NETWORK MODELS

• A network uses a combination of hardware and software to send

data from one location to another
—Hardware consists of the physical equipment that carries signals
from one point of the network to another
—The task of sending a piece of information from one point in the
works to another can be broken into several tasks, each
performed by a separate software package
• Each piece of software uses the services of another software
package do its job
• At the lowest layer, a signal is sent from the source to the
destination computer
• In this part we will see a general idea of layers of a network and
discus the functions of each one
 LAYERED TASKS
We use the concept off layers in our daily life.. As an example,, let us consider
two friends who communicate through postal mail.
The process off sending a letter to a friend would be complex if there were no
services available from the post office.
Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational
body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. Almost three-fourths
of countries in the world are represented in the ISO. An ISO standard that covers all
aspects of network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It
was first introduced in the late 1970s.

The OSI model

 Peer-to-peer processes
• The Processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer are
called peer-to-peer processes.
• Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the
message it receives from the layer above it and passes the whole
package to the layer just below it.
• At the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer by layer,
with each process receiving and removing the data meant for it.
• Passing of the data and network information down through the layers
of the sending device and back up through the layers of the receiving
device is made possible by an interface between each pair of adjacent
layers.
• Each interface defines what information and services a layer must
provide for the layer above it. Thus, provide modularity.
Peer-to-peer processes
Encapsulation
LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
 Physical Layer
• To transmit a bit stream over a physical medium Physical layer
coordinates the functions required.

• The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
 Physical Layer
• Physical layer is concerned with the following:
(deal with the mechanical and electrical specification of the
primary connections: cable, connector)
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium
 Representation of bits
 Data rate : transmission rate
 Synchronization of bits
 Line configuration
 Physical topology
 Transmission mode
 Data Link Layer

• The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.
 Data Link Layer
• Major duties
 Framing
 Physical addressing
 Flow control
 Error control
 Access control
Process acknowledgement frames
Recognize frame boundaries
Handle duplicate frames
 Data Link Layer
• Hop-to-hop (node-to-node) delivery
 Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual
packets from the source host to the destination host.
 Network Layer
• Logical addressing
• Routing
 Network Layer
• Major duties
 Routing information (static / dynamic)
Congestion control
Accounting and billing function based on how
many bits are sent by each customer.
Resolve different issues when pkt arrives from one
network to another (like different addressing,
different protocols, etc.)
In broadcast network routing problem is simple, so
network layer is thin or even non-exestant.
 Transport Layer
 The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one
process to another.
Transport Layer
 Transport Layer
• Accepts data from session layer, split and pass to
network layer.
• Determines type of service i.e. error free point-to-
point channel, broadcasting etc.
• End to End layer
• Service port addressing
• Segmentation and reassembly
• Connection control
• Flow control
• Error control
 Session Layer
• The session layer is responsible for dialog control and
synchronization.
 Session Layer
• Primary job is to establish sessions

• Services are token management,

synchronization, and download manager.
 Presentation Layer
• The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption
 Presentation layer
• Concerned with syntax and semantics of the
information transmitted.
• Encoding
• Decoding
• Codes
• Data compression
• Cryptography
 Application Layer
• The application layer is responsible for providing services to
the user.
 Application Layer
• The major duties of the application
 Network virtual terminal
 File transfer, access, and management
 Mail services
 Directory services
Summary of OSI Layers

25
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
The TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network,
transport, and application. The first four layers provide physical standards,
network interface, internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the
first four layers of the OSI model. The three topmost layers in the OSI model,
however, are represented in TCP/IP by a single layer called the application layer.

26
TCP/IP and OSI model

27
 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses
 Addresses

Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP

 Physical Addresses
Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
 Physical Addresses
• In computer networks a physical address means a MAC
(Medium Access Control) address.
• Also known as Ethernet Hardware Address (EHA) or
hardware address or adapter address
• It is a number that acts like a name for a particular network
adapter, eg. the network cards
• The physical address, also known as the link address, is the
address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN.
• It is included in the frame used by the data link layer.
 The physical addresses have authority over the network (LAN or
WAN).
 The size and format of these addresses vary depending on the network.
 Physical Addresses (cont’d)

Example 2.1

In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a

frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure
shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the sender,
and the computer with physical address 87 is the receiver.
 Physical Addresses (cont’d)

Figure 2.19 Physical addresses

 Physical Addresses (cont’d)

Example 2.2
As we will see, most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-
byte) physical address written as 12 hexadecimal digits;
every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon,
as shown below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

 Logical Addresses
• In computer networks, a logical address refers to a network
layer address such as an IP address.
• An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique address
that certain electronic devices use in order to identify and
communicate with each other on a computer network utilizing
the Internet Protocol standard (IP)
• Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications
that are independent of underlying physical networks.
 Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork environment
where different networks can have different address formats.
 A universal addressing system is needed in which host can be
identified uniquely, regardless of the underlying physical network.
 Logical Addresses (cont’d)

Example 2.3
Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers
connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or router)
has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each
connection. In this case, each computer is connected to
only one link and therefore has only one pair of addresses.
Each router, however, is connected to three networks (only
two are shown in the figure). So each router has three
pairs of addresses, one for each connection.
 Logical Addresses (cont’d)
Figure 2.20 IP addresses

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.
 Port Addresses
• The IP and the physical address are necessary for a quantity
of data to travel from a source to the destination host.
• The end object of Internet communication is a process
communicating with another process.
• For these processes to receive data simultaneously, we need a
method to label assigned to a process is called a port address.
• A port address in TCP/IP is 16 bits in length.
 Port Addresses (cont’d)

Example 2.4

Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the

Internet. The sending computer is running three processes
at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving
computer is running two processes at this time with port
addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer
needs to communicate with process j in the receiving
computer. Note that although physical addresses change
from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain the
same from the source to destination.
 Port Addresses (cont’d)
Figure 2.21 Port addresses

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.
 Port Addresses (cont’d)

Example 2.5

As we will see in Chapter 23, a port address is a 16-bit

address represented by one decimal number as shown.

753
A 16-bit port address represented
as one single number.
 Specific Addresses
• Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are
designed for that specific address.
 E-mail address
 URL (Universal Resource Locator)