3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination Models and Surface Rendering Methods

Chapter 4 - 3D Object Representation

and
Illumination Models and Surface Rendering Methods

by

Tesfamicael.W Arefaine

May 31, 2017

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Polygon
Models
Surfaces
and Surface
QuadricRendering
Surfaces Methods
Bezier Curves and Surfaces

3D Object Representation
To produce realistic displays of scenes, we need to use
representations that accurately model object x-cs
Polygon and quadric surfaces provide precise descriptions for simple
euclidean objects such as polyhedrons and ellipsoids.
Spline surfaces are used for structures with curved surfaces.
Representation schemes for solid objects are often divided into two
broad categories, although not all representations fall neatly into one
or the other of these two categories.
1 Boundary representations (B-reps) describe a 3D object as a set of
surfaces that separate the object interior from the environment.
2 Space-partitioning representations are used to describe interior
properties, by partitioning the spatial region containing an object into
a set of small, non overlapping, contiguous solids (usually cubes).

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Polygon
Models
Surfaces
and Surface
QuadricRendering
Surfaces Methods
Bezier Curves and Surfaces

Simple Geometric Forms

Points and lines- basic building blocks of computer graphics
Polylines- a chain of connected line segments.
Polygons- a closed polylines

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Polygon
Models
Surfaces
and Surface
QuadricRendering
Surfaces Methods
Bezier Curves and Surfaces

Polygon mesh
The most commonly boundary representation for a 3D graphics
object is a set of surface polygons that enclose the object interior.
Set of surface polygons= polygon mesh
A polygon representation for a polyhedron precisely defines the
surface features of the object.
But for other objects surfaces are tessellated (tiled) to produce the
polygon mesh approximation.
The polygon mesh approximation to a curved surface can be
improved by dividing the surface into smaller polygon faces.

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Polygon
Models
Surfaces
and Surface
QuadricRendering
Surfaces Methods
Bezier Curves and Surfaces

Quadric surfaces
Frequently used class of objects, described with second degree
equations.
Includes spheres, ellipsoids, tori,paraboloids, and hyperboloids.
Quadric surfaces, particularly spheres and ellipsoids, are common
elements of graphics scenes, and they are often available in graphics
packages as primitives from which more complex objects are
constructed.

1.Sphere
A spherical surface with radii r, centered at the coordinate origin is
defined as set of points(x, y, z) that satisfy the equation

x2 + y2 + z2 = r2

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Polygon
Models
Surfaces
and Surface
QuadricRendering
Surfaces Methods
Bezier Curves and Surfaces

2.Ellipsoid
An ellipsoid surface can be described as an extension of a spherical
surface where the radii in 3 mutual perpendicular direction can have
different values.
x y z
( )2 + ( )2 + ( )2 = 1
rx ry rz

3.Torus
A doughnut shaped object surface
Created by revolving a circle in 3D space about an axis in the same
plane as the circle.

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Polygon
Models
Surfaces
and Surface
QuadricRendering
Surfaces Methods
Bezier Curves and Surfaces

Bezier Curves and Surfaces

Bezier splines have a number of properties that make them highly
useful and convenient for curve and surface design. They are also
easy to implement.
Suppose we are given n+1 control points pk (xk , yk , zk )
with 06 k 6 n.These coordinates can be blended the ff position
vectors. P(u) which describes the path of the bezier polynomial
function between P0 and Pn
n
X
P(u) = Pk .BEZk,n (u) , BEZk,n (n) = C (n, k).u k .(1 − u)n−k
k=0

BEZ is Bezier blending function (Bernstein polynomial)

n!
C (n, k) =
k!(n − k)!

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Polygon
Models
Surfaces
and Surface
QuadricRendering
Surfaces Methods
Bezier Curves and Surfaces

Bezier Curves

Vector equation P(u) can represented by a set of three parametric

equations for the individual curve coordinate.
n
X n
X
X (u) = Xk .BEZk,n (u) Y (u) = Yk .BEZk,n (u)
k=0 k=0

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Polygon
Models
Surfaces
and Surface
QuadricRendering
Surfaces Methods
Bezier Curves and Surfaces

Properties of Bezier Curves

There are four properties of a bezier curves
1 Always pass through the 1st and last control points.

P(0) = P0 &P(1) = pn

2 The direction of the tangent vector at the end points P0 and Pn is the
same as that of the vector determined by the 1st and the last
segments P0 P1 and Pn−1 Pn of the guiding polyline.
3 The bezier curve lies entirely with in the convex hull of the guiding
polyline. This follows from the properties of Bkzier blending
functions:
Pn They are all positive and their sum is always 1.
k=0 BEZ k,n (u) =1
4 Bezier curves are suited for interactive design. They can be placed
together so as to ensure continuous differentiability at they juncture
by letting the edge of two different guiding polylines that are adjacent
to the common end points be collinear,

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Polygon
Models
Surfaces
and Surface
QuadricRendering
Surfaces Methods
Bezier Curves and Surfaces

Bezier Curves Example

Example: ni,2 ⇒ 3 control points

(x0 , y0 ) = (1, 1) = P0

(x1 , y1 ) = (3, 6) = P1
(x2 , y2 ) = (5, 4) = P2

Find the parametric form of the bezier curve controlled by P0 , P1 ,

P2 and check that P(0)= P0 and P(1) = Pn

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Polygon
Models
Surfaces
and Surface
QuadricRendering
Surfaces Methods
Bezier Curves and Surfaces

Spline Curves
Refers to any smooth curve that passes through points that can be
expressed using a polynomial function.
The polynomial function its first and second derivaties are
continuous across various sections.
Cubic Splines:
Defined using cubic polynomials.
General formula: y=a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3
where a0 , a1 , a2 and a3 are constants and a3 6= 0
To find a0 , a1 , a2 and a3 we need boundary conditions either
1 4 points that passes through the cubic splines or
2 2 end points, a slope(y’) and a curvature(y”)

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Polygon
Models
Surfaces
and Surface
QuadricRendering
Surfaces Methods
Bezier Curves and Surfaces

Spline Curves Example:

Q: Determine the equation of a cubic spline passing through the points
A(0,5) and B(10,20) havine a slope of 2 and a curvture of -0.5 at point
A.

Solution: y = 5 + 2x - 0.25x2 + 0.02x3

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Depth-buffer
Models and
method
Surface Rendering Methods

Hidden surface removal methods

Major consideration in the generation of realistic graphics displays -
identifying those parts of a scene that are visible from a chosen
viewing position
Algorithms for this purpose - visible surface detection methods or
hidden surface removal methods

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Depth-buffer
Models and
method
Surface Rendering Methods

Classification of the methods

Visible surface detection methods are broadly classified according to
whether they deal with object definitions directly or with their
projected images
These two approaches are called
1 Object space methods - compare objects and parts of objects to
each other within the scene definition to determine which surfaces, as
a whole, we should label as visible
2 Image-space methods [most methods] - visibility is determined
point by point at each pixel position on the projection plane

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Depth-buffer
Models and
method
Surface Rendering Methods

Depth-buffer method
Commonly used image-space method
Compares surface depths at each pixel position on the projection
plane
Also called the z-buffer method
I Object depth is usually measured from the view plane along the z-axis
I Normalized coordinate: z values range from 0 at the back clipping
plane to zmax at the front clipping plane
Each surface of a scene is processed separately, one point at a time
across the surface
For each pixel position (x, y ) on the view plane object depths can
be compared by comparing their original z-values.
If the Surface s1 has the smallest depth from the view plane - its
surface intensity value at (x,y) is saved.

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Depth-buffer
Models and
method
Surface Rendering Methods

Implementation
Two buffer areas are required
1 Depth buffer - used to store depth values for each (x,y) position as
surfaces are processed
2 Refresh buffer - stores the intensity values for each position
Initially, all positions in the depth buffer are set to 0 (minimum
depth)
Whenever a new pixel is generated, for example during the
scan-conversion of a surface, the pixel’s Z value is compared with
the corresponding value in the depth-buffer
If the pixel’s depth is greater than that in the buffer, the pixel is
drawn and its depth recorded in the depth buffer, Over-writing the
previous value.
Otherwise, the pixel is not drawn and the depth buffer is not
updated.

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Depth-buffer
Models and
method
Surface Rendering Methods

Example
Suppose subsequently that during the scan-conversion of surfaces s1
and s2 , the same pixel is generated, because s1 and s2 overlap in
the scene
If the depth (Z) value of s2 ’s pixel is less than that stored in the
depth buffer, then s2 is further away from the eye than s1 , and s2 is
obscured by s1

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Depth-buffer
Models and
method
Surface Rendering Methods

Algorithm
1 Initialize the depth buffer and the refresh buffer so that for all screen
positions (x, y),
depth(x, y) = 0, refresh(x, y) = Ibackground
2 For each position on each polygon surface, compare depth values to
previously stored values in the depth buffer to determine visibility
I Calculate the depth z for each (x, y) position on the polygon
I If z > buffer (x, y), then
depth(x, y) = z, refresh(x, y ) = Isurf (x, y) where

Ibackground = value for the background intensity

Isurf (x, y) = projected intensity value for the surface at pixel
position (x, y)
After all the surfaces have been processed,
1 Depth buffer contains depth values of the visible surfaces and
2 Refresh buffer contains the corresponding intensity values for those
surfaces
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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Introduction
Models and
Light
Surface
SourceRendering
Basic Illumination
Methods Models Ray Trac

Illumination Models and Surface Rendering Methods

Realistic displays of a scene are obtained by generating
I Perspective projections of objects
I Applying natural lighting effects to the visible surfaces
F Light reflections, transparency, surface texture, and shadows

Illumination model
Lighting model or shading model
Used to calculate the intensity of light that we should see at a given
point on the surface of an object

Surface-rendering algorithm
Uses the intensity calculations from an illumination model to determine
the light intensity for all projected pixel positions for the various surfaces
in the scene.

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Introduction
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Basic Illumination
Methods Models Ray Trac

Modelling the colors and lighting effects that we see on an object is

a complex process
Factors involved:
1 Object type
F Opaque or transparent
F Shiny or dull surfaces
2 Light sources of different
F Shapes
F Colors
F Positions
3 Object position relative to light sources and other objects in the
scene
Given the above factors, and the position and orientation of the
viewing plane, illumination methods calculate the intensity projected
from a particular surface point in a specified viewing direction.

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Introduction
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Surface
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Basic Illumination
Methods Models Ray Trac

Light Source
Point source - rays from such light sources follow radially diverging
paths from the source position
Light on transparent surface - some of the incident light will be
reflected, and some will be transmitted through the material
Light on an opaque surface - part of it is reflected and part of it is
absorbed
I Shiny surfaces reflect more of the incident light
I Dull surfaces absorb more of the incident light
Rough/dull surfaces - scatter the reflected light in all directions
I The scattered light - diffuse reflection

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Introduction
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Basic Illumination
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Light source
A very rough matte surface produces primarily diffuse reflections, so
that the surface appears equally bright from all viewing directions
shiny surfaces (polished metal, apple, a person’s forehead)- scatter
the reflected light more in one direction
I the scattered light - specular reflection

Diffuse reflections from a surface Specular reflections superimposed on

diffuse reflections

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Introduction
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Surface
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Basic Illumination
Methods Models Ray Trac

Basic Illumination Models

Simple methods for calculating light intensities
Produce reasonably good results for most scenes
All light sources are considered to be point sources, specified with a
coordinate position and an intensity value (color)

Ambient light
A surface that is not exposed directly to a light source will still be
visible if nearby objects are illuminated
Ambient light or background light - combination of light
reflections from various surfaces

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Introduction
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Basic Illumination
Methods Models Ray Trac

Ambient light
No spatial or directional characterstics
Each surface is illuminated with a constant level of ambient light -
set as Ia
The resulting reflected light - constant for each surface, independent
of the viewing direction and the spatial orientation of the surface
Intensity of the reflected light - depends on the optical properties of
the surface: how much of the incident energy is absorbed and how
much is reflected

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
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Diffuse reflection
constant over each surface in a scene, independent of the viewing
direction
kd - diffuse-reflection coefficient diffuse reflectivity - fractional
amount of the incident light that is diffusely reflected from a surface
To simulate a highly reflective surface kd is near 1 produces a bright
surface with the intensity of the reflected light near that of the
incident light
To simulate that absorbs most of the light kd is near 0

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
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Basic Illumination
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Diffuse reflection from ambient light

Surface exposed to ambient light only - intensity of diffuse reflection =
Iambdiff = kd Ia

Diffuse reflection from point source

Reflections scattered with equal intensity in all directions,
independent of the viewing direction - ideal diffuse reflectors
But the brightness of the surface depends on the orientation of the
surface relative to the light source
Angle of incidence between the incoming light direction and surface
normal = θ
Il = intensity of the point light source
Diffuse reflection = Il,diff = kd Il cosθ

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
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Figure: A surface ⊥ to the direction of the

incident light (a) is more illuminated than
an equal-sized surface at an oblique angle
(b) to the incident light

Figure: (a)Illuminated area projected ⊥ to the incident light (b) N, L, θ

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
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Diffuse reflection from point source

N = unit normal vector to the surface
L = unit direction vector to the point light source from the surface
N.L = cosθ
Il,diff = kd Il (N.L)

Combined diffuse reflection from point source and from ambient light
ka - ambient-reflection coefficient
Idiff = ka la + kd Il (N.L)

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Introduction
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Basic Illumination
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Figure: Diffuse reflections from a spherical surface illuminated by a point

light source for values 0 <= kd <= 1

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Introduction
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Basic Illumination
Methods Models Ray Trac

Figure: Diffuse
reflections from a
spherical surface
illuminated with
ambient light and
a single point
light source for
values of ka and
kd in the interval
(0,1)

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Introduction
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Basic Illumination
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Specular reflection
Result of total, or near total, reflection of the incident light in a
concentrated region around the specular reflection angle
Specular-reflection angle =angle of the incident light = θ
N - the unit normal surface vector
R - the unit vector in the direction of ideal specular reflection
L - the unit vector directed toward the point light source
V - the unit vector pointing to the viewer from the surface position
φ - the viewing angle relative to the specular-reflection direction R

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Introduction
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Basic Illumination
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Figure: specular reflection angle equals angle of incidence θ

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
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Specular reflection
Ideal reflector (perfect mirror)
I Incident light is reflected only in the direction of R
I We would only see reflected light when the vectors V and R coincide
Objects other than ideal reflectors
I Exhibit specular reflections over a finite range of viewing positions
around the vector R
I Shiny surfaces - have a narrow specular reflection range
I Dull surfaces - have a wider specular reflection range

Figure: Modeling
specular reflections
(shaded area) with
parameter ns

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
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Phong model
Empirical model for calculating the specular reflection range
Specular reflection range ∝cosns φ
φ - in the range 0 to 90 (cosφ - in the range of 0 to 1)
ns - specular-reflection parameter - determined by the type of the
surface we want to display
Very shiny surface - modeled with large values of ns , 100 or more
Dull surfaces - modeled with small values of ns , around 1

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Introduction
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Basic Illumination
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Phong model
Transparent materials - specular reflection depends on θ
Many opaque materials - specular reflection is nearly constant for all
incidence angles
We can assume a constant specular-reflection coefficient ks - in the
range of 0 and 1 for each surface
I Ispec = ks Il cosns φ
I cosφ = V.R
I Ispec = ks Il (V.R) ns
I R = (2N.L)N - L

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
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Combined Diffuse and Specular Reflections with Multiple

Light Sources

Single light source

I = Idiff + Ispec
I = ka Ia + kd Il (N.L) + ks Il (V.R)ns

Multiple light sources

Sum of the contributions from all individual light sources
I = ka Ia + ni=1 lli [kd (N.Li ) + ks (V.Ri )ns ]
P

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
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Intensity attenuation
As radiant energy from a point light source travels through space, its
amplitude is attenuated by the factor 1/d2
d = distance the light has travelled
Surfaces close to the light source - receive higher incident intensity
Surfaces far from the light source - receive lower incident intensity
Our illumination model should take this into account

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Introduction
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Intensity attenuation
Common attenuation function
1
f (d) =
a0 + a1 d + a2 d 2
Coefficients a0 , a1 , a2 can be varied to give different lighting effects
Limit the max value of f(d) to 1

1
f (d) = min(1, )
a0 + a1 d + a2 d 2
Using this function, we can write our basic illumination model as,
where di is the distance light travelled from light source i
n
X
I = ka Ia + f (di )lli [kd (N.Li ) + ks (V.Ri )ns ]
i=1

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
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Ray Tracing
Basic ray-tracing algorithm ray-traced displays are highly realistic,
but they require considerable computation time to generate
Best suited for applications where the image can be rendered slowly
ahead of time, such as in still images and film and television special
effects,
Poorly suited for real-time applications like video games where speed
is critical
Also provides for visible surface detection, shadow effects,
transparency, and multiple light source illuminations

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
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Figure: Ray tracing can achieve a very high degree of visual realism

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Introduction
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Basic ray-tracing algorithm

From the center of projection, we determine a ray path that passes
through the center of each screen-pixel position
Illumination effects accumulated along this ray path are then
assigned to the pixel
We determine the light ray contributions to a particular pixel by
tracing a light path backward from the pixel to the scene
Sending rays away from the camera instead of into it may seem
counter-intuitive
But since most of the rays that come from the light source don’t
make it to the pixels, sending rays backward is more efficient

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
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Figure: The ray tracing algorithm builds an image by extending rays into
a scene

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
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The algorithm
For each pixel ray, we test each surface in the scene to determine if
it is intersected by the ray
If a surface intersected, we calculate the distance from the pixel to
the surface-intersection point
The smallest calculated intersection distance identifies the visible
surface for that pixel
Then we reflect the ray off the visible surface along a specular path
If the surface is transparent, we also send a ray through the surface
in the refraction direction
I reflection and refraction rays - secondary rays
This procedure is repeated for the secondary rays:
I Objects are tested for intersection, and the nearest surface along a
secondary path is used to recursively produce the next generation of
reflection and refraction paths

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
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The algorithm (cont’d)

As the rays from the pixel bounce through the scene, each
successively intersected surface is added to a binary ray-tracing tree
Left branches - reflection paths
Right branches - transmission paths
Maximum depth of tree - user option or determined by amount of
storage available
Path terminated - if it reaches the maximum or if the ray strikes a
light source

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
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Figure: (a)reflection and refraction ray paths through a scene for a screen
pixel (b) binary ray-tracing tree for the paths shown in (a)

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
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The algorithm (cont’d)

Pixel intensity - determined by accumulating the intensity
contributions, starting at the bottom of its ray-tracing tree
Surface intensity from each node in the tree is attenuated by the
distance from the parent surface (next node up the tree) and added
to the intensity of the parent surface
Pixel intensity - sum of the attenuated intensities at the root node
of tree
If no surfaces are intersected by a pixel - ray tracing tree is empty -
pixel intensity is assigned the intensity of the background
If a pixel ray intersects a non-reflecting light source - pixel intensity
can be assigned the intensity of the light source Illumination Models
and Surface Rendering Methods

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3D Object Represetation Hidden surface removal methods Illumination
Introduction
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Light
Surface
SourceRendering
Basic Illumination
Methods Models Ray Trac

Z END

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