CEC 242 (CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT)LECTURE NOTE

INDICES OF DEVELOPED SOCIETY

As enunciated earlier in a somewhat different form, civilization is a condition of human society characterized by a high
level of cultural and technological achievements and corresponding complex society and political development. Throughout the
history of human growth and development,there are three indices that indicate a civilized and developed society. Whichever
society has high standard performance of all the three parameters is necessarily a developed society.

These three indices of development are:

it. Energy Supply

ii. Transportation System

iii.Communication system

Transportation System: The available traveling modes in Nigeria include the roads, railways inland waterways, the
ocean liners, and airplanes.None of these traveling modes are in adequaie capeci!or available at all hours. At nights, traveling is
generally unsafe and fuel availability for sale is almost These hazards and inconveniences of, generally, all night distant journeys
are clearly manifestations of under-development.

Communication system: Anyone who a travel to any part of the developed society knows what good communication
network is, a telephone is assured all times. By the time the last digit ofnumber heing called is pressed, the line through unless it
is ready engaged. Telephone and cellular mobile units are avallable in few major cities and towns in Nigeria. But the system
failure is rampant. Towns with analogite telephone connections are difficult to reach. Furthermore,available lines are severely
limited.

2.0EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT

Management is the basic, integrating process of business activities that surround our daily may be defined as achieving
results by coordinating the activities of other people. It is concerned with ihe proper use of both human and non-human
resources of any establishment, on human resources like money.materials,machinery etc. This means that the manager or group
of managers provide leadership which results in theachievements of the stated objectives of the organization or an
establishment. E.g.Tale and Lyle,Kara Polytechnic orUniversity of Ilorin a nonprofit organization like the Red Cross,Churches
Mosque just to mention a few. From the foregoing definition we can see that management is very complss and it is often best
defined in dynamic functions or the ways it operates. Thus management is:

1.All human efforts to increase human efficiency in an organization.

2. The techniques of effective utilization of men and material resources to obtain the desired results,
3.The proces and agency which directs and guides the operations of any organization.

4.Group of managers.
5.Getting things done through other people.
6.To forecast and plan, to organize, command coordinate, control and to make decisions.
7.A social process that entails responsibilities for the effective/efficient planaing regulation of the operations
of an enterprise.
 Management predates human existence. God himself started the concepts, principles and practice of
managements.However, opinions vary with the historian on the subject matter of history and the development of
management. Management from the old French word “management” refers to the “act of conducting, directing”.
Also from the Latin word “Manu agree” is “to lead by hand”. Management therefore characterizes the process of
leading, and directing all or part of an organization,often a business,through the deployment and manipulation of
resources such as human, financial, material & intellectual.One can also think of management functionally, as the
action of measuring a quantity on a regular basis and of adjusting some initial plan andas the actions taken to
reach one's intended goal. This applies even in situations where planning may not have taken place. Situational
management may therefore proceed and sometimes subjoin purposive management.

19TH CENTURY

Modern management as a discipline began as an offshoot of economics in the 19th century.Classical

economist such as Adam Smith and John Stuart mill provided a theoretical background to resource allocation,
production and pricing issues. About the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney,James watt and Matthew solution
developed technical production elements such as standardization, quality control procedures, cost accounting,
interchangeability of parts and work planning. By the middle of the 19th century, marginal economist Alfred
Marshall and Leon Walrasand others introduced a new layerof complexity to the theoretical understanding of
management. Joseph Wharton offered the first orfjklfkl in1881. By about 1900 we find managers trying to place
their theoies on a thoroughly scientific basis.Examples include Henry Towne's science of mgt 1890s, Fredrick win
show Taylor's scientific mgt(1911),frank and Hillian Gilbreth's applied motion study (1917) and Henry Haganttis
Chart(1910).

20TH CENTURY

The first comprehensive theories of mgt appeared around 1920. People like Henri Fayoland Alexandra
Clurchi described the various branches of mgt and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like
Ordwatt Tead, Walter Scoth and J. Moonery applied the principle of psychology 1o management, while other
writers Elton Mayo, Mary Parker Follet, choster Bernard, max weber,rensishekert and Chris arguing approached the
phenomenon ofmgt from a sociological perspective. Peter Drucker wrote one of the corporations published
in1946. In the 1940s, Patrick Blackelt combined the statistical theories of Ronald fishor and Throton C. fry with
micro economic theory and save both to the science of operation research to solving management problems in the
areas of logistics and operations. But,towards the end of the 20th century mgt came to consist of a number of
separate branches which are, but are not limited to the followings:

a) Operations and production mgt

b) Marketing mgt

c) Strategic management

d)Human Resources mgt.

SCIENTIFIC MANANGEMENT
Scientific management is the applicaton of scientific methods to solving management problens
with the ultimate aim of increasing productivity. An American production engineer,Frederick W.Taylor
was a pioneer in this field and he is considered as the father of scientific
management. The scientific methods are usually stated as:
a) Observation and collection of data
b) Analysis of the data collected

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 c)Classificatin of results
d) Development of hypothesis
e) Testing hypotheses through experiments
f)Application of the laws for predicting future circumstances.

Objectives of Scientific Management

The objectives of scientific management could be inferred from the testimony Taylor made to the house (House
of Representative) committee in 1912 in the U.S.A. it could be summarized as follows:
a) To bring maximum prosperity for employers through increased productivity at minimum costs.
b) To improve efficiency of the workers-through better training in the proper use of tools implements.
c) To provide maximum prosperity to the worker by increase their wages which will eventually enhance their
live hood.
d) To maintain worker's/employee's relations by creating a harmonious industrial environment as a consequent
of a mental revolution.
e) To provide cheaper goods and services to the community.

Some Aspects of Scientific Management

Basically scientific management could be broadly divided into human and non-human aspects.The human
aspects include the following:
a) Selection of workers
b)Training
c) Time and motion analysis
d)Fatigue study
e)Wage incentive
f)Labor/management relations.

1) Selection of workers: Selection of workers is very important because productivity of worker is directly related
to the fitness of workers. If a worker is not fit to do a job he is not going to be productive.Therefore, the most suitable
man for a job is Taylor's first class man. To get the most suitable man various procedures must be employed e.g.
psychological test; test to ensure both physical and mental fitness.

2) Training: Training is art of imparting the required knowledge and techniques to perform certain duties. It is
the corner stone of any efficient management. It helps to improve the efficiency and skills of workers and also as a
control device. It is required in the face of outburst of technological changes and expansion ofbusiness.

3) Motion and time analysis: is done by production standards on factory jobs. It has a twofold process. The first
process is the motion analysis to determine the best way of doing a particular job by eliminating unnecessary
movements. It includes breaking down the job into its simplest elements,eliminating unnecessary motions and
establishing a pattern for efficient production.
Once the motion analysis is completed, the worker is trained in the new method. Then the industrial engineer
conducts a time study analysis, using a stop watch, to determine how much time is required to perform the job under
actual factory conditions. A number of observations will be made to determine fairly the amount of time required for a
particular job. Allowances will however be made for variations in the worker's work pattern as a result of chances, or
unusual circumstances e.g. workers fatigue,production delays etc. These factors are incorporated into the average
observed time to determine standard time for performing a job and can judge what a normal pace is for doing that job.
 4) Fatigue Study- It is a study conducted to determine weakness after hard work. When workers perform some
duties after sometime efficiency begin to diminish. Therefore, management (industrial engineers) conducted a study to
determine the causes of fatigue. Findings show that long hours of work,monotony of work, unhealthy working
environment, and constant strain under poor leadership are the contributing factors. Management has to pay attention
to these findings because fatigue decreases efficiency and producivity, it also lowers quality of work and strains labors
management relationships.

5)Wage Incentives- Wage incentives lends to motivate workers to improve production output or
productivity,efficiency and quality of work. If workers are motivated labor turns over will also are reduced and good
workers will be attracted.

6) Labor/Management relations- For any management to succeed there must be Good Corporation and
harmonious relationship between labor and the management team. Taylor realized this and pointed out its importance.
He said among other things that good corporation between labor and management brings changes in the attitude of the
workers and the management and therefore brings about a mental revolution.

Advantages of scientific management

1. Scientific management has changed the entire management technique which ultimately increased efficiency.
2. It helps in proper and standard planning of each worker's task and operation.
3. It helps in controlling
4. It helps in proper selection, training, placement and development of the workers together with a provision of
incentive wages and satisfactory service conditions.
5. It helps to create harmonious and cordial relationship between the labor and the management.
6. It helps to raise the standard of living of the workers through increased output and reduced cost per unit.
7. It helps to ensure technical efficiency through the standardization of tasks, tools, equipment's,raw materials etc.
8. It helps to remove the traditional antagonistic attitude stance of the employees and employers towards each other
and makes them understand that they have common interests. Hence it brings mental revolution.
9. It brings more prosperity to both workers and employers i.e. more profit implies more wages.
10.Cheaper and standard goods to the customers.

NON HUMAN ASPECTS

Non-human aspects of scientific management include the following:

a) Tools and equipment's

b) Machine speeding

c) Factory conditions

d) Materials

e) Functionalization

f)Planning room
 1) Good tools- for good performance good tools and equipment's are required. For equipment to function
effectively, it must be properly installed and maintained. These scientific managers paid particular attention to the
proper installation, maintenance and accessibility of machines in the factory to enhance productivity and efficiency.
2) Machine Speeding-The speed of the machine is very important for good productivity and efficiency. The
speed should be standardized. When a standard speed is achieved then it could be adjusted to the desired speed.

3) Factory Conditions-Good working environment is required for good productivity and efficiency.The scientific
managers realized this and therefore made adequate provisions for proper ventilation color,heating,cooling, lighting,
drinking water, rest or recreation as the case may be.
4) Material-Great importance is attached to the good supply of quality materials. Researches were conducted
to discover or invent new raw materials that will enhance productivity and product quality.

The role of Civil Engineer in National Development

1. Abundant employment 2.Good food.
3. Moderate houses. 4.Good health.
5. Drinkable water. 6. Sound education.
7.Regular electricity. 8.Good roads.
9. Extensive rail transportation. 10. New water ways transportation.
11.Safe flight facilities. 12. Security of lives and properties.

3.0 DESIGNING AN ORGANIZATION

Every organization is made up of human and physical resources. These resources are brought together in order
to accomplish a predetermined goal. In order to accomplish these objectives, tasks must be identified, the tools and
technology required must be provided and a structure of relationships must be identified. It is the function of
management to determine the best structure that will optimize the utilization of resources. Management organizes
these resources. Thus organization is a means of achieving thebest result from concerted effort. Organization deals with
people that determine the type of peoplerequired and required and their relationships. Thus the type of personnel and
structure required in a hospital is different from the personnel and structure required in a weaving enterprise or a
university.

Meaning of Organization
An organization can be seen as an entity. This is true of all business enterprises, churches, hospitals,or clubs. It
can be seen as a process of coordinating individual efforts to accomplish a common objective;an organization is a group
of people bound together to provide unity of action for the achievements of a pre-determined objective.All
management teorists-Fayol, Follet, etc. recognize this important management function. Organization is very
fundamental to human nature. Man is a social animal and shares relationship with his neighbors. The subject of
organization is central to sociology, psychology and even anthropology.

Kinds of Organization
Organizations can be classified into two broad headings such as:
(a)Formal and
(b) Informal organizations.

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Formal and Informal Organizations
The later is human interaction that occurs simultaneously and naturally without overt influence.Formal
Organizations can be seen as a direct opposite of informal organization. It is a planned pattern of group behavior
designed to achieve an objective. Most relationships found in many business enterprises are formal. The main
reasons for formal organizations are:
1. to establish efficient and logical patterns of interrelationships among members of the group.
2. to secure advantages of specialization or divisionof labor whereby the optimum utilization of talents can be
realized.
3. to coordinate activities of the of the component parts in order to facilitate the realization of the goals of
the organization. In Nigeria, the problem of formal organization is not so acute because of the nature of
Nigerian business.

Organization Charts
An organizational chart is a visual device that shows the various departments and how they relate to one
another. The organization chart helps the employees, the board of directors and stockholders to see at a glance,
the division of responsibility and lines of authority. One of the major advantages of an organization chart is that it
helps in studying how to modify or improve the relationship and areas of responsibilities within the organizational
structure. An organization can operate without a formal, drawn organization chart, but the presence of the chart
gives evidence ofa thoughtful planned structure. Nevertheless, it shows the existence of a workable structure.
Never the less, it shows the existence of certain positions identified by boxes and line of authority shown by solid
straight lines connection.
Organization Structure
Sound Organization structure involves dividing activities into departments, divisions, Units sub-units,
defining relationships between the heads and members that make up the units. A good structure;
a) identifies the operating departments (sales department, Production department, and finance
department).
b) Isolates the service department (Personnel, research)
c) Places emphasis on balancing the structure.
d) Shows the role of committees in the organization.

4.0 PARTIES TO CIVIL ENGINEERING CONTRACTS AND THEIR

NTER-RELATIONSHIPS
The main parties to civil engineering contracts, their roles, responsibility and interrelationships are as
described below:

Client
The client may be the sponsor (financier), promoter or employer of other parties such as consultant or
contractor for the execution of the project. He may be someone appointed by the sponsor or promoter to employ
or engage others for project execution. If the client is not the sponsor, he becomes the first link in the reporting
chain,who reports directly to the project owner or sponsor and caries the responsibility for all major project
decisions. The client undertakes, to fulfill his own side of the consultancy or contract agreement just as the
consultant and contractor are expected to do in the consultancy or contract agreement format known as form of
agreement. The client owes it a duty to ensure steady cash flow to provide the enabling environment for speedy
and smooth execution of the project.

Consultant
He is a specialist or an expert entrusted with the task of providing necessary professional and technical
services in the areas of planning, designing, financial estimation and evaluation, project
implantation, management and maintenance. He prepares the tender document as the basis for appointment of
contractors and sub-contractors or suppliers to execute the job. He supervises, appraises and evaluates the works of
the contractor and raises appropriate certificates based on the budget approved by the client;and make
recommendation tothe client about the progress of work and payments to be made to the contractor both in terms
of the original content of the BOQ on the date of the tender and the fluctuation and variation claims verified and
approved by the consultant. Where the consultant indicts the contractor for breach of contract, he can prescribe
appropriate sanctions in accordance with the conditions of contract.

Contractor
The contractor is a person or a company appointed by the client, usually in conjunction with the client's
consultant to implement the requirements of a project. The contractor may be appointed through open tendering,
selective tendering or negotiated tender. The consultant / contractor may appoint the sub-contractors through the
project manager.

The contractor's other functions include:

a) Mobilization to site in a formal handing over exercise jointly by the practices involved.
b) Prepare a workable and realistic work Programmed at the instant of the consultant.
c) Delivers and maintains plants and materials on site.
d) Constructs site office and provides utility services on site.
e) Makes himself available at any appointed time for site visits, inspections and meetings.
f) Sends written observation to the consultant on notable differences between the contract drawings and
BOQ.
g) Provides insurance cover to workers and ensures safety of persons and security of the site.

Contract Documents
A contact should always specify what documents, letters, specifications etc. are to be regarded as the
'contract documents', and these normally define the contract. If, however in a court of law,the contract document
themselves leave uncertainty as to the true intentions of the. parties at the time of signing the contract. Other
letters and documents might. Subject to the rules of evidence, be introduced by either party as evidence, of such
intentions.

In the sort of contract, we are considering the contract documents will usually comprise some or all of the
following:
-A statement of the scope of the contact
-Data (e.g. site conditions, climate) affecting the execution of the works.
-Bills of Quantities (especially in civil engineering and building construction); Priced schedules or Plant (in plant
supply contracts)
- Programmed for the construction/ completion of the works.
-The conditions of contract
- Site regulations.
- The Form of tender: the offer.
-Unconditional acceptance of the tender.
- Guarantees or bonds.
-A Formal Agreement.
- Additions or variations of the above made during negotiations or subsequently by agreement between the parties.
A normal contract document comprises but not restricted to the following:
a) Form of agreement: Although under English law, a valid contract may be formed purely by documents
constituting an offer and an unconditional acceptance, it is sometimes necessary or advantageous to embody or
confirm the contract by drawing up a formal agreement. The standing orders of many public bodies,(for example
local and country councils) require that all contracts over a certain sum are so embodied in a formal agreement
which has to be signed and sealed as a corporate document on their behalf by certain officials they have empowered
to do so. Confirmation of a contract in a formal agreement can be of value:
- To emphasize the formality and importance of the contract.
- To summarize the highlights of a complex contract.
- To stress that the contract is with the employer in cases in which the enquiry, tenders, negotiation,and
correspondence have all been handled by the engineer (in his role as agent for the employer).
- To schedule the items forming the contract documentation.
- To tidy-up a contract situation when there have been extensive negotiations following the tender and the contract
documentation and details have suffered involved modification.

b) Conditions of contract: The conditions of contract are the 'Rules' by which the contract is run.They set out
the rights and obligations of the parties and agree the action that will be taken by the parties if various eventualities
arise during the course of the contract. The range of eventualities they cover varies from case to case depending on
the nature of the contracts the conditions of contract may run to several pages of print. For really large contracts,
they may extend to several volumes. Contract conditions form much of the legal basis of the contract on which any
ruling by the courts would be made. Consequently,they need to be written with care and precision so as to be clear
and unambiguous. Luckily many of the points to be covered are common to a large number of types of contract and,
in addition, experience has led to a form of words which is generally acceptable to both parties. As a consequence,
there exists a number of standard forms of conditions of contract which have fairly wide recognition in the U.K and
some which are recognized internationally.The use of these can remove a lot of the need for composing new
conditions for each and every contract.

c) The Technical Specification: The technical specification describes in details the information provided by the
contract drawings and the BOQ. It describes in detail the work to be executed under the contract and the nature and
quality of the materials, components and workmanship. It may also contain clauses specifying the order in which the
various stages of the works are to be carried out, the methods to be adopted in the execution of the work and
details of any special facilities that are to be provided by contractors or sub-contractors.

d) Bill of Quantities: The BOQ contains the schedule of items of work to be carried out under the contract
with quantities inserted against each item. These quantities are prepared in accordance with CESmm3-Civil
Engineering standard methods of measurement 3. Due to the small side of many of the drawings composed to the
large extent of work involved in a contract and the uncertainties about certain site conditions, the quantities
inserted in a bill are often approximate. Nonetheless, the quantities should be as accurate as the information
available permits and the descriptions against each item must conform to the actual work involved.
In most cases, the unit rates inserted by the contractor against each item in the BOQ normally charges and
the adjustment item in the grand summary.One of the main functions of civil engineering,

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been signed, the rates in the priced BOQs can be used to assess the value of the work executed on
continuous basis, from the commencement to the completion of the project.

e) Contract Drawings: The contract drawings show in details the nature and scope of work to be carried out
under the contract. The drawings should be thoroughly, comprehensively and clearly detailed to enable the contractor
to satisfactorily price the BOQ. The drawings should include the site plan depicting the existing features at the site and
the proposed work including full descriptions and explanatory notes where such emphasis is desirable. The more
explicit arise bothering on the scope and character of the works. More so, ample figured dimension should be inserted
sufficiently to facilitate effective and accurate taking-off of quantities and in setting constructional work on site.
Drawings may incorporate or be accompanied by schedules such as bar bending schedule for steel
reinforcement,manhole/sewer schedules etc.

5.0 TYPES AND SCOPE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONTRACTS

Like any legal contract, a valid civil engineering contract possess three distinct traits of offer,acceptance and
consideration. A promoter (or client) propose s for a civil engineering project and makes offer,with a clear
consideration, to a contractor formerly conveys his acceptance of the offer;a binding contract is automatically
established between the two parties. The types of contracts encountered in civil engineering can be classified into fixed-
price contracts such as (i) Bill of Quantities Contract, (ii)Schedule of Rates Contract, (iii) Lump-sum Contract; and non-
fixed-price contracts such as cost fee reimbursement contracts like (i) Cost-plus percentage contract,(iii) Cost-plus
fluctuating fee contract,(iv)Target Cost Contract, (v) Package-deal or Turnkey contract.The types of contracts
enumerated above are now discussed in details as follows:

i.Bills of Quantities Contract: In this type of contract, an un-priced Bill of Quantities, prepared in accordance
with Civil Engineering Standard Method of Measurement (CESMM), is inserted in the tender document for every
prospective contractor to price. This contract, also known as measure and value contract, is the commonest and most
widely used form of contract for works of civil engineering construction of medium and large scale extent, where the
quantities of the bulk of theworks can be ascertained from the contract drawings with reasonable accuracy before the
commencemen of the work.The total sum tendered under this contract is the sum of the individual items as priced in
the bill, including any prime costs, lump sums, and provisional sums the quantity of all items of work to be done as
contained in the bill are not approximate, they are exact, being measured as accurately as possible from the
drawings.When the work is constructed, the quantities are replaced by the measurement of the actual quantity of work
the contractor carries out under each item.

ii. Schedule-of-Rates Contracts: This type of contract is used for execution of civil engineering operations where
it is not possible to put into bill of quantities, measurement of quantities based on the contract drawings. A typical
example of this is a contract for the sinking of a borehole for a water supply scheme.It is frequently not possible to state
well in advance to what depth a contractor should go to sink the borehole to strike water of the required quantity.
There are occasions where it may be imperative to commence a construction work before design and preparation of
contract drawings; i.e. before measurement of quantities can be made such drawings. In this case a schedule of rates
contract suffices.The contractor should be informed that all the items in the schedule of rates are to be considered as
provisional items.

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The differences between schedule of rate and BOQ are:

i) Quantities against the individual items are either not inserted or they are entered in estimated amounts or
in round-figure provisional quantities.
ii) There is no implied guarantee that all or any given proportion of the items will be carried
out;therefore,each item must carry its own overheads, and bring the contractor adequate reward if
undertaken in large or small quantity, irrespective of the amount of work executed under other items. In a
BOQ contract, the setting up and overhead costs to the contractor will be spread over the bill items (except
the provisional items), in the knowledge that the great majority of these items will be carried out.
iii) More items are schedule for temporary work than usually appear in a BOQ (e.g. items such as for setting
up plant etc) because the amount of temporary work that a contractor may have to carry out is uncertain.
iv) The remainder of the scheduled items tends to describe operations by the contractor rather than outputs,
and the number of items is less than a BOQ.

iii.Lump-sum Contracts: In this type of contract, the contractor undertakes to carry out certain specified
works for a fixed sum of money. Naturally, the nature, scope and extent of work to be carried out should be
clearly and unambiguously delineated in a well dimensioned and detailed drawing and the specification for
materials and workmanship should be well thought out to the understanding of the contractor or his agents.
BOQ is not required. This form of contract is suitable for small scale projects that are carried out above the
ground level and clearly visible, such as a road resurfacing contract.

iv. Cost-plus percentage Contract: In this type of contract, the client agrees to pay the contractor a specified
percentage of the total cost of a project as management fee to reimburse him for profits and overheads, over the
above the actual costs of expenditure for procurement of materials, employment of labor and hiring or acquisition of
plant. The contract is relatively simple to operate and was used extensively during the Second World War for defense
installations. This type of contract is vulnerable to abuse because there is no incentive for efficiency, economy and
optimal utilization of resources. For example, an unscrupulous contractor may want to take undue advantage of
apparent loopholes in the system to exploit the client because the less efficient the contractor, the more the cost of
the work and the more his profit.

v.Cost-plus Fixed-fee Contract: This type of contract requires that the contractor be paid the actual costs he
incurred in the execution of the work plus a fixed lump sum to cater for is profits and overheads, which has
previously been agreed upon and does not fluctuate with the final cost of the project.The fixed fee may be tendered
in competition with other contractors, or it may be negotiated between the client and the contractor. Although, no
real incentive exists for the contractor to secure efficient working arrangement on the site, he has the advantage of
earning the fixed fee as quickly as possible to release his resources for other jobs. This form of contract is also
beneficial to the client. This type of contract may be highly acceptable and useful depending on the efficiency of the
contractor. With the ever growing global competition, there is no doubt that this type of contract would be the right
way to tackle difficult civil engineering projects.

6.0 PROJECT PLANNING AND COST CONTROL

Planning can be applied in varying degrees of detail. Depending on the stage at which it is being carried out.
As an example, for construction work, project planning is usually divided into pre-tender planning, pre-contract
planning and short term planning on site.

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 1) Pre-tender project planning is done to allow the estimator to arrive at an estimate of cost based on the
proposed methods of working and an estimate of the time required carrying out the work.Programming at the pre-
tender stage is usually in an outline form to consider only the phasing of the main operations, since much information is
not at the time available.
2) Pre-contract project planning is carried out when the contract has been won and the project is considered
more fully. Project planning at this stage includes the overall programme, labor schedules, plant schedule, and material
schedules etc. The overall programme should not break the operations does exercises or it will become unrealistic.
3) Short term project planning on site is done in greater detail and the programmes at this stage are broken
much further. The cost control must be carried out to make project planning effective, as without cost control project
planning loses much of its value. It must be applied continuously to update the plans and to enable reconsideration of
list of the work ahead in the light of what has already taken place.

PROJECT PLANNING-NETWORK TECHNIQUES

The planning and control of a large-scale project may be accomplished by utilizing an activity network as the
modeling technique. One example being the critical path method. The CPM is classified under the deterministic
procedures. Another example is the Programmed Evaluation and Review Technique. The PERT is classified under the
probalistic procedure. Acceptance of these procedures has been widespread by project consultants/management for
the following reasons: -

1) The concepts are easy to understand and apply.

2) They introduce objectivity in project planning and control.
3) They reduce the complexity of the project planning and control process by breaking the project down intoits
individual components.

DETERMINISTIC P ROJECT PLANNING (CPM) PREPARATION

The first stage in the preparation of CPM diagrams is to make a list of the activities to be used. The amount of
detail required in the breakdown depends on many factors, such as the size of the project or the stage of planning i.e.
pre-tender, pre-contract, or short term. One activity in a CPM network drawn at the pre-tender stage may be broken
down into a number of activities at a later stage. To avoid misunderstanding, diagrams are arranged so that time flows
from left to right. When drawing network diagrams, it is important to remember that “offsite” activities such as delivery
of plaster board can be critical and must therefore be included on the diagram.

METHODS OF PREPARING A (CPM) NETWORK

There are three (3) basic methods of preparing a diagram.
i) The activity-on-the-arrow system-AOA
ii)The activity-on-the-node system-AON
iii) Event or mile stone system-which largely represented by the PERT method.

PROJECT DURATION
The project duration is the minimum time in which it can be completed with the activity times assigned to it.
The duration of the project will be determined by the longest path through the diagram.This is known as the critical
path.
If the time required for any activity is affected, this will automatically effect the project duration.

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APPLICATION OF NWT
1)Construction of projects
2) Overhauling and maintenance programmes
3) Setting up of new organization
4) Organizing verybig functions like national or international games, big exhibitions,etc.
5) Defense establishments.

LIMITATIONS
1) Network technique is simply a tool to help the management; hence its effectiveness depends on how well it
is used by the management.
2) Its accuracy depends on the estimation of the data used in the network.
3) It is useful only, if it is updated regularly and decisions for corrective actions are taken timely.

ADVANTAGES
1) Detailed and thoughtful planning provides better analysis and logical thinking.
2)Identifies the critical activities and focus them to provide greater managerial attention.
3) Network technique enables management to forecast project duration more accurately.
4) If is a powerful tool for optimization of resources by using the concept of slack.
5) It provides a scientific basis for monitoring, review and control, to evaluate effect of slippages.
6) It helps in taking decision (i) to overcome delays, (ii) on crashing programme (iii) optimizing resources, and
(iv) on other concrete actions.
7) It helps in getting better co-ordination amongst related fields.
8)It is an effective management tool through a common and simple language, providing common
understanding.

TECHNIQUE OF ESTIMATION
What techniques of estimation are available to improve the jobplanning process? Well,there are time (PERT),
human and material, and value costs. In many cases these methods are used in combination and they can contribute
to better result, if used wisely. It is always assumed, that planning and estimation are identical twins. They go hand-in-
hand when it comes to management of resources. Time resources is best handled with PERT methods. Progress
Evaluation Review Technique (PERT), its basic concept is hat the program is divided into discrete detailed scheduled
tasks which are drawn up into an integrated network.
All the significant variables of time, resources, and technical performance are allocated to each task or
activity. This system creates a systematic reporting technique which enables management to compare actual
performance with the original program plan, thereby permitting a continuous check on the program status.
The operation of PERT can be divided into the following five broad categories:
1)Establishment of objectives
2) Creation of plans
3) Establishment of schedules
4) Evaluation of performance
5) Arrival at decision and action.

7.0 MATERIAL QUALITY CONTROL MEASURES

Details of the quality of materials of materials to be used in the works will be contained in the material and
workmanship specifications and these should be read carefully and mastered. All materials to
be used must be certified by the supervising engineer and samples must be kept permanently in the engineer's
site office. If the contractor cannot find the material specified and alternative but approved equal may be
certified for use by the engineer. Testing to ensure quality may have to be done and a sample of material and
record of test results kept.
Quality control procedures for common engineering materials are as follows:

Concrete
To ensure the required characteristics of concrete, concrete must be properly constituted with good
quality materials, properly mixed, properly transported, properly placed, properly worked and properly cured.
Any laxity in any of the processes described may result in poor finished concrete. Therefore, all processes must
be monitored by the supervising engineer.

QUALITY OF CONSTITUENT MATERIALS

a) Coarse and Fine Aggregates

i) Both Coarse and fine aggregate must be sharp, clean, free from silt, clay, metallic, plastic, organic
materials or other constituents which may ne injurious to the finished concrete.
ii) Coarse aggregate should be angular or rounded but not flaky.
iii)Depending on the type of concrete, grading must be specified, where not specified,a well graded
aggregate is preferred to a gap graded or single size aggregate.
iv) The maximum size of the aggregate must be as specified; a rule of thumb is that it should be about 5mm less
than the minimum cover to reinforcement.
v) Aggregate should be inert, if the chemical nature of an aggregate is not known it should not be employed
for concrete.
vi) Sieve fine aggregate if necessary.
vii) Coarse aggregate may be washed but only dry aggregate can be in the concrete; washed aggregates
contain unquantifiable amount of water which has not been taken into consideration in design.

Cement
Depending on the project, various types of cement of cement may be specified other than the popular
Ordinary Portland Cement. However, if a contractor wishes to use one other than specified, the properties must
be investigated to ensure that it will not have adverse effect on the short and long term properties of the
concrete.
(i)Check each batch of cement by random sampling.
(ii) Where cement replacement materials are to beused, check that proportion used is as specified.
(iii) Cement must be powdery; lumps are sign of hydration, reject lumpy cement, no sieving of cement
must be allowed.

Water
This is sometimes taken for granted but this should be monitored properly. Water for concreting should
be:
i)Clean and clear.
ii) Potable or fit for drinking.
iii) Not containing chemicals which may be harmful to the concrete in the short or long term.High level of
chloride or sulphate should be avoided.

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Admixtures
Admixtures are chemicals that are used to modify the wet properties of concrete to either delay solidification or
assist workability. Whatever may be reason for usage or specification, ensure that:-
i) The admixture to be usedhas proper specifications and documentation from the manufacturers,keep
information in your record.
ii) It does not contain injurious material to the concrete and workers.
iii) It will not affect the strength properties of the concrete adversely, if it will ensure provision is made to cover
this. Some workability agents delay strength gains, therefore prop removal should be delayed accordingly.
iv)If mixing is done on site, ensure that the right dosage is used.

Mixing
Mixing should be done according to mix design. The engineer should ensure proper specification of mix.
Specifying a mix as 1:2:4 is not complete until the water/cement (w/c) is added. If a mix is being prescribed, it should be
specified whether it is by weight or by volume. Nigerians generally work to volume but this must be specified.
i) Avoid specifying mix except you are dead sure of the quality of all materials to be used.
ii) Where only grade has been specifid, the contractor must submit results of trial mixes which he aims to use to
satisfy the specification before the commencement of work or any casting is done. If no such results are available,
trial mixes must be made on site and tested at the appropriate age before any casting is allowed.
iii) Mixing must be thorough and until a uniform consistency is obtained. This is best achieved mechanically but it
is possible with proper hand mixing (no rush job should be allowed)
iv) Mixing water should be controlled by volume or weight and not visually.

Transportation
Where the concrete is to be transported over a long distance or it has to wait for a long time before placement,
mechanical agitation should be ensured. Transportation should not result in segregation.

Placement
i) Test workability at the beginning of each casting and do so at regular interval, eye test of flow can be
misleading (for slump test, aim for 50-75mm slump). Test must be carried out by you and according to the
relevant code.
ii) Concrete should not be poured from a great height to avoid segregation and it should not be moved over a
great distance from the point of placement by the use of vibrator.
iii) Concrete should be placed in small layers; each layer being worked properly before the next layer. Interlayer
working should be discouraged.
iv) Concrete is best worked with a mechanical vibrator and this should be encouraged. If hand vibration is to be
employed, it should be done thoroughly and through the depth of each placement,tapping at the top to produce
a smooth finish is not adequate.
V)Form work of large depth placement should be provided with inspection windows to ensure that the full depth
is filled with compacted concrete and that there are no large air pockets.
vi) Joints in casting must be at specified locations.
vii) Joints in continuous pours should be at non-critical locations (at middle third of span for slabs or
beams). Casting joints should be well cleaned and prepared before continuation of casting.

15
Curing
A good concrete mix, properly placed and worked will still produce less than desirable strength,if it is not
properly cured. Therefore, the curing regime must be properly monitored and ideally, the curing regime of the
structure must be the same as that of the test samples. The idea of curing test specimens under water for 28 days but
wetting structure for only 2 days should be discouraged totally. The engineer must approve the curing method of the
contractor and therefore he must ensure thatit will produce the desirable strength of concrete.

Property Monitoring
On most concrete works, the property of concrete which is used to monitor its various characteristics
and strength is the compressive crushing strength. This is measured either on a cube or cylinder specimen of
appropriate size. The engineer must ensure that:
i) At least, three (3) specimens are taken for each casting and for each time the test is to be carried out.
Therefore, if one is interested in the 7 days, 14 days and 28 days' strength of the concrete, nine
(9) specimens must be taken randomly during the casting.
ii) He takes the specimen himself and not delegates others or ask the contractor to do it.
iii) The specimen is taken according to the relevant code of practice. For example, the specimen must not be
compacted with a vibrator but a tamping rod as specified by the British code.
iv) The specimen is marked as soon as possible to identify it and the location of pour.
v) The specimen is removed from the mould in his presence and put under the appropriate curing regime.
vi) The specimen is taken out from the curing place on the day of the test and taken out for testing under his
supervision.
vii) Whenever possible, witness the testing and the recording of results.
viii) He compares the strength obtained to the specified strength making allowance for normal engineering
tolerance and normal statistical distribution of data. Plot or tabulate result and use any of the assessment
methods for analysis.

REINFORCING BARS
The engineer should ensure that reinforcements are:
i)Are of the types (plain or deformed) and size specified.
ii) Are free from rust or pitting.
iii) Are of the specified yield strength. Tensile strength test must be carried out on each tone of reinforcement,
on samples taken randomly from each size and type of bars.
iv) Are not brittle and can be bent to the required shape. Bending test on each size and type of bar must be
carried out on each batch.
v) Free from grease or oil, this is very important for plain bars which derive their bond strength solely from
adhesion.
vi) In rehabilitation works, existing reinforcement that has rusted if still going to be used must be wire brushed
and may be coated for protection (depending on the reason for rusting).

STRUCTURAL STEEL
The engineer should ensure that:
i) The dimensions and weights of sections are as specified.
ii)The specified grade of steel is used.
iii) The steel is weld-able.
iv) Bolts and nuts are of the right type, size and number.
v)Welds are of the right type, thickness and length.

16
 vi) Bolt holes are well formed and are at least the minimum distance form free edges.
vii) Appropriate anti-rust and fire retardant treatment are applied.
viii) Bracings are not omitted.
ix) Joint constructions are as designed.

Timber
The Engineer should ensure that:
i) The right type of timber with appropriate structural strength is used. If possible, approve ONLY
timber from known and certified company.
ii) Timbers are straight and have uniform dimension throughout their length.
iii) Timber is well seasoned.
iv)Members do not have knots or holes in areas which may adversely affect their strength or which may attract
cracks or splitting.
v) Jointing is by the appropriate type of joints.
vi) Nails used are of the right size which will keep the members together and pass the maximum force that the
member will be subjected to.
vii) Appropriate anti-termite/wood pest treatment is applied. Check the depth of penetration of treatment by
cutting through full depth of timber pieces.
viii) Timbers with holes indicate pest infestation,reject immediately.
ix) Timber is appropriately stored on site (under a roof and stacked with separators for further seasoning).

8.0 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Definition
Cement concrete is a very useful constructional material whose properties can be modified readily at will. The
desired properties of concrete can be obtained by using ingredients in a certain proportion.Thus, determining the
relative amount of materials is known as mix design. Hence, mix design can be defined as the process of selecting
suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their relative quantities for producing concrete of certain (specified)
minimum properties as strength, durability and consistency etc,as economically as possible.

Purpose of Mix design

From the definition of mix design, it can be seen that the purpose of mix design is twofold as follows:
1. To achieve the stipulated minimum strength and durability.
2. To make the concrete in the most economical way.
Cost wise all concretes depend mainly on two factors
(a) Cost of materials and
(b)Cost of labor.
The cost of form work, batching, mixing, transporting, and curing etc. is nearly the same for good as well as bad
concrete work.
Thus,to achieve economy, the main attention should be directed to the cost of materials. As the cost of cement is many
times more than other ingredients, thus the attention mainly should be directed to the use of little amount of cement
as possible consistent with the strength and durability. Mix proportions provided by the designs are called as prescribed
mix.

17
Objects of Mix design
The objects of mix design are:
i. To decide the proportions of materials this will produce concrete of required properties.
ii. The mix proportions should be selected in such a way that the resulting concrete is of desired workability
while fresh and it could be placed and compacted easily for the intended purpose.
iii. The fresh concrete should be fluid enough to fill the form work and surround the reinforcement fully and
iv. The hardened concrete should develop required strength and durability.

Factors affecting the choice of mix proportion

According to IS - 456-1978 and IS-1345-1980.The design of concrete should be based on the following factors:
1. Grade designation
2.Type of cement
3.Max. nominal size of aggregate
4.Grading of combined aggregate
5. Water-cement ratio
6. Workability
7.Durability.

Grade designation

Grade designation specifies the characteristics compressive strength of concrete. The characteristics
compressive strength is that value of concrete strength below which not more than 5% of test results are expected to
fall. It is the major factor which influences the mix design. Depending upon the degree of control on site, the concrete
mix should be designed for the mean compressive strength (which is a little higher than the characteristics strength).

Types of cement
The type of cement is important as the rate ofstrength development depends mainly on the cement.The
choice of the type of cement depends upon the requirements of its performance.
i.When very high compressive strength is required, Portland cement conforming to IS -8041-1978and
ii.for mass concrete work, low heat Portland cement conforming to IS-269-1979 can be used.

Maximum nominal size of coarse aggregate.

The maximum nominal size of coarse aggregate is determined by sieve analysis and is designated by the sieve
size higher than the size on which 15% or more of the aggregate is retained. It is governed by
i.the size of the section and
ii.The spacing of the reinforcement. According to IS-456-1978 and IS-1345-1980, the max.size of the aggregate
should be as follows:
It should not be more than 1/4th of the minimum thickness of the member
It should be less by 5 mm than the minimum clear distance between the
reinforcement.
It should be less by 5 mm than the minimum cover to the reinforcement
It should be less by 5 mm than the spacing between the pre stressing cables.For normal
structural concrete work, the maximum size of aggregate may be used as 38mm for high
strength concrete it may be 10mm to 20 mm.

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Grading of combined aggregate
factors which affect the strength of the concrete. For dense concrete, it is essntial that the fine and coarse
grading. In such situations the aggregate should be combined in suitable proportions, so that the resulting
grading is close to the desired grading. The aim of combining the aggregate is to;
To obtain a grading close to the coarse grading of standard grading curves,
To obtain the most economical mix having the highest permissible aggregate cement ratio.
Road Note 4.

Water/Cement ratio
The compressive strength of concrete at a given age under normal conditions of curing mainly
depends upon water/ cement ratio.
Lower the water-cement ratio within limits, grater the compressive strength and vice -versa.
A number of relationships between compressive strengths and water-cement ratio is available, which are
valid for a wide range of conditions.

Workability
For satisfactory placing and compacting of concrete the workability is controlled by many factors as:
shape and size of the section to be concreting quantity and spacing of reinforcement method of
transportation placing and compaction of concrete/
The insufficient workability will result in:
i. incomplete compaction,
ii. less strength and durability.
There are various methods of determining the workability of concrete, measure by different methods.
Hence, it is desirable to decide the test method before starting the concrete work.

Durability
It can be defined as the resistance to internal and external deteriorating influences. The requirements
of durability may be achieved by restricting: the minimum cement content and minimum water-cement ratio.

Quality Control
The strength of concrete is never constant. It varies from batch to batch. This variation may be due
to:
i. the variation in the quality of constituent materials,
ii.Variation in mix proportions,
iii.Variation in the quality of batching and mixing equipment's available,
iv. Quality of workmanship and supervision. etc.

Controlling these factors is important to minimize the difference between the minimum strength and
characteristic main strength of the mix, thus reducing the cement content. The method of controlling these
differences is called quality control.
Grades of concrete and requirements for structures and general construction
specific use, having the required workability and characteristics strength not less than.
Terminologies in mix design
i. Preliminary test: Is defined as the test conducted in a laboratory in the trial mix concrete produced in
the laboratory for designing a concrete mix before actual concreting at site, to verify:
the strength of concrete
determine the adjustments required in the mix (if needed).
ii.Controlled concrete: The concrete for which mix is designed after carrying out preliminary test is called
controlled concrete.
iii. Ordinary concrete: The concrete mixing adopted without carrying out preliminary test is called
ordinary concrete.
Note: Student should know that for all important civil engineering works controlled concrete should be used.
iv.Work test: A test conducted either in the field or in a laboratory, usually on the specimen made on
actual site of works, out of concrete being used in the works is called works test.
v. Nominal mix concrete: Where it is not practical to use controlled concrete, ordinary concrete of nominal
mix is used. Nominal mix grade for this type of concrete vary from M5, M7.5, M10, M15 and M20 asper I.S 456-
1978.

Methods of concrete mix design

There are various methods of mix design concrete. Some of these methods are enumerated below:
(i) Arbitrary method
(ii) Minimum void method
(iii) Maximum density method
(iv) Water-cement ratio method
(v) Fineness modulus method
(vi) Standard deviation method
(vii) American method of mix design
(viii) Graphic or Road Note method.
(ix) Indian Road Congress IRC-44 method
(x) High strength concrete mix design

9.0 CONSTRUCTION MACHINE,PLANTS AND LABOUR INTRODUCTION

Civil engineering construction (practice) requires the extensive use of construction machinery (plant) and
equipment for proper execution. Plant and equipment frequently encountered in Civil Engineering jobs include:
Bulldozers Scrapers
Graders Cranes
Loaders Hoists
Logging Arches Trenchers
Tractors Pipe Laying Equipment
Winches Compactors
Trucks Air Compressors
Poker Vibrators Concrete Mixers etc.
19
imperative to use more and more mechanical equipment in association with the available manpower for compared with
that of a factory based production unit, the mechanization of te industry has been a slow suitable equipment for any
particular project can be chosen.

CLASSES OF MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT

There are numerous ways of classifying mechanical equipment according to its:
Function
Mobility
Mode of Operation
Motivation
It is convenient in the first instance, to classify all mechanical equipment into three broad classes in accordance
with its mode of operation and production since the calculation of output is of prime consideration when making rational
(productive) selection. The classification is:
a) That where the machines have an intermittent cycle of work; -such a machine operates a series of work
cycles,each of which is a complete operation on itself. The rate at which work cycles are carried out determines the
production or output of the machine. Most earthmoving equipment falls into this category. Mechanical Shovels are typical
examples. Concrete mixers of the batch type and Pile-Drivers are examples which are not earthmovers.
b) That where the machines have a continuous flow type of production; - In this category comes most of the
equipment using pipe and/or conveyor belts for distribution purposes.This class includes pumps of all types (including
those for pumping), conveyors for distributing concrete,concrete aggregates and execrated materials, and air compressors.
c) That where the machines have intermittent production flow consequently falls between classes (an and (b
above. The class of the equipment is of the type that often operates continuously over a defined surface area but, on
completio of its particular sweep, ceases operation and has its position adjusted so as to resume production in anoher
area. An example of such an operation is the use of Grader in working on a road formation. It grades through the length
currently under construction and at the end of its sweep run, it turned, repositions, and commence grading another
sweep run. This cycle of operation is continued until the whole area to be graded is covered.

GENERAL FACTORS IN THE SELECTION OF CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT

Three of the most important points to be considered in selecting mechanical equipment for a given construction
project are:
a) Physical dimensions and nature of the work involved.
b) The duration of the project and
c)The specification for the work (cost).
Having arrived at what is necessarily an appropriate answer to these three points, the question of the
combination of manpower and machines, which is estimated will enable the work to be carried out in the best possible
time combined with the lowest possible cost, must be considered. Much discussion will take place at the pre-tender
planning stage, and during the cost estimating process, about the general construction methods which will be used for a
particular contract, and particularly so for all the major operations which make up the contract.
SELECTION PROCESS

Equipment is productivity and utilization must be given adequate consideration in the selection in profit

made. The most effective way of judging the degree of utilization often (item of mechanical)way that unit costs are

obtained.For instance, in the use of excavation machine if the hire charges are with that allowed at the tender stage,

some measure of the Actual Efficiency against Expected will be years”. Hiring of equipment is usually adopted to

balance up the contractor's mechanical equipment fleet.

10.0 MAINTENANCE
INTRODUCTION
Every machine is thoroughly tested and inspected by the manufacturers before selling it and by the
purchaser before it is put to use. When it is used, it will be subjected to wear and tear hence proper attention should
be given to protect the machine and its components from undue wear and thus protect them from failures. A proper
attention means lubrication, cleaning, timely inspection and systematic maintenance. Maintenance of a machine
means effors directed towards the up-keep and the repair of that machine.
A major part of the expenditure is generally on the men, material and maintenance in an industry.Every
machine will require repairs even if it is best designed, hence the repair must be done at such a time when it may
have least disruptions, i.e. machine may be repaired when it is not being used or its use may be postponed without
affecting the production of the whole concern. Therefore, checking of the machine is generally done when it is not in
operation, so that the defect, if any, can be immediately and easily rectified without causing extensive damage to
the plant.
In this way, we say that maintenance is responsible for the smooth and efficient working of an industry and
helps in improving the productivity. It also helps in keeping the machines in a state of maximum efficiency with
economy.

Maintenance Department
Success of manufacturing concern largely depends on its organization and the proper selection of persons
engaged for the design and operation work. Production in the concern depends largely on the maintenance of
plants. Hence, the organization of the maintenance should be such that a proper maintenance and over hauls etc.
can be done economically and effectively. Maintenance department is generally kept under the control of works
manager, who is responsible for the production.

TYPES OF MAINTENANCE

Generally, maintenance can be done in the following two ways:

1.Breakdown maintenance.
2.Preventive maintenance.
In the first case of maintenance, repair can be done after the breakdown occurs while in the second case
maintenance is done on the basis of prediction or on the basis of periodical checking.

BREAKDOWN MAINTENANCE
Breakdown of a machine can occur due to the following two reasons:
(i) due to unpredictable failure of components which cannot be prevented;
(ii) due to gradual wear and tear of the parts,which can be eliminated to a large extent by regular be replaced,so that

breakdown can be avoided. In reakdown maintenance, defects are rectified only when the maintenance engineer for

the repairs.After repairing the defect,the maintenance engineers do not attend to the machine again until another

failure occurs.
In this type of maintenance, repair shall have to be done on failure, thus it may disrupt the whole
depreciation cost, payment to idle operators, overtime to the maintenance staff for doing the emergency repairs.

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
Preventive maintenance is sometimes termed as “planned maintenance” or “scheduled maintenance" or
"systematic plant maintenance" etc. It is an extremely important function for the reduction of maintenance cost and
to keep the good operational condition of equipment and hence increases the reliability. Preventive maintenance
aims to locate the sources of trouble and to remove them before breakdown occurs. Thus it is based on the idea
“prevention is better than cure”. Scheduled maintenance is always economical than unscheduled maintenance, as we
all know that “a stitch in time saves nine”. Best safeguard against costly breakdowns is to inspect, lubricate and
checkup the equipment as frequently as possible. To take full use of equipment and to maintain it reliable condition,
necessary measures should be taken to prevent overloading, dampness, negligence and misuse of machines

Objects
Preventive maintenance has following main objects:
1. To obtain maximum availability of the plant by avoiding breakdowns and by reducing the shutdown periods
to a minimum.
2. To keep the machine in proper condition so as to maintain the quality of the product.
3.By minimizing the wear and tear, preserve the value of the plant.
4. To ensure for the safety of the workers.
5. To keep the plant at the maximum production efficiency.
6.To achieve all the above objectives with most economical combination.

FUNCTIONS OR ELEMENT OF PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE.

Following are some of the important functions of the preventive maintenance Programmed:
1.Inspection or checkups.
2.Lubrication.
3.Planning and scheduling.
4. Records and analysis.
5. Training of maintenance staff.
6. Storage of spare parts.

1. Inspection or checkups. Inspection is an essential function of the preventive maintenance Programmed.

Crews kept for this purpose should be well trained. These crews carry out both the external and internal inspection.
External inspection means to watch for and detect defects from abnormal sound,vibration,heat,smoke etc, when
machine is in operation; while internal inspection means inspection of internal parts, such as gears, bushes,bearings,
tolerances in the parts etc., during the period when the machine is under planned shutdowns.
etc..give good performance for long periods, when they are systematically lubricated. Systematically right
place and in right quantity. For lubrication, a schedule should be prepared and should be followed strictly.

on the basis of the analysis done on the past records. A scheduled Programmed thus prepared should be monthly,half
yearly or yearly attention.

training is essential for the maintenance personnel.Hence, the technicians and supervisors are trained to carry out
maintenance, inspection and repairs in a systematic way.

5. Storage of Spare Parts: Sometimes machine remains idle for want of spare parts for considerable time and
thus it affects considerably loss of production. But the judgment and experience of high order is required for deciding
the number of such parts, as storage of a large number of parts must be determined by considering different factors
such as source of supply, delivery period and availabiliy of that spare part in the market. Standardization will help to
reduce the spare parts inventory and wil1 also help in specialization of maintenance of particular type of machine.

ADVANTAGES OF PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

Following are some of the important advantages of efficiently planned and well executed preventive
maintenance Programmed:
(i) Reduction in production downtime.
(ii) Lesser overtime pay for maintenance personnel.
(iii) Lesser number of standby equipment's is needed.
(iv) Less expenditure on repairs.
(v) Due to planned spare parts replacement, lesser spare parts are needed to store at all times.
(vi) Greater safety to employees because of reduced breakdowns.
Maintenance Procedure
Maintenance should be done considering all the above mentioned factors. Daily maintenance is done by the
operators themselves. Before starting the work of their shift, cleaning, oiling and greasing should be done by the
operators. For this purpose, manufacturers used to issue maintenance instructions for their machines, which should
strictly be followed.
Preventive maintenance of the machine depends largely on the operators. Hence, as far as possible,one
operator for each machine be allotted; and when the same machine is used in more than one shift one operator for
each machine for each shift be allotted. This system has following advantages:
(i) An operator gets used to the sound and working of his machine and notices any change
immediately, which helps in ivestigation and rectification of the defect then and there. If operators
are changed frequently, immediate check -up and timely repair cannot be possible.
(ii) It is easy to pin-point operators with bad operating habits, to remove these habits training
can be arranged or disciplinary actions can be taken as the case may be.
 (iii) The machine will remain in good conditions.
purpose. The period should be decided on the basis of past experiences as explained earlier. Apart from this,
operating instructions should carefully be followed by the operators.

REQUIREMENTS FOR GOOD PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

For achieving preventive maintenanceof high order, following are some of the essential requirements:
1) Good supervision and administration of maintenance department.
2) Proper conrol of work i.e. priority be fixed with care and after consultation with production
engineering department.
3) Correct, clear and detailed instructions are given to the maintenance crew and to the
operators.
4) Operators should be well trained.
5) A good lubrication Programmed should be chalked out.
6) Proper maintenance record should be chalked out.
7) Adequate stock of spares should always be kept.
8) Surroundings should be dust free and clean with proper ventilation and illumination.
9) Manufacturers of the machine should be consulted as and when required.
10)Maintenance department should remain in contact with planning and purchasing
department in deciding the type of machine tools to be purchased.

11.0 EFFECTIVE METHODS OF TRANSFERRING KNOWLEDGE

AND SKILLS TO SUBORDINATES.

INTRODUCTION
a) Knowledge, as it relates to engineering practice, could be defined as, the information obtained,by
way of formal or informal education or training project. In other words, knowledge is a power that motivates
the principal actors of an engineering project in carrying out their duties specifically and efficiently.Hence
knowledge is acquired through a training process.

b) Skill, on the other hand, could be defined, also as it relates to engineering practice, as the ability to
apply acquired knowledge in order to get desired results. Skill is the technological know-how for certain
engineering operations. Skill should improve with experience gained on the job.

c)Knowledge and skill are, therefore, complimentary in the execution of engineering projects as
knowledge without skill could produce slow and uneconomical results, while skill without knowledge of the
fundamental could yield unsafe and uncertain results. Knowledge and skill, hence, must be transferred from
one part of the engineering organizational structure into the other so as to be able to obtain reliable results
from the project execution. The process of transfer of knowledge and skill by a superior to a subordinate is an
art on its own, which when carefully studied and understood by the superior becomes a skill.