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In addition, the characteristics of the higher order terms of the linearization have not been fully
addressed within the literature. They have been successful in indentifying differences between
various bulk products. The above statements can be further examined by the relaxation times, which
are shown in Figure 3.5. As expected, the pattern of the relaxation time closely follows the correction
term, as expected. This formulation is easy to apply to various data sources since it is derived from a
bulk formula that uses an empirical transfer coefficient. Therefore, MERRA suggests that there is an
annual net heat gain over most of the Gulf of Mexico. The NCEP R1 and ERA-40 seem to have
similar a representation along the equator in the Indian Ocean, but the similarity ends there. However,
large differences exist in different regions across the globe. Over the midlatitudes, the values of
relaxation time continue to decrease in magnitude and extent. In these regions the sensitivity values
reach 35 to 40 Wm-2 K-1. This problem can be especially troublesome when determining a particular
data set to use when forcing a model. This point is further reinforced by the monthly breakdown of
the coupling coefficients. When the July relaxation times from all the formulations are compared
with a wind speed plot for July, the source is readily noticeable. To a smaller extent, there is a
maximum value present off west equatorial Africa in the Barnier and Kara formulations. For
example, globally integrated annual mean surface fluxes are nonzero so that a perfect model, forced
entirely by fluxes, would not give realistic solutions over long integrations (Killworth et al. 2000).
Second, the many shortcomings within the model itself present additional roadblocks to an
appropriate simulation. The most noticeable difference was the effect of the transfer coefficient. In
their study, the apparent temperature is colder by 2-3 K in the western boundary current regions.
However, drastic differences can be found over certain regions. Annual climate events, such as the
Indian monsoon, are depicted differently in each data set. Embed Host your publication on your
website or blog with just a few clicks. A smaller number means the modeled SST is pulled toward
the apparent temperature in a shorter time. Resources Dive into our extensive resources on the topic
that interests you. Even perfect fluxes, with a closed global heat budget, cannot be used as the only
forcing for a stand-alone ocean model because the model’s “climatology” is not perfect (Wallcraft et
al. 2008). These limitations can lead to problems when attempting to provide a thermal forcing to an
ocean model. It should be noted that if the reference used were the Barnier formulation, the
linearized version of the fluxes would be a suitable approximation to the first order. The NCEP R1
data set exhibits much shorter relaxation times over the southern Indian Ocean. With that in mind,
the Kara and Barnier formulations will be compared in this section. So, instead of relaxing toward a
temperature value, the modeled temperature is relaxed toward a value that also includes the net heat
flux and their respective dependence on the SST. State University’s School of Library and
Information Studies, working. However, the comparisons with the other data sets suggest otherwise.
View Outline MORE DECKS TO EXPLORE PRESENTATION OUTLINE 1. The NCEP R1 and
ERA-40 data sets have a similar representation of the apparent temperature.
The differences in the tropics are fairly constant through the year. This suggests that linearizing about
the air temperature or SST does not create much difference. Without a consistent forcing field, it is
impossible to produce an accurate simulation of the ocean circulation. GIFs Highlight your latest
work via email or social media with custom GIFs. The latent heat term continues to be the highest
contributor to the total correction term. Page 29. One area extends off the Horn of Africa and the
other emanates from the Bay of Bengal. Also, many of the deficiencies of this reanalysis have been
thoroughly documented. In order to gain a more complete picture of the flux characteristics the
coupling coefficient and relaxation times would need to be computed at each respective time step
and then averaged. The correction term is made up of each component of the net heat flux and their
respective dependence on To. The aim of the first section is to isolate the differences and show
where they originate. QR Codes Generate QR Codes for your digital content. Every atmospheric
data product uses varying assimilation techniques and parameterizations to produce the output
variables. The role these higher order terms have in the representation of the total heat flux and the
amount of residual they produce will be examined in the following chapter. 2.4 Data Sets Three
different bulk formulations will be examined using a single data set and five different data sets by
using one of the bulk formulations. Along the Southern Ocean, the ERA-40 and MERRA are both
very similar with a nearly identical area of longer relaxation time south of Australia. The temperature
difference is assumed to be 1oC between TM and To. It is likely that the wind, the SST, or possibly
both, are lower in the NCEP R1 data set over this region than in the other global datasets examined.
Teams Enable groups of users to work together to streamline your digital publishing. These
differences are shown in Figure 3.2. Generally, the Kara formulation has values that are 5-15 Wm-2
K-1 higher. This will provide insight into the differences between the data sets and how they would
affect the heat flux and evolution of the modeled SST. A higher apparent temperature suggests
smaller flux sensitivity with respect to the net heat flux. Issuu turns PDFs and other files into
interactive flipbooks and engaging content for every channel. Additionally, the ERA-40 begins to
exhibit its negative bias compared to NCEP R1 and MERRA south of the upwelling region off of
Peru. Residual fluxes were calculated assuming a temperature difference of 1oC between Qnet(TM)
and Qnet(To). All four of these data sets mainly exhibit negative values over the Gulf, which shows
a net heat loss. The apparent temperature and SST difference plot reinforces this. The western
boundary currents also have varying representations within each data set. Examining the
characteristics of gap flow off Central America identified stark contrasts in the datasets. The da Silva
formulation creates a boundary condition in which the apparent temperature is lower. The UWM-
COADS and MERRA are similar, as much of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans are gaining heat.
However, large differences exist in different regions across the globe.
This pattern is seen more clearly in the northern hemisphere Page 28. These variables are the
correction term, the relaxation time, and the apparent temperature. First, each formulation uses a
different data set spanning a different time period to produce the fields of the coupling coefficient
and apparent equilibrium temperature. QR Codes Generate QR Codes for your digital content. Teams
Enable groups of users to work together to streamline your digital publishing. For each data set we
will use the same input variables: air temperature, sea surface temperature, wind speed at 10 meters,
and relative humidity. Therefore, the u and v components of the wind were taken at each time step in
the Page 37. It is important to note that the linearization of this bulk formulation and its
characteristics has yet to be thoroughly described in the literature. The University of Wisconsin-
Milwaukee (UWM) COADS data set does provide monthly means of total constrained coupling
coefficient. MERRA displays shorter relaxation times and the ERA-40 displays longer relaxation
times. In July, the highest values of apparent temperature spread farther north. The values of the
latent and sensible heat transfer coefficients were taken from Bunker (1976). More Features
Connections Canva Create professional content with Canva, including presentations, catalogs, and
more. We will show that this creates a large difference when compared to other coupling coefficient
formulations. Page 25. Further, da Silva et al. (1994) fine-tuned their fluxes so that a closed budget
could be produced. A lower resolution dataset, such as the NCEP R1, could diffuse the upwelling
effect over a larger area. Obviously, this is a smaller scale phenomenon in comparison to the other
features noted previously. One other interesting difference is the spatial variability. The Kara
formulation exhibits the largest values of the coupling coefficient during those months and extends
those values over a larger area. Over the Southern Ocean the ERA-40 and MERRA are most similar.
The Barnier formulation exhibits the longest relaxation times with a range from 30 days in the
tropics and approaching 90 days closer to the poles. Over the last year and a half, Benton spent his
time as a graduate research assistant at the Center for Ocean-Atmospheric Prediction Studies
(COAPS), where he researched various bulk heat flux formulations and their potential use for data
set comparison. This difference can be attributed to a low wind speed bias, which has been noted
within the NARR. All data sets differences are done with respect to the ERA-40 data set. In this
region, the SSTs are lower which causes the coupling coefficient to be lower. Articles Get discovered
by sharing your best content as bite-sized articles. Most noticable in regions of higher wind speeds,
the Kara formulation produces a larger correction term and shorter relaxation time. The Kara
formulation does show a positive bias in the midlatitudes and a negative bias in the tropics when
compared to the da Silva Formulation. Fig. 3.3 Annual apparent temperature from the da Silva
formulation (left), Kara formulation (right), and Barnier formulation (bottom). Page 44. Similar to
the annual comparisons of relaxation time, the Kara formulation shows more distinct peaks and has a
clear minimum along the equator. This will illuminate where the bulk formulas are most sensitive to
data input.
During this month the MERRA and NARR produce lower relaxation times off the southern Mexican
coast while the ERA-40 produces its lowest relaxation times off Central America. The Kara
formulation has larger apparent temperatures over the western boundary currents suggesting a larger
heat flux from the ocean. The conclusions and future work will be discussed in Chapter 5. Page 18.
When the July relaxation times from all the formulations are compared with a wind speed plot for
July, the source is readily noticeable. The representation of the turbulent fluxes follows the bulk
aerodynamic formulas for the latent and sensible heat flux. The purpose of this approach is to gain a
rough picture of how the data sets would differ if used to force a model. The comparison of the
linearized bulk formulas showed distinct differences with the data sets. The NCEP R1 and ERA-40
show larger heat loss over the Gulf of Mexico, especially over the eastern side of the basin. In order
to gain a more complete picture of the flux characteristics the coupling coefficient and relaxation
times would need to be computed at each respective time step and then averaged. While the bulk
aerodynamic formulas use the same input data, they can have different methods for calculating the
various components of the equation, such as the heat transfer coefficient and specific humidity. This
corresponds to the higher apparent temperatures from NARR in that region. 4.2 Monthly
Comparisons In this section, the monthly characteristics of each dataset are explored. Although error
is introduced with our calculations, we now gain the ability to compare the individual components of
the derivative heat flux. It is clear that the linearized Barnier formulation produces a much larger
residual flux. In particular, the Han and Barnier representations are fairly similar with respect to both
the coupling coefficient and the apparent equilibrium temperature. Depending on the temperature
difference, the residual flux remaining in the second order and above terms can reach as much as 40-
50% of the total residual on a monthly time scale. While these characteristics exist in each data set,
there are distinct differences. The Kara formulation, which was introduced with the objective of
being more computationally efficient than formulations such as da Silva’s, produces a result that is
comparable in both spatial distribution and magnitude. So, the second order terms would have to be
considered for addition if the disparity between the modeled and observed SST is assumed to be
large. Page 54. FSU Librarians are here to help Chat, text, email us Ask us anything Schedule a
consultation LibGuides 4. The last region of interest is off Baja California and the western United
States. MERRA produces a smaller region of negative values. View Outline MORE DECKS TO
EXPLORE PRESENTATION OUTLINE 1. Most noticable in regions of higher wind speeds, the
Kara formulation produces a larger correction term and shorter relaxation time. For example, by
looking at relaxation times produced by MERRA it can be inferred that MERRA would produce
lower fluxes over the western boundary currents and higher fluxes over the tropics. In the
midlatitudes, the data sets alter their characteristics. Adobe InDesign Design pixel-perfect content
like flyers, magazines and more with Adobe InDesign. This method of comparison can be extended
beyond this study. The ERA-40 maintains an area of relaxation time around 22 to 24 days over the
same area. Long-term monthly means are provided for each variable needed. Since the transfer
coefficient in the Kara formulation depends on both temperature difference and wind speed, the wind
can produce more noticeable traits within the Kara formulation.
Issuu turns PDFs and other files into interactive flipbooks and engaging content for every channel.
Haney (1971) introduced a boundary condition which is formulated by linearizing a bulk heat flux
formula about a specific temperature. The calculations with the MERRA data set do Page 40. Adobe
Express Go from Adobe Express creation to Issuu publication. Since both upward and downward
shortwave radiation is independent of SST, its contribution to the correction term is zero. The
Barnier formulation produces residual flux values upwards of 30 Wm-2. It should also be noted that
the NCEP R1 is a full degree cooler in this region as well. While the use of this data set has become
more obsolete recently, it is still useful to examine. Obviously, this is a smaller scale phenomenon in
comparison to the other features noted previously. Their expertise and suggestions have been
exceedingly valuable during the research process. By linearizing about the SST, an equation is
produced that gives the sensitivity to the SST for each bulk formula. Social Posts Create on-brand
social posts and Articles in minutes. As noted previously, the Kara formulation produces the greatest
sensitivities since it is more dependent on wind. The da Silva formulation is much more continuous
between 30 degrees north and south. Da Silva formulation (left), Kara formulation (right), and
Barnier formulation (bottom).31 3.2 Difference plots of the annual values of the correction term.
Recall that the Kara formulation uses a wind and temperature difference dependent empirical transfer
coefficient. Having transfer coefficients that are dependent on temperature differences and wind
speed does add a noticeable effect to the heat flux product. The area of shorter relaxation times over
the central Pacific continues to compress into an oval south of Hawaii. Every atmospheric data
product uses varying assimilation techniques and parameterizations to produce the output variables.
Add Links Send readers directly to specific items or pages with shopping and web links. The
MERRA data set exhibits a slightly smaller region of heat loss over the western boundary currents
compared to the lower resolution global reanalysis. A higher apparent temperature suggests smaller
flux sensitivity with respect to the net heat flux. MERRA produces a smaller region of negative
values. Performing the linearization around the SST is similar to the method used by da Silva et al.
(1994) and Barnier et al. (1995) in their analyses of a surface heat flux boundary condition. The
differences in higher latitudes are maximized in the respective winter months and minimized during
the summer months. This will illuminate where the bulk formulas are most sensitive to data input.
Being able to see these differences can give a modeler a better idea of which data set to use for
forcing a particular model. There are a few basic methods for determining the transfer coefficient.
Committee, an institutional review board (IRB), and will follow all. Off the coast of Peru, MERRA
has a representation close to that of the ERA-40.
It's like a masterclass to be explored at your own pace. The main components that differentiate this
formulation from the other two to be examined is the use of the Large and Pond (1981) formulation
for the latent and sensible heat transfer coefficients. Also, many of the deficiencies of this reanalysis
have been thoroughly documented. The Kara formulation has the next highest apparent temperature
and the da Silva formulation has the lowest. Another interesting observation can be seen in the
apparent temperature difference plots. Video Say more by seamlessly including video within your
publication. To a smaller extent, there is a maximum value present off west equatorial Africa in the
Barnier and Kara formulations. In their study, the apparent temperature is colder by 2-3 K in the
western boundary current regions. So while the annual differences are small, the monthly Page 78.
The Barnier formulation exhibits maximum sensitivities in the range of 40 to 50 Wm-2 K-1. GIFs
Highlight your latest work via email or social media with custom GIFs. In addition, the bulk formulas
used to do the linearization featured a stability dependent transfer coefficient based on the
formulation from Large and Pond (1982). MERRA stands out in this region, depicting longer
relaxation times over the two western boundary currents. Articles Get discovered by sharing your
best content as bite-sized articles. Also local maximums and minimums vary in magnitude between
each data set. We use the same assumption for the upward longwave radiation in formulating the
Kara formulation as was done in the Barnier formulation. In contrast, the wind and stability
dependent heat transfer coefficient of the Kara formulation produces much lower residuals. Greater
sensitivities suggest that the input data will have a greater impact on the output fluxes. In Haney’s
seminal paper he linearized the heat flux about the air temperature. The MERRA data set has a
representation vastly different when compared to both the NCEP R1 and ERA-40. With that in
mind, the Kara and Barnier formulations will be compared in this section. Help Center Here you'll
find an answer to your question. In the midlatitudes, the oceanic western boundary currents stand
out. The apparent temperature and SST difference plot reinforces this. Bulk aerodynamic formulas
were derived to compute the fluxes directly from atmospheric variables. This is directly related to the
wind and temperature difference dependence in the Kara formulation’s transfer coefficient and the
stability dependence of the Large and Pond transfer coefficient within the da Silva formulation.
State University’s School of Library and Information Studies, working. The derivation and
implementation of this boundary condition will be thoroughly discussed in Chapter 2 of this paper.
This attribute can be explained by the dearth of observations in the southern hemisphere. The
difference between the Kara and da Silva apparent temperatures has another distribution, as can
been seen in Fig. 3.4. The representation over the boundary currents is much closer.