UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Introduction to Soil Mechanics:

The term "soil" can have different meanings, depending upon the field in which it is
considered.

To a geologist, it is the material in the relative thin zone of the Earth's surface within
which roots occur, and which are formed as the products of past surface processes. The
rest of the crust is grouped under the term "rock". To a pedologist, it is the substance
existing on the surface, which supports plant life.

To an engineer, it is a material that can be:

 Built on: foundations of buildings, bridges.

 Built in: basements, culverts, tunnels.
 Built with: embankments, roads, dams.
 Supported: retaining walls.

Soil Mechanics is a discipline of Civil Engineering involving the study of soil, its
behaviour and application as an engineering material. Soil Mechanics is the application
of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with sediments and
other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles, which are produced by the
mechanical and chemical disintegration of rocks, regardless of whether or not they
contain an admixture of organic constituents.

Soil consists of a multiphase aggregation of solid particles, water, and air. This
fundamental composition gives rise to unique engineering properties, and the description
of its mechanical behavior requires some of the most classic principles of engineering
mechanics.

Engineers are concerned with soil's mechanical properties: permeability, stiffness, and
strength. These depend primarily on the nature of the soil grains, the current stress, the
water content and unit weight.

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Formation of Soils

In the Earth's surface, rocks extend upto as much as 20 km depth. The major rock types
are categorized as igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

 Igneous rocks: formed from crystalline bodies of cooled magma.

 Sedimentary rocks: formed from layers of cemented sediments.
 Metamorphic rocks: formed by the alteration of existing rocks due to heat from
igneous intrusions or pressure due to crustal movement.

Soils are formed from materials that have resulted from the disintegration of rocks by
various processes of physical and chemical weathering. The nature and structure of a
given soil depends on the processes and conditions that formed it:

 Breakdown of parent rock: weathering, decomposition, erosion.

 Transportation to site of final deposition: gravity, flowing water, ice, wind.
 Environment of final deposition: flood plain, river terrace, glacial moraine,
lacustrine or marine.
 Subsequent conditions of loading and drainage: little or no surcharge, heavy
surcharge due to ice or overlying deposits, change from saline to freshwater,
leaching, contamination.

All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from different rock types.

Soil Types

Soils as they are found in different regions can be classified into two broad categories:

(1)Residualsoils
(2) Transported soils

Residual Soils
Residual soils are found at the same location where they have been formed. Generally,
the depth of residual soils varies from 5 to 20 m.

Transported Soils
Weathered rock materials can be moved from their original site to new locations by one
or more of the transportation agencies to form transported soils. Transported soils are
classified based on the mode of transportation and the final deposition environment.

(a) Soils that are carried and deposited by rivers are called alluvial deposits.

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(b) Soils that are deposited by flowing water or surface runoff while entering a lake are
called lacustrine deposits. Alternate layers are formed in different seasons depending on
flow rate.

(c) If the deposits are made by rivers in sea water, they are called marine deposits.
Marine deposits contain both particulate material brought from the shore as well as
organic remnants of marine life forms.

(d) Melting of a glacier causes the deposition of all the materials scoured by it leading to
formation of glacial deposits.

(e) Soil particles carried by wind and subsequently deposited are known as aeolian
deposits.

SOIL FORMATION AND SOIL TYPES

Soils are the fundamental resource supporting agriculture and forestry, as well as
contributing to the aesthetics of a green planet. They are also a base from which minerals
are extracted and to which solid wastes are disposed. In addition, soils act as a medium
and filter for collection and movement of water. By supporting plant growth, soil
becomes a major determinant of atmospheric composition and therefore earth's climate.

ORIGIN OF SOILS

Soils are formed by weathering of rocks due to mechanical disintegration or chemical

decomposition. When a rock surface gets exposed to atmosphere for an appreciable time,
it disintegrates or decomposes into small particles and thus the soils are formed.

FORMATION OF SOILS

Soils are formed either by (A) Physical Disintegration or (B) Chemical decomposition of
rocks.

A. PHYSICAL DISINTEGRATION

Physical disintegration or mechanical weathering of rocks occurs due to the

following physical processes:

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1. Temperature changes
Different minerals of rocks have different coefficients of thermal expansion.
Unequal expansion and contraction of these minerals occur due to temperature changes.
When the stresses induced due to such changes are repeated many times, the particles get
detached from the rocks and the soils are formed.

2. Wedging action of ice

Water in the pores and minute cracks of rocks gets frozen in very cold climates.
As the volume of ice formed is more than that of water, expansion occurs. Rocks get
broken into pieces when large stresses develop in the cracks due to wedging action of the
ice formed.

3. Spreading of roots of plants

As the roots of trees and shrubs grow in the cracks and fissures of the rocks,
forces act on the rocks. The segments of the rock are forced apart and disintegration of
rocks occurs.

4. Abrasion
As water, wind and glaciers move over the surface of rock, abrasion and scouring
takes place. It results in the formation of soils.
Note: In all the processes of physical disintegration, there is no change in the chemical
composition. The soil formed has the properties of the parent rock. Coarse grained soils,
such as gravel and sand, are formed by the process of physical disintegration.

B. CHEMICAL DECOMPOSITION
When chemical decomposition or chemical weathering of rocks takes place,
original rock minerals are transformed into new minerals by chemical reactions. The soils
formed do not have the properties of the parent rock. The following chemical processes
generally occur in nature:

1. Hydration
In hydration, water combines with rock minerals and results in the formation of a
new chemical compound. The chemical reaction causes a change in volume and
decomposition of rock into small particles.
An example of hydration reaction that is taking place in soils is the hydrolysis of
SiO2

SiO2+ 2H2 O Si(OH)4

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2. Carbonation

It is a type of chemical decomposition in which carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

combines with water to form carbonic acid. The carbonic acid reacts chemically with
rocks and causes their decomposition.
The example for this type of is, that is taking place in sedimentary rocks which
contain calcium carbonate.

3. Oxidation
Oxidation occurs when oxygen ions combine with minerals in rock. Oxidation
results in decomposition of rocks. Oxidation of rocks is somewhat similar to rusting of
steel.

4. Solution
Some of the rock minerals form a solution with water when they get dissolved in
water. Chemical reaction takes place in the solution and the soils are formed.

5. Hydrolysis
It is a chemical process in which water gets dissociated into H+ and OH- ions. The
hydrogen cations replace the metallic ions such as calcium, sodium and potassium in rock
minerals and soils are formed with a new chemical composition.

Note: Chemical decomposition of rocks result in the formation of clay minerals. The clay
minerals impart plastic properties of soils. Clayey soils are formed by chemical
decomposition.

TRANSPORTATION OF SOILS

The soils formed at a place may be transported to other places by agents of

transportation, such as water, ice, wind and gravity.

1. Water transported soils

Flowing water is one of the most important agents of transportation of soils. the
size of the soil particles carried by water depends upon the velocity. The swift water can
carry the particles of large size such as boulders and gravels. With a decrease in velocity,
the coarser particles get deposited. The finer particles are carried further downstream and
deposited when the velocity reduces. A delta is formed when the velocity slows down to
almost zero at the confluence with a receiving body of still water such as lake, a sea or an
ocean.

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 All types of soils carried and deposited by water are known as alluvial deposits.
Deposits made in lakes are called lacustrine deposits. Marine deposits are formed when
the following water carries soils to ocean or sea.

2. Wind transported soils

Soil particles are transported by winds. the particle size of the soil depends on the
velocity of wind. The finer particles are carried far away from the place of the formation.
Soil deposits by wind are known as Aeolian deposits.
Large sand dunes are formed by winds. Sand dunes occur in arid regions and on
the lee ward side of the sea with sandy beaches.
Loess is a silt deposit made by wind. These deposits have low density and high
compressibility. The bearing capacity of such soils is very low. The permeability in
vertical direction is large.

3. Glacier- deposited soils

Glaciers are large masses of ice formed by the compaction of snow. As the
glaciers grow and move, they carry with them soils varying in size from fine grained to
huge boulders. Soils get mixed with ice and are transported far away from their original
position.
BASIC BEFINITIONS

A soil mass consists of solid particles which form a porous structure. The voids in the soil
mass may be filled with air, water or partly with water and partly with water. Soil is a
three phase system in general.

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VOLUMETRIC RELATIONSHIPS
Void Ratio
Void ratio is the volume of voids to the volume of solids. It is denoted by ‘e’
e=Vv/Vs
It is expressed as a decimal.
Porosity
It is defined as the ratio of volume of voids to the total volume. It is denoted by ‘n’
n=Vv/V
It is generally expressed as a percentage
1/n=V/Vv= (Vv+vs)/Vv
1/n= 1+ (1/e) = (1+e)/e
n=e/ (1+e) (a)
1/e= (1/n)-1= (1-n)/n
e=n/ (1-n) (b)
In equations (a) and (b), the porosity should be expressed as a ratio and not percentage.

Degree of saturation
The degree of saturation is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids. It is
denoted by ‘S’.
S=Vw/Vv
The degree of saturation generally expressed as a percentage. It is equal to zero when the
soil is absolutely dry and 100% when the soil is fully saturated.

Percentage air voids

It is the ratio of volume of air to the total volume.
na= Va/V
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It is also expressed as a percentage.

Air content
Air content is defined as the ratio of the volume of air to the volume of voids
ac= Va/Vv
Also,
na=n ac
Water content
The water content (w) is defined as the ratio of the mass of water to the mass of soilids
w= Mw/Ms
It is also known as the moisture content (m). It is expressed as a percentage but used as a
decimal in computation.

VOLUME-MASS RELATIONSHIPS

1. BULK MASS DENSITY

The bulk mass density (ρ) is defined as the total mass (M) per unit volume (V)

ρ=M/V

2. DRY MASS DENSITY

The dry mass density (ρd) is defined as the mass of solids per unit total volume
ρd= Ms/V

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3. SATURATED MASS DENSITY
The saturated mass density (ρsat) is the bulk density of the soil when it is fully
saturated
ρsat= Msat/V

4. SUBMERGED MASS DENSITY

When the soil exists below water, it is in a submerged condition. The submerged
mass density (ρ') of the soil is defined as the submerged mass per unit total volume.
ρ'= Msub/V

5. MASS DENSITY OF SOLIDS

The mass density of solids (ρs) is equal to the ratio of the mass of solids to the
volume of solids
ρs=Ms/Vs

VOLUME-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIPS

1. Bulk Unit Weight (γ)= W/V

2. Dry Unit Weight (γd) = Ws/V
3. Saturated Unit Weight (γsat) = Wsat/V
4. Submerged Unit Weight (γsub or γ') = Wsub/V
5. Unit Weight Of Soil Solids (γs) = Ws/Vs

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLIDS

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The specific gravity of soil particles (G) is defined as the ratio of the mass of a given
volume of solids to the mass of an equal volume of water at 4° C.
G = ρs/ρw
The mass density of water ρw at 4°C is 1gm/ml, 1000 kg/m3 or 1 Mg/m3

BASIC RELATIONSHIPS

Sl No Relationship in mass density Relationship in unit weight

1 n = e/(1+e) n = e/(1+e)

2 e = n/(1-n) e = n/(1-n)

3 na = n ac na = n ac

4 ρ = (G+Se)ρw/(1+e) γ= (G+Se) γ w/(1+e)

5 ρd = Gρw/(1+e) γd = G γ w/(1+e)

6 ρsat = (G+e)ρw/(1+e) γsat = (G+e) γ w/(1+e)

7 ρ' = (G-1)ρw/(1+e) γ' = (G-1) γ w/(1+e)

8 e = wG/s e = wG/s

9 ρd = ρ/(1+w) γd = γ /(1+w)

10 ρd = (1-na)G ρw/(1+wG) γd = (1-na)G γ w/(1+wG)

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WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION

The water content of the soil is an important parameter that controls its behaviour. It is a
quantitative measure of the wetness of the soil mass. The water content of the soil can be
determined by any one of the following methods
1. Oven drying method
2. Torsion balance method
3. Pycnometer method
4. Sand bath method
5. Alcohol method
6. Calcium carbide method
7. Radiation method

SPECIFIC GRAVITY DETERMINATION

The specific gravity of solid particles is determined in the laboratory using the following
methods
1. Density bottle method
2. Pycnometer method
3. Measuring flask method
4. Gas jar method
5. Shrinkage limit method

MEASUREMENT OF MASS DENSITY

The following methods are generally used for the determination of mass density
1. Water displacement method
2. Submerged mass density method
3. Core cutter method
4. Sand replacement method
5. Water Balloon method
6. Radiation method

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 PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS

MECHANICAL ANALYSIS

The mechanical analysis, also known as particle size analysis, is a method of

separation of soils in to different fractions based on particle size. It expresses
quantitatively the proportions, by mass of various sizes of particles present in the soil. It
is shown graphically in a particle size distribution curve.
The mechanical analysis is done in two stages
1. Sieve analysis
2. Sedimentation analysis

SIEVE ANALYSISIS

This test is meant for coarse grained soils (particle size greater than 75 microns)
which can easily pass through a set of sieves. The sieves used are 80mm, 40mm, 20mm,
10mm, 4.75mm, 2mm, 1mm, 600μ, 425μ, 212μ, 150μ, 75μ. The selection of the required
number of sieves is done to obtain a good particle size distribution curve. The sieves are
stacked one over the other, with decreasing size from top to bottom. A lid or cover is
placed at the top and a pan, which has no opening, is placed at the bottom. Sieve analysis
includes dry sieve analysis and wet sieve analysis.

Fig: Set of IS Sieves

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 Fig: Set of IS Sieves

Fig: Illustrates Sieve Analysis test procedure

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Fig: Illustrates Sieve Analysis test procedure

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 Fig: Illustrates Sieve Analysis test procedure

SEDIMENTATION ANALYSIS

Sedimentation analysis is also known as wet analysis. it is used for particle size less than
75 microns. The analysis is based on Stoke’s law. it includes preparation of suspension
for the test. About 50g of soil is weighed and transferred to an evaporating dish. To have
proper dispersion of soil, 100ml of a dispersion solution is added to the soil. The soil is
washed into a 1000ml jar and enough water is added to make 1000ml suspension. it
include Pipette method and Hydrometer analysis.
Sedimentation analysis is also known as wet analysis. it is used for particle size less than
75 microns. The analysis is based on Stoke’s law. it includes preparation of suspension
for the test. About 50g of soil is weighed and transferred to an evaporating dish. To have
proper dispersion of soil, 100ml of a dispersion solution is added to the soil. The soil is
washed into a 1000ml jar and enough water is added to make 1000ml suspension. it
include Pipette method and Hydrometer analysis.

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 100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)

Fig: Particle size distribution graph

100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)

Fig: Grading curves of Well graded soil

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COMBINED SIEVE AND SEDIMENTATION ANALYSIS

If the soil mass consists of both coarse grained and fine grained soils, a combined
analysis is done. The slurry of the soil is made as mentioned in the wet analysis. The
slurry is sieved through a 4.75mm IS sieve. The material retained on the sieve is oven
dried and coarse sieve analysis is done. The material retained on 75mm IS sieve is also
oven dried and the sieve analysis is done using the set of fine sieves. The suspension
passing through 75 micron sieve is mixed with a deflocculating agent and the hydrometer
test is performed on the suspension.

PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

The particle size distribution curve also known as a gradation curve represents the
distribution of particles of different sizes in the soil mass. The percentage finer ‘N’ is
plotted as the ordinate and the particle size as abscissa. From the graph, the soil can be
classified as gap graded (skip graded), well graded and uniform soils.

100

80
hydrometer sieve
% Passing

60
fines sands gravels

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D10 = 0.013 mm
20
D D30 = 0.47 mm
30
D60 = 7.4 mm
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Grain size (mm)

Fig: Illustrates Particle Size Distribution Curve

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RELATIVE DENSITY

The most important index aggregate property of a cohesionless soil is its relative
density (Dr), is also known as density index (ID). The relative density is defined as,
Dr = [(emax-e) / (emax-emin)] x 100
Where, emax = maximum void ratio of the soil in the loosest condition
emin = minimum void ratio of the soil in the densest condition
e = void ratio in the natural state

Fig: Volume reduction from compaction of granular soil

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PLASTICITY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SOIL

PLASTICITY OF SOIL
The plasticity of the soil is its ability to undergo deformation without cracking or
fracturing. Plasticity of the soil is due to the presence of clay minerals.

Fig: Shows Plastic limit test apparatus

CONSISTENCY LIMITS
The consistency of a fine grained soil is the physical state in which it exists. it is
used to denote the degree of firmness of the soil. Consistency of the soil is indicated by
the terms soft, firm or hard. The water content at which the soil changes from one state to
another is known as Consistency limits or Atterberg’s limits.

Plasticity Index = Liquid Limit – Plastic Limit

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 Low plasticity w = < 35%
L

Intermediate plasticity w = 35 - 50%

L

High plasticity w = 50 - 70%

L

Very high plasticity w = 70 - 90%

L

Extremely high plasticity w = > 90%

L

LIQUID LIMIT
The water content at which the soil changes from the liquid state to the plastic
state is known as the liquid limit (LL, Wl)

Fig: Shows Liquid limit test apparatus

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