National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

NASA’s Lunar Communications

and Navigation Architecture

white paper
I. Introduction • Crew voice and data communications.
NASA’s Artemis missions will return humanity • Video for scientific data collection, public
to the Moon, establishing a long-term presence outreach, and crew safety.
there and opening more of the lunar surface to • Science data transmissions across:
exploration than ever before. This rapid growth » Direct-to-Earth communications.
of lunar activity requires robust and resilient » Communications among surface
communications, navigation, and networking assets, orbiting relays, and Gateway,
capabilities for crew safety, command and NASA’s lunar-orbitting space station.
control of spacecraft, return of science data, » Lunar surface-to-surface
and precise maneuvering of assets in space and communications.
on the lunar surface.
PNT use cases include providing position and
Within the Moon to Mars Architecture,[1] the timing of lunar samples, to crew navigating the
Communications, Position, Navigation, and surface, for landings and ascents, and to other
Timing (CPNT) sub-architecture details the cislunar assets. NASA will lead a distributed
specific CPNT systems, functions, and use team of government, commercial, and
cases required to meet the NASA’s Moon to international partners to implement the CPNT
Mars Objectives throughout each segment of sub-architecture on Earth, in cislunar space,
the architecture. The CPNT sub-architecture and on the lunar surface.
through the Human Lunar Return segment —
approximately through Artemis V — is detailed Cooperation among multiple service providers
here. and users across government, industry, and
international partners requires coordination
The architecture development effort utilizes and planning through established and new
an objectives-based approach that focuses on interface and operations standards. This will
the ultimate goals of human exploration of the enable a long-term, scalable, and interoperable
Moon, Mars, and beyond.[2] The three objectives architecture that provides communications
most fundamental to the CPNT sub-architecture services across all the assets.
are:
Beginning with the initial Human Lunar Return
• Develop a lunar surface, orbital, and Moon- segment of the architecture, a variety of 2023 Moon to
Mars Architecture
to-Earth communications architecture interface standards will enable interoperability.
that scales to support long-term science, These include the LunaNet Interoperability
exploration, and industrial needs. Specification, the International Communication
• Develop a lunar position, navigation, and Systems Interoperability Standard, terrestrial
timing (PNT) architecture that also scales to wireless cellular standards, and other similar
support long term science, exploration, and coordination with industry and international
industrial needs. partners.[3,4,5]
• Preserve and protect representative
features of special interest, including the LunaNet is an internationally coordinated
shielded zone of the Moon. framework for lunar interoperability, envisioned
as a set of cooperating networks providing
II. Lunar Communications Architecture communications, navigation, and other services
The CPNT sub-architecure enables for users on and around the Moon. The LunaNet
communication and navigation on the lunar concept is based on a structure of mutually
surface, in cislunar space, and with Earth. Use agreed-upon standards, protocols, and interface
cases allocated to the CPNT sub-architecture requirements that enable interoperability.
include:

2023 Moon to Mars Architecture Concept Review 1

The International Communication Systems Interoperability Standard was developed to enable collaborative
operations. These systems provide end-to-end compatibility and interoperability between a cislunar space platform,
visiting spacecraft, lunar systems, and Earth.

Figure 1 illustrates the principal CPNT architecture during early exploration segments, including Human Lunar Return.
[6]
Ground stations from multiple providers offer connectivity direct to the lunar surface and to communications relays
or assets in lunar orbit. Surface communications occur between crew and landing vehicles using a wireless network.
Equipped surface assets communicate with Gateway and via orbital relays to Earth.

Figure 1. The CPNT Architecture for Early Lunar Exploration

A. Direct-to-Earth Communications
For users near the lunar South Pole, communications Direct-to-Earth communications for Gateway and lunar
with Earth are complicated by the orbital geometry of the missions will be supported by NASA’s Deep Space
Earth-Moon system. The Moon’s orbital inclination — the Network facilities, NASA’s Near Space Network’s future
tilt of its orbit around Earth — and obliquity — the tilt of its Lunar Exploration Ground Systems, the European Space
rotational axis — cause Earth to be visible from the lunar Agency’s European Space Tracking (ESTRACK) network,
South Pole for only about half of every sidereal month, and commercial ground assets. Together, these will
the time it takes the Moon to orbit once around Earth provide near-continuous coverage to Gateway and the
(approximately 14 days). This will require deployment of lunar South Pole when in Earth’s view.
orbiting relays to maintain continuous communications.
Projected communication needs beyond Human Lunar
Furthermore, the topography of the polar regions is Return are expected to exceed the planned radio
unlike the lunar maria, the large plains visited by the frequency communications capacity. Future optical
Apollo missions, or any region on Earth. For example, communications capabilities, which use infrared lasers to
Shackleton Crater — a dominant feature of the lunar provide higher data throughput, will accommodate the
South Pole — is over two times deeper than the Grand increased data volume at the Moon.
Canyon. Nearby regions of interest are challenging for
rovers and astronauts to traverse and safely navigate B. Orbiting Communication Relays
while maintaining reliable communications. To close the gaps in direct-to-Earth communications,
NASA is pursuing commercial satellite services to provide
Additionally, when Earth is visible from the lunar South connectivity for missions on the lunar surface and in
Pole, it is always seen near the Moon’s horizon. The lunar cislunar space. These providers will employ lunar-orbiting
terrain can also adversely affect communications signals relay satellites with downlinks to commercial ground
traveling over it.[7] stations on Earth. Additionally, Gateway will provide

2023 Moon to Mars Architecture Concept Review 2

communication links and limited PNT functions for exploration range and mobility and the aggregation
surface and in-orbit users. International space agencies of data between a variety of science users.
are also considering lunar communications relays, which
may hold potential for collaboration. Figure 2 illustrates the anticipated excursion ranges (e.g.,
a 2km extravehicular activity range) with different surface
The Lunar Communications Relay and Navigation Services networking implementations, compared to exploration
project will provide consistent availability, visibility, and distances of Apollo 17.[9] Specific communications range
higher data rates for surface users. With multiple relays distances can extend beyond those illustrated in the figure
incrementally launched, the project can offer phased and with varying data throughput. These ranges will also vary
incremental coverage of the South Pole region.[3] Early by system design choices and other considerations.
implementations will also offer preliminary PNT services
as a stepping stone to a more robust, dedicated capability The combination of proposed approaches should
beyond the Human Lunar Return segment. meet exploration requirements. Range needs will vary
by mission, driven by exploration objectives, crew
C. Surface Communications mobility capabilities, and landing site considerations
NASA is pursuing trade studies on different approaches and constraints, such as terrain, slope, and regolith
to lunar surface networking to select implementations displacement due to landing.
that best meet the exploration requirements. These
potential approaches include: During the Human Lunar Return segment, initial CPNT
• Adapting NASA’s Space-to-Space Communication infrastructure concepts, capability, and hardware
System — a two-way communications system elements will be demonstrated through technology
designed to provide voice and telemetry data between demonstrations and initial operational support. The
the space shuttle orbiter, the International Space expansion to longer term, sustainable implementation
Station, and the Extra Vehicular Activity Mobility Unit of a lunar surface network will occur during subsequent
— at ultra-high frequency for voice communications. segments, incorporating advancements and lessons
• Using Wi-Fi for close-proximity high-rate video learned from technology demonstrations.
communications.
• Leveraging terrestrial wireless cellular standards for
scalable, longer range, high-throughput connectivity
with PNT services.[8] Such a network could enhance

Figure 2. A Comparison of Estimated Ranges for Several Surface Network Implementations,

Plotted against the Longest Apollo-era Traverses with the Lunar Roving Vehicle during Apollo 17.

2023 Moon to Mars Architecture Concept Review 3

III. Lunar Position, Navigation, This will begin with PNT provided by Earth-based tracking
and Timing Architecture and surface elements, and expand to services provided
The lunar PNT architecture provides core functions to by an initial relay satellite in luanr orbit. Subsequent
users on the Moon and in cislunar space. PNT capabilities to the Human Lunar Return segment, additional relay
allow lunar assets to know their current position, velocity, satellites could be supplied for a GNSS-like PNT capability
and time, and to navigate safely in lunar orbit and on the that covers the global lunar service volume.
Moon’s surface. Real-time, precise PNT services benefit the
breadth of lunar users and scenarios, including orbiters, B. User Capabilities
landers, surface exploration, and image and science In addition to using radiometric measurements from
collection. PNT needs vary from a Human Landing System Earth, lunar orbit, and surface assets, lunar users will
accuracy requirement of within 100 meters of a planned employ any number of other navigation data sources.
landing site, surface position accuracy requirement of These could include cameras and optical sensors, light
within 50 meters, and surface sample location marking detection and ranging (lidar) payloads, solar compasses,
accuracy requirement of within 10 meters. and inertial measurement units, which can use a
combination of accelerometers, gyroscopes, and other
There are a number of challenges associated with PNT on tools to determine specific force, angular rate, and
the lunar surface. Traditional methods of tracking by Earth orientation.
networks will be difficult, if not impossible, during surface
operations on the South Pole when users have limited During the Human Lunar Return phase, NASA will plan
or no line of sight to Earth. Use of GPS at the Moon is surface operations during well-illuminated conditions,
limited by the weakness of GPS signals at lunar distances, allowing missions to rely largely on orienteering with use
GPS satellite geometry, and occultation, where Earth of maps, solar compass, and inertial measurement units.
blocks GPS signals from reaching the Moon. The variable Additional sensors such as cameras or light beacons from
lighting environment and challenging terrain conditions a lunar lander will also be considered.
will make it difficult for the crew to use orienteering or
camera-based approaches. IV. Conclusion
The Moon to Mars CPNT sub-architecture defines the
NASA’s navigation architecture is comprised of both relevant functions necessary to achieve high availability,
infrastructure and user capabilities. Infrastructure high throughput communications, and accurate PNT to
includes critical reference system components and enable the safe command and control of spacecraft, the
radionavigation sources provided via communications return of science data, and precision maneuvering of
and network assets. User-side capabilities include the assets. Together, these functions will enable the long-
onboard navigation systems that collect, process, and term goals laid out in NASA’s Moon to Mars Objectives.
filter the data required to successfully navigate.
Through the Human Lunar Return segment, CPNT sub-
A. Infrastructure architecture needs will be met through a combination
Radio frequency (radiometric) sources are the most of direct-to-Earth, space-based relay, surface-to-surface
traditional means of navigation for spacecraft from communications, navigation assets, and in-situ sensors.
near-Earth to deep space. At the Moon, these sources Deep Space Network facilities, upgraded to support
will include ground stations on Earth, satellites in orbit additional Ka-band frequencies, and the Near Space
around Earth and the Moon, and assets on the lunar Network’s Lunar Exploration Ground Systems will provide
surface. near-continuous coverage of the lunar South Pole when
in view from Earth and to Gateway. The European Space
Earth-based Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Agency’s ESTRACK network will provide support for
PNT services, like those provided by the U.S. Global Gateway alongside potential commercial services from
Positioning System (GPS) constellation, can extend to ground stations and lunar relay satellites, which could
the lunar regime in certain circumstances. These GNSS also support other cislunar and surface users.
signals can aid the data diversity for resilient navigation
when combined with traditional deep space signal Commercial and international partnerships will be
tracking methods. key to developing a robust CPNT sub-architecture.
During the Human Lunar Return segment, incremental
Communications relays in lunar orbit will provide cislunar improvements will facilitate more efficient network
and surface PNT services by broadcasting reference scheduling and utilization as a first step toward a more
signals. One such approach, an augmented forward robust network management framework. These efforts
signal, combines navigation information with broadcast are intended to meet the needs of near-term exploration
data messaging. and scale to support the increasing complexity of long-
term lunar science and exploration.
During the Human Lunar Return timeframe, NASA will roll
out PNT capabilities across the early Artemis missions.

2023 Moon to Mars Architecture Concept Review 4

Contributing Authors
• Michael Zemba, NASA’s Glenn Research Center
• Karl Vaden, NASA’s Glenn Research Center
• Richard Reinhart, NASA’s Glenn Research Center
• Cheryl Gramling, NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center
• Greg Heckler, NASA Headquarters

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