CHAPTER 2 (THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE) Mass number: the number of

Matter: anything that occupies space and has protons and neutrons in each

mass (solid, liquid, or gas) atom.

Mass: amount of matter in an object (Chemical Bonds)

Weight: gravitational force acting on object Chemical bonds occur when outermost

Elements and Atoms electrons (valence shell electrons) are

Element: transferred or shared between atoms

• simplest form of matter Types of chemical bonds

• Example: C, H, O, N, Ca, K, • Ionic

Na, Cl • Covalent

Atom: • Hydrogen

• smallest particle of an (Ion and Ionic Bonding)

element Ion: a charged atom formed because of a

• contains protons, electrons, donation or gain of an electron(s)

and neutrons. • Example: Na+

(Subatomic Particles) Ionic bonding occurs when there is an attraction

Proton: positive charged between two oppositely charged ions

particle located inside the • Example: NaCl

nucleus. (Covalent Bonding)

Neutron: neutral charged Covalent bonding occurs when atoms share one or

particle located inside the more pairs of electrons

nucleus. • Example: hydrogen molecule

Electron: negative charged Polar covalent bonds form when there is an unequal

particle located outside the sharing of electrons

nucleus. • Example: water (H2O)

(Atomic Number and Atomic Mass) Polar molecules have an asymmetrical electrical charge

Atomic number: the number Nonpolar molecules have a symmetrical electrical

of protons in each atom. Charge.

(Hydrogen Bonding) • energy-requiring

Polar molecules, like water, have a positive end • Example: ADP + P → ATP

and a negative end. Decomposition reaction:

A hydrogen bond forms when the positive end • break down molecule

of one polar molecule is weakly attracted to the • energy-releasing

negative end of another polar molecule • Example: ATP → ADP + P

The hydrogen bond is a weaker bond than the Exchange reaction:

ionic or covalent bonds. • combination of synthesis and decomposition

Polar covalent bonded reactions

molecules, like water, • Example: AB + CD → AC + BD

have a positive end • Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

and a negative end. Reversible reactions occur when the reaction

Molecule: can run in the opposite direction, so that the

• 2 or more atoms chemically combine products are converted back to the original

• Example: water (H2O) reactants.

Compound: CO2 + H2O ⇄ H+ + HCO3

• chemical combination of 2 or more different types Equilibrium: when the rate of product formation

of atoms equals the rate of reactant formation.

• Example: NaCl (Energy)

Chemical reactions occur when there is a Energy is the capacity to do work.

formation or breaking of chemical bonds between Work is the moving of matter.

atoms, ions, molecules, or compounds. Kinetic energy is energy in motion

Reactants: substances that enter into the reaction Potential energy is stored energy

Products: substances that result from the reaction.

(Types of Chemical Reactions)

Synthesis reaction:

• build a new molecule

Chemical energy is a form of potential energy Inorganic chemistry deals with those substances

stored in chemical bonds. that do not contain carbon

- Food molecules such as glucose contain Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-

potential energy. containing substances

An example of a reaction that releases energy is Exception : some carbon containing compounds

the breakdown of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) are not organic in that they do not also contain

to ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a hydrogen, such as CO2

phosphate group. (carbon dioxide).

ATP → ADP + P - The four major groups of organic molecules

The rate at which a chemical reaction proceeds essential to living organisms are carbohydrates,

is influenced by several factors: lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

• concentration of the reactants

• temperature Characteristics of Carbohydrates

• catalyst • Contain C, H, O

Concentration of the reactants: within limits the • H:O is a 2:1 ratio

higher the concentration of reactants the faster • Example: C6H12O6

the rate. • Monosaccharides are the building blocks.

Temperature: within limits, the higher the • Monosaccharide:

temperature the faster the rate. • simple sugar (1 sugar)

Catalyst: increases the rate of a reaction without • Examples: glucose and fructose

itself being permanently changed or depleted. Disaccharide:

Acid: a proton H+ donor • 2 sugars

• pH below 7 • Example: glucose + fructose = sucrose

• Example: HCl (hydrochloric acid) • Example: glucose + galactose = lactose

Base: a proton H+ acceptor Polysaccharide:

• pH above 7 • many sugars

• Example: NaOH (sodium hydroxide) • Example: starch, grain, vegetables, glycogen

Functions of Carbohydrates Characteristics of Proteins

- Short-term energy storage - Contains C, H, O, N

- Converted to glucose quickly - Amino acids are the building blocks
- Glucose is used to make ATP (energy)
- Brain cells require glucose 20 different naturally occurring amino acids

- Amino acids contain an amine (NH2) group and

Characteristics of Lipids carboxyl group.

- Contain C, H, O Amino acids are not stored, so a daily supply is

- Contain a lower proportion of oxygen to carbon Required.
than do carbohydrates

- Insoluble in water Functions of Proteins

Examples: fats, oils, cholesterol, triglycerides, - Used to make skin, hair, nails, muscles
Phospholipids. - Part of the hemoglobin molecule
- Act as enzymes
- Immune system functions
- Muscle contractions (actin and myosin)
Functions of Lipids - Part of the cell membrane
- Long term energy storage Protein denaturation occurs when the hydrogen
- Insulates against heat loss
- Protective cushion for organs bonds that maintain shape of a protein are
- Cholesterol is part of the cell membrane
broken and the protein becomes nonfunctional.
Structure.
Factors that can cause denaturation are: high

temperatures and/or improper Ph.

(Types of Lipids)
Enzymes are organic catalysts that increase the
Saturated:
rate at which biochemical reactions proceed
• single covalent bonds between carbon atoms
without the enzyme being permanently changed.
• Examples: beef, pork, whole milk, cheese, eggs
- Enzymes work by lowering the energy of

activation.
Unsaturated:

• one or more double covalent bonds between carbons

• Examples: olive oil, fish oil, sunflower oil

Nucleic Acids

Composed of C, H, O, N, P

Examples: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA

(ribonucleic acid)

Nucleotides are the building blocks

Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogen base,

phosphate, and 5-carbon sugar.

ATP is an especially important organic molecule

found in all living organisms.

- often called the energy currency of cells

because it is capable of both storing and
providing energy.