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Relationships between Critical and Creative Thinking

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 Relationships between Critical and Creative Thinking

Matt Baker
Texas Tech University

Rick Rudd
Carol Pomeroy
University of Florida

Introduction

Whereas creative thinking is divergent, critical thinking is convergent; whereas creative

thinking tries to create something new, critical thinking seeks to assess worth or validity
in something that exists; whereas creative thinking is carried on by violating accepted
principles, critical thinking is carried on by applying accepted principles. Although
creative and critical thinking may very well be different sides of the same coin they are
not identical. (Beyer, 1989; p.35)

Creative and critical thinking skills are considered essential for students (Crane, 1983).
Crane (1983) expressed the importance of both of these skills when she wrote: “When reasoning
fails, Imagination saves you! When Intuition fails, reason saves you!”(p. 7). There has been an
abundance of research on each construct but very little examining if they are related. Scriven
(1979) stated: “Critical skills go hand in hand with creative ones” (p. 37). Only by
understanding if there is a relationship between these two essential constructs will educators be
able to enhance the capacity of their students to utilize both creative and critical thinking. It is
essential to first define each of these constructs to determine if indeed they are correlated.

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 Theoretical Framework

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is a common "buzz phrase" in educational, psychological, and

philosophical, circles today. Much work has been completed in the name of critical thinking in
education to date that not only leaves one wondering how it is measured, but also leaves one
groping for a cognizant definition of critical thinking. Part of this ambiguity lies in the existence
of multiple definitions for critical thinking.

Halpern (1996 p.5) defines critical thinking as "…the use of cognitive skills or strategies that
increase the probability of a desirable outcome." Other definitions include: the formation of
logical inferences (Simon & Kaplan, 1989), developing careful and logical reasoning (Stahl &
Stahl, 1991), deciding what action to take or what to believe through reasonable reflective
thinking (Ennis, 1991), and purposeful determination of whether to accept, reject, or suspend
judgment (Moore & Parker, 1994). In a comprehensive attempt to define critical thinking,
Pascarella and Terenzini (1991) compiled the following, "…critical thinking has been defined
and measured in a number of ways but typically involves the individual’s ability to do some or
all of the following: identify central issues and assumptions in an argument, recognize important
relationships, make correct inferences from data, deduce conclusions from information or data
provided, interpret whether conclusions are warranted on the basis of the data given, and
evaluate evidence or authority: (p. 118).

Burden and Byrd (1994) categorize critical thinking as a higher-order thinking activity that
requires a set of cognitive skills. In a 1987 comprehensive review of existing literature, Beyer
posited that critical thinking requires a set of skills and approaches to be effective. Beyer's
critical thinking skills include:

1. Distinguishing between verifiable facts and value claims

2. Distinguishing relevant from irrelevant information, claims, and reasons
3. Determining factual accuracy of a statement
4. Determining credibility of a source
5. Identifying ambiguous claims or arguments
6. Identifying unstated assumptions
7. Detecting bias
8. Identifying logical fallacies
9. Recognizing logical inconsistencies in a line of reasoning
10. Determining the strength of an argument or claim

In an effort to clarify the process of critical thinking, Paul (1995) wrote that critical thinking
is a unique and purposeful form of thinking that is practiced systematically and purposefully.
The thinker imposes standards and criteria on the thinking process and uses them to construct
thinking.

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 Paul (1995) further refined critical thinking by identifying three thought traits and/or
processes possessed by the critical thinker. They are elements of reasoning, traits of reasoning,
and reasoning standards.

Elements of reasoning consist of seven components that help guide the reasoning process.
These components include the purpose of the thinking or the question at hand, information
and/or facts about the question, assumptions made about the question, interpretation of the facts
and data collected, theories and concepts related to the question, and inclusion of other points of
view. Finally, an assessment of the conclusions is drawn with emphasis on implications and
consequences of the decisions reached as a result of the thinking process (Figure 1).

C o n c lu s io n s / I n f o r m a t io n /
I m p l ic a t io n s / F a c t s/D a ta
C o nsequences
A s s u m p t io n s
P o in t s o f
V ie w
C o n c e p ts/ D a ta
T h e o r ie s I n t e r p r e t a t io n

Figure 1: Elements of Reasoning

Traits of critical thinkers include independent thinking, intellectual empathy, intellectual

humility, courage, integrity, perseverance, intellectual curiosity, faith in reason, intellectual
civility, and intellectual responsibility. These traits are not only present in critical thinkers, they
are consciously utilized to guide the thinking process (Paul, 1995).

Rudd, Baker, Hoover, and Gregg (1999) offered the following definition:

Critical thinking is a reasoned, purposive, and introspective approach to solving

problems or addressing questions, with incomplete evidence and information, and
for which an incontrovertible solution is unlikely.

Creative Thinking

Creativity is a complex construct and is most commonly expressed through a broad range
of intelligences including linguistic, musical, mathematical, spatial, kinesthetic, interpersonal,

and perhaps even intrapersonal (Gardner, 1985). In a classic study of creativity, Taylor (1959)
proposed the existence of five typologies for creativity. These were expressive, productive,
inventive, innovative, and emergenative.

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 Expressive creativity is the type of spontaneous creativity often seen in children and is
exemplified in drawings and play. Scientists and artists illustrate productive creativity. An
element of spontaneous production remains, yet is characterized by the need to create rather
being restricted by the need to express. The third classification is inventive creativity that may be
described as a problem solving or a creation to improve an existing technology. An example
would be an engine invented to make farm tractors more fuel-efficient. Innovative creativity
deals with the capacity to improve or reinvent an existing organism or object through the
utilization of conceptualization skills. An example is the recent movement to reinvent
government, in which the existing governmental structure was redefined through
reconceptualization. The final type of creative skill is emergenative. It is a new creation opening
an entirely new paradigm. An example is the interventions of chemical fertilizers, insecticides,
and hybrid seeds that helped to launch the Green Revolution. Emergenative creativity is a
discovery that opens an explosion of ideas in a synergetic fashion (Taylor, 1959).

In an operationally problem-oriented definition, Torrance (1966) defined creativity as:

A process of becoming sensitive to a problem, deficiencies, gaps in knowledge, missing

elements, disharmonies, and so on; identifying the difficulty; searching for solutions,
making guesses, or formulating hypothesis about these deficiencies; testing and retesting
these hypotheses and possibly modifying and retesting them; and finally communicating
the results. (p. 6)

Figure 2 presents forces and factors in the creative thinking process model. This model is
one cycle that consists of three distinct phases: (1) an initial catalyst; (2) a gestation period; and
(3) a problem solution and verification phase. In one’s reality, any problem experienced in
his/her livelihood system or expressive creative "seed" could serve as an initial catalyst (Wells,
1984). After the initial catalyst, there is a gestation period where one begins to delineate the
problem that he/she wishes to solve. Finally there is a problem solution and verification process
in which the individual comes up with a proposed resolution or creation which he or she then
tests (Wells, 1984).
Gestation Period
(Problem Delineation, Incubation,
Illumination)
Initial Problem
Catalyst Catalysts and Catalysts and Solution and
Attributes of Creativity
(Stimulus Inhibitors Inhibitors Verification
event) Interpersonal Cultural
Vaiables Variables

Catalysts and Inhibitors

Educational Variables

Catalysts and Inhibitors

Figure 2. Creative Biological Variables1
Process Cycle
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 The gestation phase includes four groups of often overlapping catalysts/inhibitors of
creativity. These are encountered throughout life and either stimulate and/or limit one’s capacity
to be creative. Wright (1987) listed the factors that influence a creative home environment as
“respect for the child, the stimulation of independence and enriched learning environment" (p.
34). Pratt-Summers (1989) found similar results to the one described above. Jausovoc (1988)
and Dorner (1979) discovered that the teacher's teaching style (based on Piagtian cognitive
theory: exercise training, tactical training, and strategic training) was related to the development
of creativity in students. These results support the notion that interpersonal variables are
important catalysts and/or inhibitors of creativity.

The second group of catalysts and inhibitors consists of biological variables such as age,
genetics, health status, and gender (Krippner, 1991). The majority of the research has been
concentrated on gender and birth order. There is not a consensus on the impact of gender upon
creativity. Torrance (1983) wrote, "a substantial body of evidence indicates that males and
females perform at similar levels of tests designed to measure creative potential" (p. 134). He
found that girls did not perceive themselves to be inventors and were largely influenced by their
environment. Harriss (1989) found that women were discouraged from becoming artists.
Torrance and Allioti (1969) discovered that 13 year old girls had higher verbal creative ability
compared to boys of the same age. Gupta (1979) did not find that there was a significant
difference between boys and girls in verbal creative ability, but found that there were distinct
elements of non-verbal ability in which each scored significantly higher. The research on the
impact of birth order has detected that first-born males and females scored significantly higher
on creativity tests than the second born (Comeau, 1980; Jaraial, 1985). The unique contribution
of age, genetics, and health status to creativity is unclear.

The third catalyst/inhibitor group is cultural variables. Krippner (1991) defined these as
socio-economic status, ethnic background, religious experience, and significant emotional
events. There is a wealth of research to support the connection between socioeconomic status
and creativity (Forman, 1979; Cicirelli, 1966; Singh, 1970; Kaltounis, 1974; and Torrance,
1963). The exception to this was discovered by Warden and Pratt (1971) who found no division
in creativity between any ethnic or social class.

Cultural background was found to have an impact upon creativity of individuals from
Japan (Torrance and Sato, 1979), India (Sharma and Naruka, 1983; Torrance, 1981), the United
States, Western Australia, Western Somoa, Germany, (Torrance, 1981) and the Dominican
Republic (Baker et al. 2000). Sharma and Naruka (1983) found a creative difference between the
Hindu, Muslim, and Christian religious groups in India.

Torrance (1986) suggested the way that significant emotional events may affect creative
expression when he wrote: "apparently, an intense emotional experience sets up a need for
creative expression and actually facilitates the creative expression" (p. 130).

The final group of catalysts and inhibitors consists of personal attributes/educational factors.
These include learning style, critical thinking, knowledge, motivation, creative response style,

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and educational setting. Isaacs (1987) examined the importance of learning style and its impact
on creativity when she stated:

In some ways creativity is as delicate as the very breath of life. It can be nurtured and
expended, or starved and diminished. Thus understanding and applying findings from
learning style study is as important for sustaining creativity as for stimulating academic
achievement. (p.257)

Understanding the manner in which the individual learns facilitates academic achievement and
can lead to an environment that enhances creativity.

In discussing the impact of knowledge on creativity Sternberg and Luppart (1991) made the
distinction between knowledge and usable knowledge. They stated: “knowledge can be learned
in a way that makes it inert" (p. 610). Sternberg and Luppart (1991), when discussing the
importance of motivation, identified two key types: Intrinsic motivation and the motivation to
excel. Intrinsic motivation was seen as an important element because students are much more
likely to be creative if they enjoy what they are doing. Motivation to excel has been emphasized
because these individuals are willing to work for creative excellence.

In the book The Nature of Creativity (1997) Torrance reviewed experiments that examined
the effects of educational setting upon creativity. The majority of the research (Boersman and
O’Bryan , 1968; Moham, 1970; Hooper and Powell, 1971; Nash, 1971; Ward, 1969; Norton ,
1971; Khatena, 1971; and Kogan and Morgan, 1969) found that there was a difference in
creativity when the school environment (testing conditions, cue rich and cue poor, etc.) was
manipulated. These findings were in contrast to studies by Alliotti (1969) and Towell (1972)
who did not find any differences in creativity based upon changes in educational environments.

The core of the gestation phase of the creative process model is the creative attributes
referred to by Torrance et al. (1990) as creative thinking abilities. These creative attributes were
fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration, abstractness of the title, resistance to closure,
emotional expressiveness, articulateness, movement or action, expressiveness, synthesis or
combination, unusual visualization, internal visualization, extending or breaking the boundaries,
humor, richness of imagery, colorfulness of imagery, and fantasy. The Torrance Test of Creative
Thinking (TTCT) is an instrument that can be used to operationalize these creative attributes.

This process may or may not be linear. Each iteration is different in time and shape,
depending on its interaction with the other catalysts and inhibitors described in the model. It is
even possible that a full iteration may not be completed because of factors such as motivation.
The final phase of this model results in an end product and verification of creativity that is
expressive in problem solution and verification for the typologies (of creativity) proposed by
Taylor (1958). However it is important to point out that there is a very important time dimension
to creativity. The time dimension is influenced by the perceived importance of the problem, as
well as the motivation, support, and resources available for problem resolution.

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 Purpose

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationships between creative thinking abilities
and critical thinking disposition. The specific objectives of the study were: (1) to describe the
students in terms of academic classification, creative thinking abilities, and critical thinking
disposition; (2) to determine the amount of variance in creative thinking ability explained by
critical thinking disposition; and to (3) determine the relationship between creative thinking
ability and gender.

Methodology

A purposive sample consisting of students in a senior level project planning and

evaluation course (n=32) and two instructional methods courses (n=4) and (n=14). Data were
collected spring, summer, and fall semesters of 1999.

The researchers utilized two instruments for data collection. First, the Torrance Test for
Creative Thinking – Form A (TTCT) was utilized to measure creative attributes. For this three-
part timed test, subjects are asked to construct a picture, complete a series of incomplete
drawings, and complete drawings from sets of parallel lines. According to Torrance et al., 1990:

The term "creative thinking abilities" as used in the TTCT, refers to that constellation of
generalized mental abilities that is commonly presumed to be brought into play in
creative achievements. . . The author has maintained that high degrees of the abilities
measured by tests such as the TTCT increase the chances that the possessor will behave
creatively. Certainly, the author of these tests would never argue that possession of these
abilities guarantees that an individual will behave creatively, any more than a high degree
of intelligence guarantees intelligent behavior. . . Creative motivations and skills, as well
as abilities, are necessary for adult creative achievement." (p. 1)

The TTCT results in quantitative scores for the following norm-referenced constructs: (1)
fluency – the ability to produce a large number of figural images; (2) originality – unusualness or
rarity of response; (3) abstractness – the ability to produce good titles and to capture the essence
of information involved; (4) elaboration – ability to develop, embroider, embellish, carry out, or
otherwise elaborate ideas; and (5) resistance to premature closure – the ability to keep a figure
open and delay closure long enough to make the mental leap that makes original ideas possible.
Content and construct validity has been established by the TTCT developer (Torrance et al.,
1990). Intra-rater reliability coefficients are above the .90 level (Torrance et al., 1990). In
addition to the TTCT, the researchers recorded the subjects’ academic rank and gender.

The California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CCTDI) was the second
instrument utilized. The test consists of 75 Likert-type questions that represent 7 critical
thinking constructs (see Table 1). Content and construct validity has been established by CCTDI
developers (Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo, 1996). The developers report an overall reliability
(Cronbach's α) of .90 and scale reliability scored from .72 - .80. Total scores range form 75-450.

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 The following descriptions of the CCTDI constructs are from the CCTDI test manual
(Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo, 1996).

Analyticity is a construct consisting of 11 items from the CCTDI. This construct targets
the disposition of being alert to potentially problematic situations, anticipating possible results or
consequences, and prizing the application of reason and the use of evidence even if the problem
at hand turns out to be challenging or difficult. The analytically inclined person is alert to
potential difficulties, either conceptual or behavior, and consistently looks to anticipatory
intervention, reason giving, and fact-finding as effective ways to resolve matters.

Self-confidence is a construct consisting of 9 items from the CCTDI. This construct refers
to the level of trust one places in one’s own reasoning process. Critically thinking, self-confident
persons trust themselves to make good judgments and believe that others trust them as well,
since they believe that others look to them to resolve problems, decide what to do, and bring
reasonable closure to inquiry.

Inquisitiveness is a construct consisting of 10 items from the CCTDI. The inquisitive

person is one who values being well informed, wants to know how things work, and values
learning even if the immediate payoff is not directly evident.

Maturity is a construct consisting of 10 items from the CCTDI. The maturity scale
addresses cognitive maturity and epistemic development. CCTDI scoring gives preference to
those disposed to approach problems, inquiry, and decision making with a sense that some
problems are ill-structured, some situations admit of more than one plausible option, and many
times judgments based on standards, contexts, and evidence which precludes certainty must be
made.

Open-mindedness is a construct consisting of 12 items from the CCTDI. This construct

targets the disposition of being open-minded and tolerant of divergent views with sensitivity to
the possibility of one’s own bias. The open-minded person respects the rights of others to
holding differing opinions.

Systematicity is a construct consisting of 11 items from the CCTDI, targeting the

disposition to being organized, orderly, focused, and diligent in inquiry. No particular kind of
organization, e.g. linear or nonlinear, is given priority on the CCTDI. The systematic person
strives to approach specific issues, questions or problems in an orderly, focused, and diligent
way, however that might be accomplished.

Truth-seeking is a construct consisting of 12 items from the CCTDI, representative of

those eager to seek the truth, who are courageous about asking questions, and honest and
objective about pursuing inquiry even if the findings do not support one’s interests or one’s
preconceived opinions. The truth-seeker would rather pursue the truth than win the argument.

Total Score is a measure consisting of the 75 items from the CCTDI.

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 The CCTDI is used extensively in military science, law enforcement, allied health,
engineering, and business. Although the researchers did not find evidence of CCTDI use in
agriculture, the instrument was deemed appropriate for the purpose of identifying agriculture
student's disposition to think critically (Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo, 1996).

The data were analyzed by using SPSS/7.5 for Windows software. Descriptive statistics,
multiple linear regression and point biserial correlational analysis was used to summarize and
analyze the data.

Results

Objective number one was to describe the students in terms of academic classification,
creative thinking abilities, and critical thinking disposition. Sixty-two percent of the students in
the sample were female, and 74% were classified as a senior. Approximately 12% of the
students were juniors, and ten percent were classified as post-baccalaureate students.

In terms of creative thinking ability, TTCT percentile scores were calculated from the
raw scores based upon the adult population in the U.S. The students ranked in the 58th percentile
in fluency; 75th percentile in abstractness; 51st percentile in originality; 46th percentile in
elaboration; and 64th percentile in their resistance to premature closure.

Clearly the percentile scores reflect an average ability in fluency, originality, elaboration,
and resistance to premature closure. The students had a greater ability to produce good titles and
to capture the essence of information involved when compared to the general adult population.

In terms of the critical thinking disposition, the CCTDI consists of seven sub-scales or
constructs and an overall CCTDI Total Score. The recommended cut score for each scale or
construct is 40 and the suggested target score is 50. All scores range up to 60. Persons who score
below 40 on a given scale are weak in that critical thinking dispositional aspect, persons who
score above 50 on a scale are strong in that dispositional aspect. In recording a 50, a person is
demonstrating consistent strength in that dispositional aspect. Inversely, scoring below 40
indicates that, on average, the person responds in opposition to the critical thinking dispositional
aspect measured by a given scale.

On six of the seven subscales, students in this sample could not be described as being
particularly strong or weak (Open-mindedness - M=44.88, SD=5.39; Inquisitiveness - M=45.64,
SD=6.28; Systematicity - M=42.33, SD=5.71; Maturity - M=45.92, SD= 6.41; Self-confidence -
M=43.26, SD=5.73; Analyticity - M=44.13, SD=5.48). On the construct of Truth-seeking, they
could be described as slightly weak (M=39.10, SD=7.01).

Just as scores of less than 40 shows weakness, an overall CCTDI score of less than 280
shows serious overall deficiency in the disposition toward critical thinking. An overall score of
350 or more is a solid indication of across the board strength in the disposition toward critical
thinking. However, an overall score of 350 is rare. People tend to have both strengths and
weaknesses. The overall CCTDI score for this sample was 305.25 (SD=27.91).

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 The second research objective was to determine the amount of variance in creative
thinking ability explained by critical thinking disposition. Five multiple linear regression
analyses were utilized, with raw TTCT scores as the dependent variable, and CCTDI subscales
as the independent variables. Although none of the analyses were statistically significant, critical
thinking disposition accounted for 24% of the variance in resistance to premature closure
(F=1.96, p=.08), 5% of the variance on fluency (F=.35, p=.93), 8% of the variance on
abstractness (F=.55, p=.78); 2% on originality (F=.49, p=.83); and 1% on elaboration (F=.06,
p=.99).

The final research objective was to examine the relationships between creative thinking
ability and gender. Low to negligible (Davis, 1971) bivariate relationships were found between
gender and resistance to premature closure (r=.07), fluency (r=-.03), abstractness (r=.24),
originality (r=-.11), and elaboration (r=.15).

Conclusion and Implications

It appears that the collegiate educational experience has had little effect upon the students’
ability to be creative or their disposition to think critically. Teaching students to remember
factual information and return it in the form of an examination is the prevalent teaching mode
employed in secondary and post-secondary institutions today. Teaching thinking skills is a
difficult and much different endeavor. Teaching to promote thinking takes more time to prepare,
is difficult to plan, and limits the amount of content “taught.” Teachers can no longer be
information givers. Students must learn thinking and reasoning skills to reach their fullest
potential in today's society (Meyers, 1986).

The “more information is better” attitude unfortunately prevails in modern education. This
is unfortunate considering that often the factual matter has a relatively short life span with
students (Terezini, Springer, Pascarella, & Nora, 1993). When coupled with the fact that
information learned today quickly becomes outdated, is it any wonder that our students struggle
when they reach the work place? Good thinking skills will not develop on their own, they must
be taught (Beyer, 1987). Teaching students to think must be a priority of our schools today. In
any thought process we engage in both critical and creative thinking (Beyer, 1987).

The term critical thinking is common in educational, psychological, and philosophical

circles today. Employers, parents, administrators, and students themselves want critical thinking
skills developed in today's graduate. Developing critical thinking skills is not a new idea.
Osborne (1932, p.402) stated that, "…it is assumed that development of thought power is one of
the major aims of education." Dressel and Mayhew (1954) believed that educational institutions
were responsible for teaching students to go beyond the simple mental activities of recall and
restatement of ideas and facts to the higher-level skills and habits involved in critical thinking.

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 Anderson (1990) explored the importance of creativity in higher education when he
wrote:
The college experience should include an opportunity to discover one’s potential and
achieve higher levels of creative expression. The extent to which this happens depends on
curriculum and the commitment of the faculty members to nurture this development both inside
and outside of the classroom. The learning environment as reflected by the classroom and
campus setting, supportive extra-curricular and the advisor/student relationship all impact the
total educational mission of developing creativity. (p. 55)

Sutton and de Oliveira (1995) asserted that although students complete basic courses they
have only a superficial understanding of what they have learned. In fact, few students are taught
the skills needed to examine principles, values and facts.

This study was limited to the groups that participated. The results from this study suggest
that the two constructs (critical and creative thinking) are not closely connected. These
researchers emphasize that much more research needs to be conducted with different age ranges,
gender, and socio-economic background to confirm the results of this study. This research
should help to answer very important questions on how to enhance the capacity of students to
critically and creatively think. The preliminary findings in this study suggest that educators must
prepare specific curriculum that stimulates creative and critical thinking separately.

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