Structure and Bonding

Wolmer’s Boys’ School

CSEC Chemistry
Section A- Principles of Chemistry (SO5)
Watch the video and devise a definition for
‘chemical bond’
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g-tE6MN-wrE
 Chemical Bonding

Types of Bonds

Covalent Bond Ionic Bond Metallic Bond

Sharing of Electrons Transfer of Electrons Delocalization of Electrons

Between Non-metals Between Metal + Non-metal Within metals

Chemical Bonding
The Electronic Structure
of Noble Gases
•The outer shell of 8 electrons is called an octet
structure and it makes the atom very stable.
E.g. Helium, neon, argon
•Atoms of other elements become stable like the noble
gases by losing or gaining electrons or by sharing
electrons.
•They achieve this by forming bonds with other atoms.

4
Chemical Bonding

The Electronic Structure

of Noble Gases
•The noble gases like helium, neon and argon, which are in
Group 0 of the Periodic Table, are very unreactive.
•They do not form bonds with other atoms.
•They have fully filled outermost (valence) shells.
•Except for helium, which has 2 outer electrons, all the other
noble gases have 8 outer electrons.

5
Ionic Bonds

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ygeC3xHuvmg
Activity

• Show the ionic bonding between the following pairs of elements.

Write the formula and the name of the compound formed.

• 1. magnesium and sulfur

• 2. calcium and phosphorus
• 3. sodium and fluorine
• 4. potassium and oxygen
• 5. magnesium and oxygen
• 6. beryllium and nitrogen
• 7. lithium and fluorine
Chemical Bonding
Ionic Bonds
•When sodium reacts with chlorine, the sodium atom loses an
electron to become a positively charged sodium ion:

8
Chemical Bonding
Ionic Bonds
•The chlorine atom gains an electron to become a negatively
charged chloride ion:

9
 Chemical Bonding
Ionic Bonds
•The positive sodium ion and the negative chloride ion then
attract each other to form sodium chloride.

■ Sodium chloride is called an ionic compound.

10
Chemical Bonding

Other ionic compounds

• Another example of an ionic
compound is that formed between
magnesium and chlorine.
• Each magnesium atom transfers 2
electrons, one to each chlorine atom,
to form magnesium chloride.

The formula of magnesium chloride is therefore

11
given as MgCl2.
Chemical Bonding

Quick check 1
1. Ionic bonds are formed between a ______ and a _____.
2. A metal atom ______ an electron to form a _______ ion while
a non-metal ______ an electron to become a ________ ion.
3. The two oppositely charged ions ________ each other to form
an ______ compound.
4. An ionic bond is formed by the _________ of _______.
5. (a) Is aluminium oxide an ionic or covalent compound?
(b) State the formula of aluminium oxide.

Solution 12
Chemical Bonding

Solution to Quick check 1

1. Ionic bonds are formed between a metal and a non-metal.
2. A metal atom loses an electron to form a positive ion while
a non-metal gains an electron to become a negative ion.
3. The two oppositely charged ions attract each other to form
an ionic compound.
4. Ionic bond is formed by the transfer of electrons.
5. (a) Aluminium oxide is an ionic compound.
(b) Al2O3
Return 13
 Classwork

1. Explain why atoms form compounds

2. Explain how atoms form compounds
3. Name three types of chemical bonding
4. Show the bonding between aluminium and sulfur.
Write the formula for the compound. Name the
compound.
5. Define ‘formula unit’
 Chemical Bonding

Covalent Bonds
■ A hydrogen atom has only one electron in its first shell.
•To achieve a more stable structure like helium, it needs one
more electron in the first shell.
•So two hydrogen atoms join together and share their
electrons. A hydrogen molecule is formed.

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Chemical Bonding

Covalent Bonds
•This sharing of electrons is called covalent bonding.
•In an oxygen atom, the outer shell has 6 electrons, so to achieve
an octet structure of 8 electrons like neon, two oxygen atoms
combine to share 4 electrons.

This is called a double bond.

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 Chemical Bonding

Other covalent molecules

Methane Water
H

H C H
H O H

CH4 (4 single bonds) H2O (2 single bonds)

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Chemical Bonding

Quick Check 2
1. The joining of atoms to form a molecule is called
__________ ________ .
2. The two types of bonds are ________ bond and
________ bond.
3. Covalent bonds are formed by the _________ of
_________ .
4. Ionic bonds are formed by the __________ of_________ .
5. _________ ______ are formed between non-metals
e.g. hydrogen, oxygen and carbon.
Solution
18
Chemical Bonding
Lesson 2

Solution to Quick check 2

1. The joining of atoms to form a molecule is called
chemical bonding .
2. The two types of bonds are covalent bond and
ionic bond.
3. Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of
electrons .
4. Ionic bonds are formed by the transfer of
electrons .
5. Covalent bonds are formed between non- metals e.g. hydrogen,
oxygen and carbon.
Return 19
Metallic Bonding

•In metals, the valence electrons are

delocalized. This results in the formation of
metal cations.
•The electrons form a ‘sea’ of electrons around
the metal cations.
•There is a strong force of attraction between
the metal cations and the negatively charged
sea of electrons. This is called a metallic bond
mobile
electrons

cation
Chemical Bonding

Properties of Ionic Compounds

•The electrostatic forces
between the
oppositely-charged ions are
very strong so ionic
compounds have very high
melting points and boiling
points.
For e.g. sodium chloride, an
ionic compound, has a melting
point of 801 oC and a boiling
point of 1 517oC. 22
 Chemical Bonding

Properties of Ionic Compounds

•Ionic compounds conduct
electricity when molten or
dissolved in water. This is because
the ions can move about and
conduct electricity.
■ Most ionic compounds are soluble in
water, but insoluble in organic solvents.
For e.g. sodium chloride is soluble in Molten sodium
water, but insoluble in oil or petrol. chloride conducts
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electricity.
Chemical Bonding

Properties of Covalent Compounds

•The intermolecular forces
Weak intermolecular
between the molecules are forces
weak so covalent compounds
have low melting and boiling
points.
For example, water, a covalent
compound, has a melting point
of 0 oC and a boiling point of
100 oC.

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Chemical Bonding
Properties of Covalent Compounds
•Covalent compounds do not
conduct electricity in any state.
•Most covalent compounds are
insoluble in water. Instead
they are soluble in organic
solvents.
For e.g. iodine is insoluble in
water, but soluble in ethanol.

water
Pure water does not
conduct electricity
25
Summary
Differences between Ionic and Covalent Compounds
Ionic Compounds Covalent Compounds

Have very high melting Have low melting and

and boiling points boiling points
Conduct electricity when Cannot conduct electricity
molten or in aqueous in any state
solution
Are usually soluble in Are usually insoluble in
water, but insoluble in water, but soluble in
organic solvents organic solvents 26
 Quick check 3
1. Covalent compounds have _______ forces of attraction
between the molecules, so they have ____ melting points and
______ boiling points.
2. Ionic compounds have very ______ forces of attraction
between the oppositely charged ions, so they have very ______
melting points and ______ boiling points.
3. All covalent compounds cannot _____ _______ .
4. All ionic compounds can conduct ________ when they are
_______ or ________ in water.
5. Sugar is a covalent compound but it is soluble in water. State
one test you would use to show that sugar is a covalent
compound. 27
Contd.
Quick check 3 (cont.)
6. The table below shows 3 substances.
Substance Electrical Conductivity
when solid when molten
A does not conduct does not conduct
B does not conduct conducts
C conducts conducts

(a) Which substance is an ionic compound?

(b) Which substance is a metal?
(c) Which substance could be a covalent compound?
Solution
28
Solution to Quick check 3
1. Covalent compounds have weak forces of attraction between the
molecules, so they have low melting points and low boiling points.
2. Ionic compounds have very strong forces of attraction between
the oppositely charged ions, so they have very high melting points
and high boiling points.
3. All covalent compounds cannot conduct electricity.
4. All ionic compounds can conduct electricity when they are molten
or dissolved in water.
5. Dissolve some sugar in water, then try to pass electricity through
it. The sugar solution will not able to conduct electricity.
Contd.
29
Solution to Quick check 3 (contd.)
6. The table below shows 3 substances.
Substance Electrical Conductivity
when solid when molten
A does not conduct does not conduct
B does not conduct conducts
C conducts conducts

(a) Ionic compound: B

(b) Metal: C
(c) Covalent compound: A
Return 30
STRUCTURE

31
Motivational (Who do you want to be?)

•https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R7iN71uJcG0
REVISE PROPERTIES OF IONIC AND
COVALENT COMPOUNDS BEFORE YOU
CONTINUE.
 PURE substances have different STRUCTURES
depending on the type of BONDING they have

IONIC COVALENT METALLIC

eg sodium eg copper
chloride (table
salt)
SIMPLE GIANT eg
eg carbon dioxide, diamond,
water graphite

The structure of a substance decides what its

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES will be.
 IONIC STRUCTURES
Ionic substances are compounds of metals and non-metals (eg sodium
chloride, copper oxide, magnesium sulphide etc). They are made of
IONS: atoms which have lost or gained electrons giving them a positive or
negative charge. The ions are arranged alternately in a regular repeating
structure called a crystal lattice.
Positive Negative
sodium ion chloride ion
Na+ -
Cl

The + ions and – ions STRONGLY ATTRACT each other to

make a regular crystal structure.
Because of the very STRONG BONDS between the IONS,
ionic compounds have HIGH MELTING & BOILING POINTS

Sodium chloride
Strong ionic melts at over 800°C
bond
 Ionic Melting
compound point (°C)
Iron chloride 677
Potassium chloride 770
Sodium chloride 801
Copper oxide 1446
Calcium oxide 2707
As ionic compounds are made of CHARGED IONS, they can
CONDUCT ELECTRICITY but ONLY if the ions can MOVE.

If it is MOLTEN If it is DISSOLVED
the ions can the ions can move
move
- + -
MELT + - + DISSOLVE
- + -
+ - +

+ - + - + - + -
+ +
- + - - + + -
+ - + - + - + -

800°C 20°C H 2O
 +

MOLTEN IONIC
COMPOUND

+ - - - +
+ -
- + +
+ - + -

MOLTEN ionic compounds CONDUCT ELECTRICITY

When salt is put in water, H2O molecules pull the ions apart to
make a solution. This lets the ions move around.

H 20
molecule

Ions free
to move
around
 PURE WATER SOLID SALT SALT SOLUTION

DISSOLVED ionic compounds also CONDUCT ELECTRICITY

 SIMPLE MOLECULAR SUBSTANCES

These are substances like carbon dioxide CO2, water H2O and
methane CH4 which are always made of simple molecules
whether they are SOLIDS, LIQUIDS OR GASES

H atom

O atom

Whole thing
= H2O molecule
MOLECULES ONLY WEAKLY ATTRACT EACH OTHER

VERY STRONG bonds

BETWEEN ATOMS
(so molecule is very hard to
break up into atoms)

WEAK bonds BETWEEN

MOLECULES
(so molecules are easy to
separate from each other)
Van der Waals Forces
-Van der Waals forces of attraction can
exist between atoms and molecules.
-They are not the same as ionic or
covalent bonds. They arise because of
fluctuating polarities of nearby
particles.
-The shape and size of molecules affect
the strength of the van der Waals
forces. The larger the force, the higher
the melting and boiling point.

44
This means simple molecular substances have LOW melting
and boiling points
Mpt Bpt (° State at
Compound
(°C) C) room temp
Water H2O 0 100 Liquid

Butane C4H10 -138 -0.5 Gas

Methane CH4 -182 -164 Gas
Carbon dioxide CO2 - -78 Gas
Oxygen O2 -218 -183 Gas
Hydrogen H2 -259 -252 Gas

Liquid oxygen
Solid oxygen boiling at -183°C
at -240°C
As the bonds between the molecules are weak, simple
molecular substances are weak and soft when solid.

As the molecules are NOT CHARGED simple molecular

substances DON’T CONDUCT ELECTRICITY when solids,
liquids or gases.
Allotropy
• The existence of different structural forms of the same
element in the same physical state is called allotropy.

• Allotropes have different physical properties but same

chemical properties.
• Graphite and diamond are allotropes of carbon.

• Other elements that show allotropy are phosphorus (Red

phosphorus and white phosphorus) and sulfur (rhombic and
monoclinic sulfur).
 GIANT MOLECULAR SUBSTANCES
In these materials strong covalent bonds join atoms together
with other atoms of the same type to make giant structures,
rather than simple, little groups/structures.
DIAMOND Every C
atom joined
to 4 others
Carbon
atom

(this is only part of

the structure - the
same pattern carries
Only on in every direction)
STRONG
bonds
Giant Covalent/
Macromolecular Structures

•Some covalent substances like silicon

dioxide (SiO2), diamond and graphite
are made up of very large molecules.
•These substances are said to have
macromolecular structures.
•Graphite and diamond are called
‘allotropes of carbon’.
49
Giant Covalent/
Macromolecular Structures
Properties of Macromolecules
•Due to the large structures of these macromolecules, their
chemical and physical properties are different from those
of the simple molecules.
•The macromolecules are solids with very high melting and
boiling points.
E.g. The melting point of diamond is 3550 oC, compared to
0 oC for water.
•Due to their sizes, they are also not as reactive compared
to the simple molecules.
50
Macromolecular Structures
Diamond
•In diamond each carbon atom is bonded to four
others. This gives rise to a tetrahedral arrangement
of the atoms. All valence electrons are used during
bonding.

•Diamond being hard and strong, is used for making

cutting and drilling tools.
•Another use for diamond is for making jewellery
since it is shiny and unreactive.

51
 Because all the atoms in Giant Structures are joined by
STRONG BONDS they:
• Have HIGH melting / boiling points
• Are usually HARD and STRONG

Because all the atoms in Giant Structures are UNCHARGED,

they will not conduct electricity.
SILICA (Silicon dioxide SiO2) has a similar structure to diamond

Every Si
atom joined
to 4 O atoms

Silica is the main substance in ROCKS. Pure silica is called

QUARTZ
 GRAPHITE – a special case
Common form of carbon found in soot, charcoal, pencil leads etc

Carbon atoms each joined

to 3 others with STRONG
bonds to make hexagonal
sheets of atoms
WEAK
BONDS

STRONG
BONDS
The sheets of atoms are
joined to other sheets by
WEAK bonds
 As the bonds
between the
layers of atoms
are weak, they
can easily slide
over each other

As the C atoms are only bonded to

3 others, the extra electrons form
clouds of ‘free electrons’ between
the layers
 Properties of Graphite

•The covalent bonds between the atoms in each strong covalent

bonds
layer are strong, and a lot of heat energy is
required to break these bonds when graphite
melts. This explains why graphite has a very
high melting point (3652 oC ).
weak forces

■ Not all the electrons in graphite are

used in bonding. There are some free
electrons which enable graphite to
conduct electricity.
■
The forces of attraction between the atoms in each
layer is weak. The layers can easily slide away from
each other when a force is applied. For this reason,
graphite is smooth and slippery.
56
 GRAPHITE - Properties

The STRONG BONDS between the

ATOMS mean it has HIGH
MELTING and BOILING POINTS

The WEAK BONDS between the

LAYERS mean it is SOFT and
SLIPPERY as the layers SLIDE over
each other easily (used in pencils and
as a solid lubricant)

The FREE ELECTRONS between the layers mean that graphite

CONDUCTS ELECTRICITY (used as sliding contacts in electric
motors)
Uses of Graphite
•Graphite being smooth and slippery, is used in making
lubricants for use in machinery, motorcar engines and
even bicycle chains. It is also used as the ‘lead’ in
pencils since the layers slip off and leave dark marks
on the paper.
■ Graphite being chemically unreactive and a conductor
of electricity, is used in making electrodes for use in
electrolysis and in dry cells.
■ Due to its very high melting point, graphite is used as
a heat insulator. It is used to coat the nose of a
space shuttle.
58
 METALS
In a metal the atoms are held together by strong bonds in
regular structures.
This means most metals have high melting and boiling points
and are hard and strong
In a metal the atoms LOSE SEVERAL OF THEIR OUTER
ELECTRONS which drift around between the metal ions as
FREE ELECTRONS.

As they have LOST a

few electrons, the
atoms become
POSITIVE IONS

Free (“delocalised”)
electrons
Metallic Structures
Properties of Metallic structure
•The closely packed positively charged metallic ions
form a lattice structure with the outer electrons moving
freely around the whole metallic structure.
•The electrostatic attraction between the metallic ions
and the electrons holds the metallic ions tightly in the
lattice and this gives the metal a high melting point.
•The free electrons are able to move and conduct
electricity and heat.
•This explains why metals are good conductors of heat
and electricity.

61
The large number of free electrons makes all metals are
GOOD CONDUCTORS of electricity AND heat.

The regular structure means

the layers of atoms can fairly
easily slide over each other
without breaking the bonds
(though not as easily as
graphite) and so metals are
MALLEABLE (bend rather
than snap)
Metals are ductile and
malleable

•Metals are malleable because the layers of atoms can

slide over one another easily as they are being
arranged in neat layers.

63
 SUMMARY - PROPERTIES
Structure Property Reason
Ionic HIGH mpt/bpt Strong bonds between IONS
CONDUCT: Solid NO Ions can’t move
Molten YES Dissolved YES Ions can move to carry current
Covalent – LOW mpt/ bpt (often gas at Bonds between MOLECULES
Simple room temp). Soft when solid very weak.
molecular CONDUCT: Never Molecules aren’t charged
Covalent – HIGH mpt/bpt. Hard & strong Strong bonds between all
giant ATOMS
molecular CONDUCT: Never No free charges/electrons
Covalent - HIGH mpt/bpt Strong bonds between ATOMS
graphite Soft & slippery Weak bonds between LAYERS
CONDUCT: YES (fairly well) Free electrons between layers
Metallic HIGH mpt/bpt. Hard & strong Strong bonds between IONS
Malleable Regular structure, layers slide
CONDUCT: YES (very well) Free electrons between ions
 SUMMARY - Descriptions METALLIC
IONS IONIC Strong malleable solids
ONLY IONS +
Crystals FREE Don’t dissolve
Dissolve in water ELECTRONS eg copper
eg sodium chloride (salt)

SIMPLE Covalent ATOMS GIANT Covalent

Usually Gases joined into Hard strong solids
eg CO2, H2O GIANT Don’t dissolve
MOLECULE eg diamond
MOLECULES S (graphite – special case)
ONLY
Quick check 4

1.The table below shows the properties of 4 substances.

Element Conducts electricity in Melting point
(OC)
Solid state Liquid state
W good good 1085
X poor good 801
Y poor poor 3550
Z poor poor 114

Deduce the type of bonds that each substance has.

Solution
66
Quick check 4 (cont’d)

2.The pictures below show 4 types of molecular structures.

A B

C D
Identify the substance or the type of bonds shown
Solution
by each structure. 67
Solution to Quick check 4

W: metallic bonding, X: ionic bonding,

1.
Y: macromolecular (diamond), Z: simple molecular

2. A: graphite; macromolecular
B: silicon dioxide; macromolecular
C: metallic bonding
D: ionic crystal lattice

Return
68
 Ionic Bonding Questions

1.List two compounds that contain ionic

bonds.
2.Describe three properties of ionic
compounds.
3.Explain why ionic compounds often
form giant structures – draw a diagram.
 Covalent Bonding Questions

1.List one covalent compound that has a

simple structure and one that has a
giant structure.
2.Describe two properties of simple
covalent compounds and two
properties of giant covalent
compounds.
3.Explain why graphite and diamond
have different properties.
 Metallic Bonding Questions

1.List two elements that contain metallic

bonding.
2.Describe three properties elements
that contain metallic bonding.
3.Explain why metallic structures conduct
electricity OR are malleable.
 Questions
1.Name three elements which form allotropes.
2.Describe the difference between mixtures
and compounds and give examples.
3.Are alloys mixtures or compounds?
4.Germanium tetrachloride is a colorless
fuming liquid that produces steamy fumes
when exposed to damp air and reacts
violently with cold water. What sort of
structure is it likely to have?