

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Part I
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 Fri 2 Feb

Principles of corpus construction

Aims

• What is a corpus?

• What principales guide the construction, development, and selection of a

corpus?

• When and How to build a corpus?

What is a corpus?

• John Sinclair ( – ) —> founder of COBUILD project

A corpus is a collection of pieces of language text in electronic form, selected

according to external criteria to represent, as far as possible, a language or

language variety as a source of data for linguistic research.

Corpus

• Authentic language data (!)

• Electronic/ machine readable form (!)

• Designed and collected according to sampling procedures

• Representative of language

• For linguistic investigation

Language corpora

• Different types of corpus

• Corpus size

• Sample size
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 • Representativeness – sampling

• Classi cation criteria

Types of corpus

• Sample corpus – a xed sample of text, often used as a reference corpus for

comparing.

• Monitor corpus – a corpus which develops and is added to or ltered

depending on the researcher’s needs.

• Mini-corpus – a small corpus (e.g. to be compares with a reference corpus).

• Multilingual corpus – corpus in a variety of languages.

• Comparable corpus – text in languages or varieties but not matched up.

• Parallel corpus – texts are translations of each other, e.g. Canadian Hansard,

corpus of versions of Plato, Bible.

• Translation corpus – or more sets of texts classi ed as either originals or

translations, the purpose being to identify features of translation (Manchester:

Baker).

• Diachronic corpus – Helsinki, LOB v. FLOB

• Learner corpus – texts are written by language learners

Corpus size – is bigger better?

• st Generation Corpora = million words

– BROWN, LOB
– ICE corpora
• nd Generation Sample Corpora

– BNC, ANC = Million Words

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 • Monitor Corpora

– Bank of English ( + million and growing!)

• Specialised Corpora

– Depends on source and score of problem under investigation

Sample size

'Personally I would like to see 'whole text' as a default condition, thus classifying

sample corpora as one of the categories of special corpora... To me the use of small

samples Is just a remnant of the early restraints on corpus building, and the

advantages of whole texts can be set out in powerful argument. The use of samples

of constant size gains only a spurious air of scienti c method, since it confers no

bene t on the corpus, and is as practical as Genghis Khan's fabled policy of

having all his soldiers the same height.’

(Sinclair : - )

Sampling

• Population

– Production
– Reception

Classifying Texts

• Internal Criteria

– Topic (aboutness)
– Register/ Style
• External criteria (situational parameters)

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 Mode

• Primary channel – written

• Format – published (print & web)

• Setting – public

Tenor

• Addressee

– Plurality – individual (editor) / plural (readers)

– Presence – absent
– Interactiveness – written correspondence/ response
– Shared knowledge – readers of same publication
• Addressor

– Demographic: Male, from Dubai, works in Bank, educated, at list bilingual?

– Acknowledgement: Self-identi ed in text

Field

• Factuality – responding to actual event (TV broadcast), expressing personal

opinion.

• Purpose – complain, express viewpoint, condemn slipping standards, correct

perceived decline.

• Topics – use of British English on BBC, value of language education in former

era.

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 When and How to build corpus

. DON’T! – use one of the available corpora

a. If interested in differences in conversational language in British English

(age, sex, class etc. differences) … USE British National Corpus

b. Combine and subsample existing corpora to match your

. Repurpose existing archive/collection

a. Any electronic texts available – results of surveys, DA/CA transcripts

. Build your own!

a. OCR, download, extract from PDF

b. Type it in!!!!

Webs as corpus: Advantages

• Massive (and expanding) amounts of electronic text

• Whole text

• Wired reach of text–types/ topics/ genres

• Much in the public domain

• Google (etc.) as corpus query tool

Webs as corpus: Disadvantages

• So much text that balance is dif cult to achieve

• Copyrighting is dif cult to ascertain for many documents

• Pages containing large amounts of extraneous material (menus, formatting ,

graphics)

• Explosion of information … who is writing it? Who is reading it?

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 Parts of speech
8 parts of speech
• Noun —> is a word used to specify the name of things, people, place, idea or
actions, in the English language, nouns make up the largest class of words.
There are different categories of nouns, common and proper. Common nouns
refer to a place, thing or a person, while, proper nouns refer to the name pf a
person, thing or place. Nouns can be singular or plural. Singular nouns are often
used with an article (a, an, the). In aa sentence, nouns can work as a subject, an
object, and a subject complement.
• Verb —> is the main component of the predicate and used to describe an
occurrence, action, and mode of being. Verbs can be classi ed mot commonly as
action verbs and linking verbs. While the latter of the two helps visualise the
acton of the subject, the former expresses the being, identity or existence.
• Pronoun —> can be classi ed into different types, including: personal pronouns
(subject, object and possessive pronouns) used to refer to a person or object;
demonstrative pronouns used to point out a speci c person, place, or thing;
intensive pronouns used to emphasise a preceding noun or pronoun, and are
identical in form to re exive pronouns; interrogative pronouns used to ask
questions; relative pronouns used to introduce relative clauses; inde nite
pronouns refer to non–speci c people or things; reciprocal pronouns indicate a
mutual action or relationship.
• Adjective —> is a modi er of the sentence. It describes the noun or the
pronoun. An adjective essentially gives more information about the subject of
the sentence. It answers to questions like what kind, how many, etc. adjectives in
English have endings to express superlative or comparative. Adjectives don’t
change or agree with the noun.
• Adverb —> is used to modify or describe the verb, the adjective or the adverb in
the sentence. An adverb usually describes the time, the condition or the state. It
often ends in –ly. However, there are some verbs that don’t adverbs that don’t

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 end in -ly, like also, never, often, again, too, well, soon and very. The words why,
where, when and how are known as interrogative adverbs when used in a
question.
• Preposition —> is a word that shows the relationship between the noun or
pronoun and some other word in the sentence. Pronouns linked with nouns or
pronouns create word groups known as prepositional phrases. Prepositional
phrases usually function as an adverb or as an adjective.
• Conjunction —> is a word used for linking the words, clauses or phrases of the
sentence together. It also indicates the relationship between the elements in the
sentence. A conjunction can be classi ed into four groups. Coordinating
conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), subordinating conjunctions (because,
rather than, before, if, even though, once, etc.), conjunctive adverbs (instead,
additionally, moreover, also), correlative conjunctions. (combine the coordinating
conjunction with another word).
• Interjection —> is an independent word added to the sentence to express
emotion. An interjection is not grammatically related to the sentence, it can
either come before or after the main sentence, it stands alone and usually ends
with an exclamation point. Interjections are often used in informal writing and
can rarely be found in academic writing. Example: wow, oh, ah, alas

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 Wed 7 Feb

Punctuation
• Helpful to make readers understand the message
• Helpful to transmit ideas clearly

Oxford coma
• The Serial Comma is used before the conjunction (and, or) that marks the nal
item in a list of three or more items.
• The use of the Oxford comma is stylistic.
• Some style guides will demand its use while others not (APA style)
• Using the Oxford comma is optional, except when not doing it could be
confusing.

Sentence fragments
• Just a group of words with a full stop is not a sentence.
• Sentence fragments are not complete sentence.
• A fragment cannot stand on its own,
• A sentence fragment is usually missing a subject, a verb or it fails to provide a
complete thought.
Example of fragment with a missing subject:
Shows no improvement in any of the vital signs
. Sentence fragment: I propose two changes. Revising and deleting details.
. Correction : I propose two changes: revising and deleting details.
. Sentence fragment: Studying abroad is great. Although there are drawbacks.
. Correction: Studying abroad is great, although there are drawbacks.

Run-on sentences
• They occur when two or more independent clauses are connected improperly.

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 • They are often a consequence of poor punctuation.
Example: I love eating waf es I would eat twenty every day if I had time to cook
them.
. Run-on sentence: The defendant was early for the trial, his attorney was not.
. Correction: The defendant was early for the trial, but his attorney was not. OR
The defendant was early for the trial. His attorney was not.
• A comma splice is a common type of run-on sentence.
• It occurs when two independent clauses are joined with just a comma.
Example: Experts could leave the study at any time, they needed to indicate their
reasons.

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Linguistic structures
Phrases vs. Clauses
• Both are groups of words. Both are used to build a sentences. BUT they do
different things.

Phrases
• A group of words that acts like a part of speech.
• They cannot be a full sentence.
• They do not have both a subject and a verbs.

• Noun phrase: A noun and the words that modify the noun, such as an article
and adjectives.
Example: the awful song
• Verb phrases: A main verb and other words that act with it to form a predicate,
such as auxiliary verbs or adverbs.
Example: has been peacefully sleeping
• Prepositional phrase: A preposition, its object(s) and additional modi ers.
Example: with her adorable husband
• Adjective phrase: An adjective and its modi ers, usually adverbs.
Example: absolutely amazing

Clauses
• They may be able to stand alone as complete sentence. (Not always, though)
• They have a subject and a predicate.
“Freddie Mercury sang beautifully” has both, a subject (Freddie Mercury) and a
predicate (sang), and would be grammatically correct as a standalone sentence.
• There are two major types of clauses
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 1. Dependent clauses
A depend clauses cannot stand by itself as a complete sentence. Topically, it begins
with a connecting word, such as a conjunction or a pronoun, that connects it to
the rest of the sentence.
Example: while owers continue to bloom
More examples:
• I am not certain how she won the race.
• This is the dog who has gone missing.
• They were lost and we were not sure how they would nd their way.
• Autumn is the season when the leaves fall from the trees.
• Your brother is the one who lives in that cottage.
• What they believed was not what happened.

2. Independent clauses
An independent clauses can stand by itself as a complete sentence. It can stand
with another clauses to make a compound or complex sentence.
Example: The spring continues while owers continue to bloom
More examples:
• The weather is pleasant in Jamaica unless there is a hurricane.
• The couple decided to get married abroad in order to lower the coast of the
wedding.
• It makes sense to do the most dif cult jobs rst so that they are out of the way.
• Skiing is my favourite hobby.
• Skiing is my favourite hobby when I am in the mountains.

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 Coordination and subordination
Coordination:
• We can combine two or more independent clauses to create one sentence.
• Each clauses becomes a main clause in the new sentence.
• The clauses are linked by words called coordinating conjunctions.
Examples: Foxes are quick, but turtles are slow. / Sarah goes to work, but Andy
doesn’t have a job.
(Both clauses can stand on their own as sentences. They each have equal
importance in the new sentence)

Subordination:
• We can also combine an independent clauses with a dependent clauses.
• With subordination, the independent clause has more importance than the
dependent clause.
Example: the match will be postponed because it is raining. (independent clause+
dependent clause)

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

After Because Lest Till

Although Before Now that Unless
As Even if Provide Until
As if Even though Since When
As long as How So that Whenever
As much as Is Than Where
As soon as In as much is That Wherever
As though In order that Though While

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 Finite vs. Non- nite clauses
Finite clauses:
• Must contain a verb which shows tense
• They can be main clauses or subordinate clauses
– Is it showing? —>we did not come to an agreement because it was not
worth.

Non- nite clauses:

• Contain a verb which does not show tense
• Usually use non- nite verbs only in subordinate clauses
• Often use a non- nite clauses when the subject is the same as the subject in the
main clause: I had a Coke before leaving

Typical uses of non- nite clauses

• Often after some subordinating conjunctions like after, although, though, and if.
Example: The proposal, if accepted by Parlament, will mean fundamental changes
to the education system.
• As the complements to verbs which take –ing or to– in nitive after them.
Example: I don’t enjoy playing tennis in the rain.
• A relative clause can be non- nite when the subject of the relative clauses is the
same as the subject of the main clause.
Example: The man sitting on the sofa is So a’s brother. (The man who is sitting
…)

Phrase vs. Clause vs. Sentece

• Phrase and clauses are used to make complete sentences.
• A sentence is a collection of words that include a subject and a predicate and
can be used to express a complete sentence.
Example: Cats meow
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 • Exception: the imperative. The subject is YOU.
• A sentence expresses a complete thought. ( e.g. “people who work hard” is NOT
a sentence)

Types of sentence structure

• Simple: independent clause
• Compound: independent clause + coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor,
for, yet, so) / semicolon; + independent clause
• Complex: independent clause + subordinating conjunction (after, although, as,
because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when, where,
whether, while)/ relative pronoun (that, which, who, whom, whose) + dependent
clause
• Compound-complex: independent clause + subordinating + dependent clause+
coordinating + independent clause

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 Fri 16 Feb

Modifiers
What are modi ers?
A modi er is a word, phrase, or clause that describes something or makes its
meaning more speci c.
Modi ers function as adjective or adverbs.

Modi ers functioning as adjectives

When a modi er is an adjective, it modi es a noun or a pronoun.

Type of modi er Example

Fresh sardine
(The modi er is a descriptive word.)
That hamster
(The modi er is a demonstrative
Single-word adjective determiner.)
The one
(The modi er is a de nite article)
One professor
(The modi er is a quanti er.)

Single-word modi ers can be normal adjectives (e.g., “fresh”, “beautiful”, “cheap”)
or determiners such as:

• Possessive determiners (e.g. “my”, “your”)

• Demonstrative determiners (e.g. “this”, “those”)
• Quanti ers (e.g. “many”, “some”, “two”)
• Interrogative adjectives (e.g. “which”, “what”)
• Articles (e.g. “a”, “an”, “the”)

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 Adjective phrase
An adjective phrase is a group of words headed by an adjective that describes a
noun or a pronoun.
Here are some interactive examples to help explain the difference between single-
word adjectives, adjective phrases, adjectival phrases, and adjective clauses.

Modi ers functioning as adjectives

Type of modi er Example

An extremely fresh sardine

Hamster in the corner
Adjectival phrase One to forget
Looking over his glasses, Professor
Jones …

Adjectival phrases can be any group of words headed by an adjective (e.g. “a really
big” , “the very ugly” , “that totally blind”) or another form of multi-word adjective
such as:

• Prepositional phrases (e.g. “in the corner”, “with the cake”)

• In nitives ( e.g. “to forget”, “to consider”)
• Participle phrases ( e.g. “looking over his glasses”, “knowing the area”)

Adjective clause
An adjective clause is a multi-word adjective that includes a subject and a verb.
Fro example:
• That handbag you bought last month is a fake.

When we think of an adjective, we usually think about a single word used before a
noun to modify its meanings (e.g., lthy car, argumentative text). However, an

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 adjective can also come in the form of an adjective clause. An adjective clause
usually comes after the noun it modi es and is made up of several words, which,
like all clauses, include a subject and a verb.

Type of modi er Example

Sardine that gather near the surface

Hamster that lives in the cupboard
Adjective clause One who knows the secret
Professor jones, who thought me at
college, visited…

Adjective clause: components

An adjective clause (also called a relative clause) will:
. Start with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, that, or which) or a relative
adverb (when, where, or why).
. Have a subject and a verb.
. Tell us something about the noun (this is why it is a kind of adjective)

Modi ers functioning as adverbs

When a modi er is an adverb, it modi es a verb, and adjective, or another adverb.

Type of modi er Example

Leave tomorrow
(Adverb modifying verbs.)
Single-word adverb Extremely beautiful
(Adverb modifying an adjective.)
Really quickly
(The advert is a modifying an adverb)

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 Modi ers functioning as adverbs

Type of modi er Example

He plays in the corner.

Adverbial phrase Leave to keep the peace.
Think very carefully.

Adverbial phrases
Adverbial phrases modify verbs. The three most common formats for adverbial phrases
are as follows:

• Prepositional phrases (e.g. “in the corner”)

• In nitive phrases (e.g. “to keep the peace”)

• An adverb with an intensi er (e.g. “very carefully”)

Modi ers functioning as adverbs

Type of modi er Example

He plays until the stars appear.

Adverbial clause Leave if you want to leave.
Think like a dolphin thinks.

Adverbial clauses
Adverbial clauses modify verbs
PROPERTIES:

• They contain a subject and a verb.

• They are dependent.
• They usually stars with a subordinating conjunction (e.g. “because”, “if”,”until”,
“when”, “like”)

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 Some more aspects on modi ers
• A misplaces modi er
• A squinting modi er
• A dangling modi er

A misplaced modi er

A modi er is best placed alongside whatever it's modifying. If your modi er is too
far away, it could lead to an ambiguous or wrong meaning.
Pamela heard him when he whispered clearly.
(This is about Pamela hearing clearly. The modi er is too far away from
"heard." It looks like "clearly" is modifying "whispered." It's a misplaced
modi er.)
BETTER OPTION: Pamela heard him clearly when he whispered.

A squinting modi er

This version could modify the text to its left or right. Better move it to a less
ambiguous position or reword your sentence.
His driving slowly becomes annoying.
BETTER OPTION: His slow driving becomes annoying.

A dangling modi er

Nothing to modify. A dangling modi er is an error caused by failing to use the

word that the modi er is meant to be modifying.
Walking through the park, the squirrels were climbing up the trees.
(The phrase "walking through the park" is a dangling modi er. It does not modify
anything in the sentence.)
BETTER OPTION: Walking through the park, Sarah could see the squirrels
climbing up the trees.
(Now, the phrase modi es "Sarah.")

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 Web 21 Feb

Linguistic structures
• Simple (= one-word) nite verb phrase: This refers to a verb phrase that
consists of a single word functioning as a nite verb, typically expressing an
action or state in a sentence. For example, "runs," "sings," "sleeps."
• Complex nite verb phrase: This refers to a verb phrase that consists of more
than one word and includes a nite verb (a verb that shows tense, such as past,
present, or future). For example, "is running," "was singing," "will sleep."
• Simple non- nite verb phrase (including in nitive to): This refers to a verb
phrase that includes a non- nite verb form. It can be a single word or include
the in nitive marker "to." For example, "run," "to sing," "to sleep."
• Complex non- nite verb phrase: This refers to a verb phrase that includes more
than one word and features a non- nite verb form. It can also include the
in nitive marker "to." For example, "to be running," "to have sung," "to have
been sleeping."
• Finite clause: A nite clause is a group of words containing a subject and a
nite verb. It can function independently as a complete sentence. For example,
"She sings."
• Non- nite clause: A non- nite clause is a group of words containing a verb but
lacking a subject-verb relationship that can stand alone as a complete sentence.
It typically functions as a modi er or complement within a larger clause. For
example, "Eating breakfast, she felt energised."
• Prepositional phrase: A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, its object
(which can be a noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause), and any modi ers of the
object. It functions as an adverb, adjective, or noun. For example, "in the house,"
"under the table," "with a smile."
• Noun phrase: A noun phrase is a group of words centred around a noun or
pronoun that functions as a subject, object, or complement in a sentence. It can
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 include determiners, adjectives, and modi ers. For example, "the big blue
house," "several students," "my favourite book."
• Adjective phrase: An adjective phrase is a group of words centred around an
adjective that modi es a noun or pronoun in a sentence. It can include other
adjectives or modi ers. For example, "very tall," "extremely beautiful,"
"surprisingly easy."
• Adverb phrase: An adverb phrase is a group of words centred around an adverb
that modi es a verb, adjective, or another adverb in a sentence. It can include
other adverbs or modi ers. For example, "very quickly," "quite slowly,"
"extremely ef ciently."

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 Feb 23 Fri

Adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions

Adverbs
Words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
Provide additional information about the manner, time, frequency, degree, or place
of an action.

Prepositions
Prepositions are words that establish relationships between nouns or pronouns
and other words in the sentence.
They indicate direction, location, time, manner, purpose, or possession.
TIP: To identify a preposition, you ask “where” or “when”. If the word
provides an answer to these questions, it is likely a preposition.
Prepositions always take an object, in the form of a noun (phrase), pronoun or
gerund (phrase).
This is confusingly called the object of the preposition, and has nothing to do
with the object of the verb or sentence; except after prepositional verb, when they
are the same.
Sometimes, the preposition is placed at the end of a clause, making the object
more dif cult to nd (although it is still there or implied).
This happens especially in four cases:
• Direct questions – object of the preposition = who (or the answer to who?)
• Relative clause – object of the preposition= whoever or whatever the relative
pronoun is referring to)
• Passive – object of the preposition
• To in nitives – object of the preposition = it (or whatever it is referring to)

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 Conjunctions
Conjunctions are words that connect or combine two words (two nouns, two
pronouns, two verbs, two adjectives or two adverbs), two prepositions, phrases and
clauses.
They show relationships between different parts of a sentence, such as addition,
contrast, cause and effect, purpose, or time.
TIP: To identify a conjunctions, consider whether it connects words
or ideas and what type of relationship ir implies.

Correlative conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions always come in pairs. Many can be uses without their
correlative partners. However, the word isn’t acting as a correlative conjunction.

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 Fri 1 Mar

The subjunctive
What is the subjunctive mood?
The subjunctive mood is a verb form used to explore a hypothetical situation (e.g.
“If I were you”) or to express a wish, a demand, or a suggestion (e.g. “I demand he
be present”).
In active voice clauses, the subjunctive form is always the base form of the verb, so
it does not get affected by a change in tense.
In passive voice clauses, the subjunctive mood if formed by using the following
formula:
(that) subject + (not) be + past participle of the verb
Generally, verbs and adjectives that indicate importance, obligation, advisability,
and desirability need the use of the subjunctive mood.

Verbs that Attract the subjunctive mood

Command

Order

Wish

Suggest

Recommend

Ask

Insist

Demand

Examples:
The insist that the manager resign.
The government demands that Abalos leave.
The senate has propose that the president sign the bill.
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 Adjectives that attract the subjunctive

Important

Necessary

Imperative

Crucial

Essential

Examples:
It is desirable that you be on time.
It is urgent that she refer to the clinic.
It is imperative that the tenant pay the landlord.

The mandate subjunctive

Used with clauses that usually, but not always, being with that and express a
demand, requirement, request, recommendation or suggestion.
These subjunctive constructions are extremely formal and of cious, re ecting
varying degree of difference to organisational authority or higher social rank.

The formulaic subjunctive

Used in idiomatic expressions to convey. The meaning of let or may.
We often use the past subjunctive in subordinate clause – that begin with as
though/ as if / if – or with the verb wish.

Use
Subjunctive sound very formal.
With verbs like suggest, recommend, insist and adjectives like important,
essential, imperative, crucial, vital, British often use: It + be + adjective : desirable /
important / essential / imperative / vital + should + in nitive or the normal tense
form.

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 Wed 6 Mar

Nominalisation
Nominalisation happens when we take verbs or adjectives and turn them into
nouns or noun phrases.
For example, to evaporate (verb) becomes evaporation, to investigate (verb)
becomes investigation (noun) and to judge (verb) becomes judgement (noun).
When we use verb forms, the language looks more immediate, easier to
understand, and often less formal. By using the noun form, what we say or write
sounds more formal.

Why to use nominalisation?

• To avoid mentioning the agent (as we do with the passive).
• To change the focus of the sentence. New important information is usually
placed at the beginning.
• It helps achieve a higher degree of abstraction and technicality (typical feature
academic writing).

Important
Nominalisation is a great way to improve your formal essays. Noun phrases rather
than verbs make them more formal and less personal, enabling you to focus on
the facts.

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Relatives and relative clauses

Relative clauses
Clause that generally modi es a noun or a noun phrase. It is headed by a relative
pronoun (“who”, “whom”, “that”, or “which”), or a relative adverb (“when”,
“where”, or “why”), which links it to the noun it is modifying.
• A relative clauses connects ideas by using pronouns that relate to something
previously mentioned.
• A relative clause is also known as an adjective clause
There are two types of relative clauses: de ning or restrictive AND non-de ning
or nonrestrictive.
The students who excelled in the exam were awarded scholarships.
(de ning / restrictive)
A Coruña, which is famous for the Tower of Hercules, attracts tourists from
around the world. (non-de ning / nonrestrictive)

De ning or restrictive clause

• De nes the meaning of a noun or noun phrase and provides necessary
information about the noun in the sentence.
• It is not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
• More common in writing that nonrestrictive clauses.

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 There are a number of instance English, where it is possible, even desirable, to
omit that.

Dropping the relative pronoun

• Two-word conjunctions where “that” may be omitted include “so that” and “now
that” (to talk about purpose and result) and “providing that” and “providing that”
(to talk about imposing conditions).
• More formal style may prefer to retain “that”. Informal style often omit it.
• When “that” is the object in a relative clause, we normally leave it out.
• When the relative pronoun is the subject of a relative clause, it has to be
included. It cannot be omitted then.

Non-de ning or nonrestrictive clause

• Add additional information to a sentence, usually a proper noun or a common
noun that refers to a unique person, thing, or event.
• Commas to show additional information (if it is omitted, - understandable
meaning).
• Although “that” is sometimes used in de ning clauses, it is not allowed in
nonrestrictive clauses.
• A relative pronoun cannot be deleted in a nonrestrictive clause.

Reduced relative clauses

• In academic writing, sometimes relative clauses are reduced for a more concise
style.
• Reducing a relative clause menas deleting the relative pronoun and either delete
or change the verb

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