Internal Combustion Engines

(Basic Terminologies, Engine Design & Performance Parameters)

Engr. Umar Ishaq

Lecturer
Department of Mechanical Engineering
UET Lahore (NWL Campus)
Heat
Amount of Energy transferred due to temperature difference is known as heat

Three different units used for heat are as follows

1. The British Thermal Unit (Btu): The heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of
water through 1 °F. (1Btu = 1.05506 kJ.)
2. The Pound Calorie or Centigrade Heat Unit (CHU): The heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 lb of water through 1 °C. (1 CHU = 1.9 kJ.)
3. The Kilogram Calorie: The heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water
through 1 °C. (1 calorie = 4.186 J.)
Work
If work is done by rotating a shaft, the quantity of work is the product of the torque or turning
moment applied to the shaft in newton metres, multiplied by the angle turned through
measured in radians.
One revolution equals 2π radians.

Maximum rated power

The highest power an engine is allowed to develop for short periods of operation.

Normal rated power

The highest power an engine is allowed to develop in continuous operation.

Rated speed
The crankshaft rotational speed at which rated power is developed.

Cylinder Geometry

Compression Ratio

Typical values of these parameters are

rc = 8 to 12 for SI engines
rc = 12 to 24 for CI engines

Engr. Umar Ishaq

Lecturer
Mechanical Engineering department, UET Lahore
Ratio of cylinder bore to piston stroke
B
Rbs =
L
B/L = 0.8 to 1.2 for small- and medium-size engines. About 0.5 for large slow-speed CI engines
In addition, the stroke and crank radius are related by

L = 2a

Ratio of connecting rod length to crank radius

l
R=
a
R = 3 to 4 for small and medium-size engines, increasing from 5 to 9 for large slow-speed CI
engines.

Instantaneous Piston Displacement

Distance between crank axis and piston pin axis can be
calculated using figure as follows:
𝟏⁄
𝒔 = 𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 + (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽) 𝟐

Hence piston instantaneous displacement from TDC

is
𝑥 =𝑙+𝑎−𝑠
𝟏⁄
𝒙 = 𝒍 + 𝒂 − 𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 − (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽) 𝟐

Mean Piston Speed

An important parameter is the mean piston speed given as below
S
̅̅̅
Sp =
ts
ω×S
̅̅̅
Sp = (as θ = ω.t)
θs

For one stroke, Stroke Length (S) = L (m), Angular speed (𝜔) = 2πN (rad) & crankshaft angle
(𝜃𝑠 )= π radians, therefore above equation can be written as
̅̅̅
𝐒𝐩 = 𝟐𝐋𝐍

Mean piston speed is more imported parameter then crank rotational speed for correlating
the engine behavior as a function of speed. For example gas flow velocities in cylinder is scale
with mean piston speed.
Engr. Umar Ishaq
Lecturer
Mechanical Engineering department, UET Lahore
Instantaneous Piston Speed
Instantaneous piston speed can be calculated as
𝐝𝐬
𝑺𝒑 =
𝐝𝐭
The piston velocity is zero at the beginning of the stroke, reaches maximum at the middle of
the stroke and decreases to zero at the end of the stroke. The ratio of Mean Piston speed to
instantaneous piston speed is given as

𝐒𝐩 𝝅 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
= 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 [𝟏 + 𝟏 ]
̅̅̅𝐩
𝐒 𝟐 (𝑹𝟐 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽) ⁄𝟐

The factors important to an engine user:

1. The engine's performance over its operating range
2. The engine's fuel consumption within this operating range and the cost of the required
fuel
3. The engine's noise and air pollutant emissions within this operating range
4. The initial cost of the engine and its installation
5. The reliability and durability of the engine, its maintenance requirements

These factors control total engine costs& are usually the primary consideration of the user.

Engine Performance
It is more precisely defined by

1. The range of speed and power over which engine operation is satisfactory
2. The maximum power (or the maximum torque) available at each speed within the
useful engine operating range
3. Specific fuel Consumption
4. Efficiency

Engr. Umar Ishaq

Lecturer
Mechanical Engineering department, UET Lahore
Engine Performance Parameters
1. Fuel Power
When a certain mass of fuel is introduced into the engine cylinder, the combustion of fuels
takes place in the presence of air. The rate of heat energy which is contained in the fuel and
may liberate during the combustion process may be termed as fuel power;

𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚̇𝑓 × 𝐶𝑉(𝑘𝑊)

Where
𝑚̇𝑓 = mass flow rate of fuel (kg/sec)

CV= calorific Value or heating value of fuel (kJ/kg)

2. Indicated Power
It is the power developed inside the engine cylinder. With this power, the rate of work done
by the gas on the piston
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑃𝑚𝑖 × 𝐴 × 𝐿 (𝐽)
Where
𝑃𝑚𝑖 = indicated mean effective pressure ( N/m2)
A = area of piston (m2)
L = Stroke Length (m)

If n is the number of cylinders then

𝑃𝑚𝑖 𝐿 𝐴 (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒) . 𝑛
𝑖𝑝 = (𝑊)
60
If N = engine speed in revolution per minute (RPM)
𝑁
For four stroke engine, number of cycle per revolution= 2 , therefore
𝑃𝑚𝑖 𝐿 𝐴 𝑁 𝑛
𝑖𝑝 = (𝑊)
120

For Two stroke engine, number of cycle per revolution= N, therefore

𝑃𝑚𝑖 𝐿 𝐴 𝑁 𝑛
𝑖𝑝 = (𝑊)
60
Indicated power is less then fuel power. According to second law of thermodynamics, all the
heat of the fuel cannot be converted into work in a cycle. Therefore, there are thermal losses
between Fuel Power and Indicated Power.

Engr. Umar Ishaq

Lecturer
Mechanical Engineering department, UET Lahore
 3. Brake Power
This is the actual power available at the crankshaft and may be called power output of the
engine, which is utilized for useful purpose. Brake is less then indicated power due to
mechanical friction and auxiliary components losses. Auxiliary components are accessories
which the engine drives
The brake power is given by
𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑻
𝒃. 𝒑 = 𝝎𝑻 = (𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕)
𝟔𝟎
Where
𝜔 = angular velocity (rad/sec)
N= engine speed (RPM)
T= torque (N.m)

If there are ‘n’ cylinders then b.p is not multiplied by the number of cylinders as it is done in
the case of i.p. Above figure shows b.p developed in a multicylinder engine. It is produced at
the crankshaft. The crank shaft is a single shaft which gets power output from all the cylinders.
The torque T and engine speed N are measured at the crankshaft.
No load on the engine implies that there is no useful power output from the crankshaft. The
bp is zero and all the ip is equal to the friction power. At half load, bp is reduced to the half
value of bp produced at full load

4. Friction Power (f.p)

The diffrerence between the i.p and b.p is the friction power and it is the power required to
overcome the frictional resistance of the engine parts, including power absorbed by auiliary
componnts
𝒇. 𝒑 = 𝒊. 𝒑 − 𝒃. 𝒑
At zero b.p, at the same speed the engine develops just enough power to overcome
frictional resistance and drives engine accessories

5. Indicated Thermal Efficiency

It is the ratio of ip to fuel power. It may also be defined as the ratio of work of one cycle to
the heat supplied by the fuel in that cycle. It can be calculated as
𝒊. 𝒑 𝐖
𝜼𝒊 = =
𝒎̇ 𝒇 × 𝑪𝑽 𝑸𝒔

Where W = work of one cycle, Q = heat supplied by the fuel in the cycle
Typical values of 𝜂𝑖 is in range 35 – 45 %.

Engr. Umar Ishaq

Lecturer
Mechanical Engineering department, UET Lahore
 6. Brake Thermal Efficiency
It is the ratio of b.p to fuel power. It may also be called overall efficiency of the engine.
𝒃. 𝒑
𝜼𝒃 =
𝒎̇ 𝒇 × 𝑪𝑽

Usually engines have brake thermal efficiency about 30 %.

7. Mechanical Efficiency
It is the ratio of b.p to i.p
𝒃. 𝒑 𝜼𝒃
𝜼𝒎 = =
𝒊. 𝒑 𝜼𝒊
Mechanical Efficiency usually lies between 80 – 90 %.

8. Combustion Efficiency
The time available for the combustion process of an engine cycle is very short. All the fuel
molecules may not find oxygen molecules, or the local temperature may not favour the
reaction. Consequently, a small fraction of fuel does not react and goes out with the exhaust
flow. A combustion efficiency account for the fraction of fuel which burns. The typical values
of 𝜂𝑐 is in the range of 0.95 – 0.98.

𝑸̇ 𝒔
𝜼𝒄 =
𝒎̇ 𝒇 × 𝑪𝑽

Where

Q̇s = Heat supplied by the gas per unit time

𝑄𝑠̇ = 𝑚̇𝑓 × 𝐶𝑉 × 𝜂𝑐

Using 𝜂𝑐
𝒊. 𝒑 𝒃. 𝒑
𝜼𝒊 = and 𝜼𝒃 =
𝒎̇ 𝒇 × 𝑪𝑽 × 𝜼𝒄 𝒎̇ 𝒇 × 𝑪𝑽 × 𝜼𝒄

9. Relative Efficiency
It is the ratio of the thermal efficiency of actual cycle to the air standard efficiency of the ideal
cycle. It indicates the degree of development of the engine.
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆
𝜼𝒓 =
𝑨𝒊𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆

Engr. Umar Ishaq

Lecturer
Mechanical Engineering department, UET Lahore
 10. Volumetric Efficiency
Due to the short cycle time at high engine speeds and flow restrictions through the intake
valve less than ideal amount of air enters the cylinder. The effectiveness of an engine to
induct air into the cylinders is measured by the volumetric efficiency which is the ratio of air
induced per cycle measured at free air delivered (FAD) conditions (Standard atmospheric
pressure & Temperature) to the swept volume of the cylinder.
(𝑽𝒂 )𝑭𝑨𝑫
𝜼𝒗 =
𝑽𝒔
It may also be defined as the mass of air actually induced inside the cylinder per cycle to the
mass of air which could be present ideally in the swept volume at atmospheric conditions.

(𝒎𝒂 ) 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 (𝒎𝒂 ) 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 (𝒎̇ 𝒂 ) 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍

𝜼𝒗 = = =
(𝒎𝒂 ) 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝝆 × 𝑽𝒔 (𝒎̇ 𝒂 ) 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍
Where
(𝑚𝑎 ) 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = mass of air actually entered into the cylinder per cycle
(𝑚𝑎 ) 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = ρ × Vs = ideal mass of air in the swept volume at atmospheric conditions
(𝑚̇ 𝑎 ) 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = actual mass flow rate of air into the cylinder
(𝑚̇ 𝑎 ) 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = ideal mass flow rate of air
𝜌 = density of air at atmospheric conditions

Typical values for naturally aspirated engine at wide open throttle WOT are in the range 75%-
90%, and lower when the throttle is closed
The volumetric efficiency for diesels is somewhat higher than for SI engine.

11. Indicated Mean Effective Pressure

Pressure in the cylinder of an engine continuously changes during the cycle. An average or
mean effective pressure is the height of rectangle having the same length and area as the
cycle plotted on p – V diagram. This is shown for an Otto cycle

Engr. Umar Ishaq

Lecturer
Mechanical Engineering department, UET Lahore
The rectangle ABCDA has the same length as the cycle 12341 and area ABCDA is equal to area
12341. Then the indicated mean effective pressure, Pmi is the height AB of the rectangle. Area
of the cycle 12341 or area ABCDA represent the indicated work done in a cycle, Wi.
W𝑖 = 𝑃𝑚𝑖 × 𝑉𝑠
𝐖𝒊
𝑷 𝒎𝒊 =
𝑽𝒔

12. Brake Mean Effective Pressure

The bmep is defined as that part of the mean effective pressure acting on the pistons which
would give the measured bp. There is no contribution of this mean effective pressure towards
friction power. It is computed by measuring the brake power.
𝑃𝑚𝑏 𝐿𝐴𝑁𝑛
𝑏𝑝 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒
60
𝑃𝑚𝑏 𝐿𝐴𝑁𝑛
𝑏𝑝 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒
120
Therefore
𝑷𝒎𝒃 𝑳𝑨𝑵𝒏 𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑻
=
𝟔𝟎 𝟎𝒓 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝟔𝟎
For a given engine, stroke length L, area of cross section A and the number of cylinders n
remain fixed. Therefore
𝑷 𝒎𝒃 ∝ 𝑻

The brake mean effective pressure is proportional to the torque and independent of the
engine speed. The bmep is a useful criterion for comparing engine performance.
Typical maximum values of bmep for naturally aspirated SI engines are in the range 8.5 – 10.5
bar.
For CI engines, typical maximum values are 7.0 – 9.0 bar for naturally aspirated engines and
10.0 – 12.0 bar for turbocharged engines. The maximum bmep of good engine designs is well
established. It is a measure of effectiveness with which the engine designer has used the
swept volume.
The difference between imep and bmep is called the friction mean effective pressure (fmep).
𝒇𝒎𝒆𝒑 = 𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒑 − 𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒑

Engr. Umar Ishaq

Lecturer
Mechanical Engineering department, UET Lahore
 13. Specific Fuel Consumption (sfc)
It is the mass flow rate of fuel consumed per unit power output. It measures how
economically an engine is using the fuel supplied to produce power.
𝑚̇𝑓
𝑠𝑓𝑐 =
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Where 𝑚̇𝑓 = mass flow rate of fuel (kg/hr)

Power is in kW and sfc is in kg/kWh. Brake power gives brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc)
and indicated power gives indicated specific fuel consumption (isfc).
𝑚̇𝑓 𝑚̇𝑓
𝑏𝑠𝑓𝑐 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑐 =
𝑏𝑝 𝑖𝑝
The ratio of isfc to bsfc gives mechanical efficiency, 𝜂𝑚 .
𝑏𝑝 𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑐
𝜂𝑚 = =
𝑖𝑝 𝑏𝑠𝑓𝑐
For given fuel consumption, bsfc is greater than isfc. Low values of sfc are desirable. For SI
engines, typical lowest value of bsfc is about 0.27 kg/kWh. For CI engines, the best value is
lower.

14. Specific Power, Output per Displacement, Engine Specific Volume and
Engine Specific Weight
These parameters are important in transportation, where keeping weight to a minimum is
necessary. Specific power is the power per unit piston area. It measures the effectiveness
with which the piston area is used, regardless of the cylinder size.
𝑏𝑝
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑆𝑃 =
𝐴𝑝

Output per displacement indicates the effectiveness of power output from the given size of
the engine
𝑏𝑝
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑂𝑃𝐷 =
𝑉𝑆𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

Engine specific volume indicates the effectiveness with which engine space is utilized. It is the
reciprocal of output per displacement.
𝑉𝑆𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝐸𝑆𝑉 =
𝑏𝑝
Engine specific weight indicates the relative economy with which materials are used.
𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝐸𝑆𝑊 =
𝑏𝑝

Engr. Umar Ishaq

Lecturer
Mechanical Engineering department, UET Lahore
 15. Air/Fuel and Fuel/Air Ratios
Air/Fuel ratio (A/F) is the ratio of air mass flow rate 𝑚̇ 𝑎 to the fuel mass flow rate 𝑚̇𝑓 . Fuel/Air
(F/A) ratio is the reciprocal of Air/Fuel ratio.
𝑚̇ 𝑎
𝐴𝑖𝑟⁄𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝐴⁄𝐹 ) =
𝑚̇𝑓
𝑚̇𝑓
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 ⁄𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝐹⁄𝐴) =
𝑚̇ 𝑎
The normal operating range for a conventional SI engine using gasoline as fuel is 12 ≤ A/F ≤
18 (0.056 ≤ F/A ≤ 0.083). For CI engine with diesel fuel, it is 18 ≤ A/F ≤ 70 (0.014 ≤ F/A ≤ 0.056)

Engr. Umar Ishaq

Lecturer
Mechanical Engineering department, UET Lahore