1 UNIT

Introduction to
Blockchain

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Introduction to Blockchain 1-2P to 1-12P

Part-2 : Digital Money to Distributed 1-12P to 1-24P

Ledgers
Part-3: Design Primitives : 1-25P to 1-29P
Protocols, Security, Consensus,
Permissions, Privacy
Part-4 : Blockchain Architecture 1-29P to 1-33P
and Design
Part-5 : Basic Crypto Primitives .1-33P to 1-34P
Hash, Signature
Part-6: Hashchain to Blockchain ... 1-34P to 1-35P
Part-7 : Basic Consensus Mechanism .............. 1-35P to 1-40P

1-1P (IT-6/CS-7)
1-2 P (IT-6/CS-7) Introduction to Blockchain

PART- 1
Introduction to Blockchain.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.1. What do you mean by blockchain ? What are the

properties/features of blockchain ?
Answer
1 Blockchain is a specific type of database.
2 Blockchain is a shared, immutable ledger that facilitates the process of
recording transactions and tracking assets in a business network.
3 An asset can be tangible (a house, car, cash, land) or intangible
(intellectual property, patents, copyrights, branding).
4 The blockchain can be stored as a flat file, or in a simple database.
5. The blockchain data structure is an ordered back-linked list of blocks of
transactions.
6 Blocks are linked "back", each referring to the previous block in the
chain.
7 The blockchain is often visualized as a vertical stack, with blocks
on top ofeach other and the first block ever serving as the layered
the stack.
foundation of
8 Blockchain is a type of Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) in which
transactions are recorded with an immutable cryptographic signature
called a hash.
Properties of blockchain :
1.
Programmable: Ablockchain is programmable, i.e.,smart contracts.
2 Secure: All records are individually encrypted.
3. Immutable : Any validated records are irreversible and cannot be
changed.
4. Distributed : All network participants have a copy of the ledger for
complete transparency.
5. Decentralized: All the data is stored in a decentralized manner and no
single entity has control over it.
6. Time-stamped: Atransaction time-stamp is recorded on a block.
 1-3P (IT-6/CS-7)
Blockchain Architecture Design

7.
Unanimous: All network participants agree to the validity of each of
the records.

Que 1.2. What is the motivation behind blockchain ? Explain the

need for blockchain.

Answer
Motivation behind Blockchain :
1 Blockchain attempts to address the uncertainty existing in the financial
transactions.
2. For example, the buyer expects fair goods for his money. The seller
expects to receive the payment once he delivers the goods.
3 However, there would be a lack of trust between the parties intending
to enter into the agreement.
4. Hence, a need fora third party arises that provides the trust platform
for both the parties.
5. This mediating party assures the seller and buyer legitimate trade.
6. Trusting a third party however requires a lot of research and knowledge.
7. Blockchain aimed to overcome this uncertainty by implementing the
applications in a secure and decentralized way.
8. Blockchain is gaining more and more acceptance and adoption, in the
trustless society, precisely due to this reason.
9 Decentralization is an essential motivating factor contributing to the
development and success of blockchain.
10. The decentralization is achieved by distributing the computation tasks
toall the nodes.
Need for Blockchain:Need for blockchain is due to the following reasons :
1. Faster settlements:Traditional bankingsystems have time-consuming
process for the settlement of transactions. But, blockchain reduced the
time significantly.
2. Security :Cryptography functions and consensus protocols enable
secured transactions in blockchain.
3. Immutable : Since blocks are immutable, tampering of the block is
very difficult.
4 Transparent :Since blockchain is adecentralized system, third-party
intervention is not needed at all. All stockholders of the network can
participate in the network. This ensures transparency.
Que 1.3. What are different types of blockchain ?
 Introduction to Blockchain
1-4P (IT-6/CS-7)

Answer
three types :
Blockchain technologies can be divided into following
A. Public blockehain :
system and known
1. Public blockchains are regarded as open sourcejoin in the network.
participant can
as permissionless ledger and any
network.
2 Nopermission is needed to join the
the network
3. Participants have full rights for reading and writing into
and have same copy of the ledger.
networks due to the
4. Public blockchain work seamlessly in trustless
immutable nature of the records.
Ethereum.
5 Examples of public blockchain are Bitcoin and
Node

Node Node

Node

Fig. 1.3.1. Public blockchain.

B. Private blockchain :
1. They are permissioned ledger and restricts access to only selected
participants of the network.
Each contributor in the network will have the whole record of the
2.
transactions and the associated blocks.
3. All blocks are encrypted by a private key and cannot be interpreted
by anyone.
4. They are controlled only by authorized users.
5. Users can be validated with the support of identity nmanagement
system.
6. Private blockchain involves trusted network and is suitable for
sharing the ledger internally.
7. Examples of private blockchain are Hyperledger, Corda, and
Quorum.
Blockchain Architecture Design 1-5 P (IT-6/CS-7)

Node

Bridge

Node Node

Bridge
Bridge

Bridge

Node

Fig. 1.3.2. Private blockchain.

C. Consortium blockchain :
1 Consortium blockchains are permissioned blockchains governed
by a group of organizations rather than one entity.
2 Consortium blockchains are more decentralized than private
blockchains, resulting in higher levels of security.
3. Setting up consortiums is a difficult process as it requires cooperation
between a number of organizations, which presents logistical
challenges as well as potential antitrust risk.
4 Also, some participating organizations may not have the needed
technology or the infrastructure to implement blockchain tools.
5. Hyperledger, Corda, and R3CEV are some consortium blockchains.
 1-6P (IT-6/CS-7) Introduction to Blockchain

Node

Bridge

Node Node

Bridge
Bridge

Node

Fig. 1.3.3. Consortium blockchain.

Que 1.4. List the advantages and disadvantages of public, private

and consortium blockchain.

Answer
A Advantages and disadvantages of public
blockchain:
Advantages :
1. Public blockchains are completely independent of
the organization that started it ceases organizations, so if
to exist the public blockchain will
still be able to run.
2 Publicblockchains have high level of network's
3. Public blockchains are transparency.
mostly scure, as long as the users follow security
protocols and methods fastidiously.
Disadvantages :
1. The network can be slow,
and companies can't restrict access or use.
Blockchain Architecture Design 1-7P (IT-6/CS-7)
2. Ifhackers gain 51% or more of the computing power of a public
network, they can unilaterally alter it. blockchain
3 Public blockchains don't
scale well. The network slows down as more
nodes join the network.
B. Advantages and disadvantages of private
blockchain :
Advantages :
1. In private blockchain the controlling
organization sets permission levels,
security, authorizations and accessibility.
2. Private blockchains are fast and
can process transactions more quickly
than public blockchains.
3. Private blockchains can support and process a lot of higher transactions.
Disadvantages :
1 Private blockchains aren't true blockchains, since the core philosophy of
blockchain is decentralization.
2. It's difficult to fully trust the information, since cent:ralized nodes
determine what is valid.
3. The source code from private blockchains is often proprietary and closed.
Users can't independently audit it, which can lead to less security.
C. Advantages and disadvantages of consortium blockchain :
Advantages :
1. Aconsortium blockchain tends to be more secure, scalable and efficient
than a public blockchain network.
2. Like private blockchain, it also offers accesS controls.
Disadvantages :
1. Consortium blockchain is less transparent than public blockchain.
2 It can be compromised if a member node is breached.
3 Consortium blockchain's own regulations can impair the network's
functionality.
Que l.5.Explain the major elements of the blockchain ecosystem
in detail. AKTU2020-21, 2021-22; Marks 07
Answer
Following are four main elements/components in a complete blockchain
ecosystem:
A Network of nodes:
1. All nodes are connected together to form a network that validates
and maintains all the transactions.
2 Consensus protocol isused to validate each transaction.
1-8 P (IT-6/CS-7) Introduction to Blockchain

3 When the transactions are validated, they are recorded in the

blockchain.
4. This process of recording the transactions into the blockchain is
known as mining of the blocks.
5. Block in blockchain can bhave zero or multiple number of
transactions.
B. Distributed database:
1. Blockchain is a network and a database. It stores the data generated
by the network.
2. Unlike central databases, blockchain resides in every node of the
blockchain network.
3. So, the copy of the blockchain is with every node.
4. Each block will have list of transactions,timestamp, and information
about the previous block.
5. This linkage to the previous block makes blockchain immutable.
6. If data in a block are tampered, then the hash of the block changes,
which will make all blocks after the tampered block invalid.
C. Shared ledger:
1. The ledger is shared among all nodes.
2. If an attacker tries to tamper with the blockchain, then the attacker
needs to make the change in every single node in the network.
3. This makes attacking difficult.
4. Totamper the blockchain, the attacker needs the control of at least
51% of the nodes in the network.
D. Cryptography:
1. Data in blockchain are cryptographically hashed.
2. Hash function is a one-way function i.e., hash can be generated
from the plain text, but deriving the plain text from the hash is
extremely difficult.
Thus, tracking of information and unauthorized tampering of data
cannot be done.

Que 1.6. How does a blockchain work ?

Answer
The following steps are involved in the working of blockchain :
1 Users initiate a transaction in the network. The transaction could be
contracts, cryptocurrency or records of other information.
2. The request for the transaction has to be represented as block in the
network.
Blockchain Architecture Design 1-9 P (IT-6/CS-7)
3. The block is created first and then disseminated to the participants of
the network.
4 All participants analyze the received block from the network and validate
that block.
5 The block validation is done with the support of consensus algorithm.
6 Members of the network validate the block for attaching the block to
the network.
7 The new block is attached to the network and transaction gets completed.
8 Block added with the consent of members of the network becomes
permanent and immutable.
Block created Block is broadcasted
User request for the to all other nodes in
for transaction
transaction network

Block is
Transaction is Nodes certify the
added to the
executed block
chain

Fig. 1.6.1. Working of blockchain.

Que 1.7. What is a blockchain database ?

Answer
1 A blockchain database utilizes blockchain technology to create an
immutable ledger of transactions.
2. Blockchain technology relies on peer-to-peer decentralized transactions
meaning that it is a distributed ledger.
3 This offers greater security and removes the need for any single
controlling entity that retains administration rights over the database.
4 The data structure involves data being recorded in blocks.
5. As each new block or transaction is recorded, it is added to the previous
one to form a chain of data records or a blockchain.
6. As a result, a blockchain contains every transaction recorded since the
ledger was started.
7. The technology relies on a consensus algorithm that requires a majority
of the nodes on the network to validate any new transactions.
8 This makes any unauthorized modifications or any attempts to tamper
with the data extremely difficult.
9. Ablockchain as a database can contain any information.
10. Blockchains are not really good at storing vast amounts of data due to
network limitations and cost.
 1-10P (IT-6/CS-7) Introduction to Blockchain

Que 1.8. What is a blockchain database ? How does a blockchain

work ? AKTU2019-20, Marks 07

Answer
Blockchain database : Refer Q. 1.7, Page 1-9P, Unit-1.
Blockchain working: Refer Q. 1.6, Page 1-8P, Unit-1.
Que 1.9. Blockchain is a distributed database. How is it different

from a traditional database? AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

OR
What is the difference between blockchain and database ?
AKTU2020-21, Marks 07
OR
Name organizations that can use blockchain technology. What is
the difference between blockch ain and database ?
AKTU 2021-22, Marks 07

Answer

S. No. Blockchain Database

1. Blockchain is decentralized The database is centralized
because there is no admin or because it has admins and in
in-charge. charge.
2 Blockchain is permissionless The database required permission
because anyone can access because it can be accessed only by
it entities who have rights to access.
3 Blockchains are slow. Databases are fast.
4. It has a history ofrecords and It has no history of records and
ownership of digital records. ownership of records.
5. Blockchain is fully The database is not fully
confidential. confidential.
6. Blockchain has only Insert The database has Create, Read,
operation. Update, and Delete operation.
7 It is a fully robust technology. It is not entirely robust technology.
8 Disintermediation is allowed Disintermediation is not allowed
with blockchain. with the database.
 1-11 P(IT-6/CS-7)
Blockchain Architecture Design

entitled toread or
9 Anyone with the right proof Only entities
of work can write on the
write can do so.
blockchain.
10. Blockchain is not recursive. The database is recursive. Here,
Here, we cannot go back to we can go back to repeat a task on
repeat a task on any record. a particular record.

Following are the organizations that use blockchain technology :

1. Bank and Finance : HSBC, Barclays, VISA.
2. Supply Chain: Walmart, Unilever.
3. Healthcare : Pfizer, Change Healthcare, CDC.
4. Insurance: MetLife, AIG.
5. Energy: Siemens, Shell.
6. Travel : Etihad Airways, Singapore Airlines, British Airways.

Que 1.10. What are the advantages / benefits of blockchain ?

Explain in detail.
Answer
Following are the advantages / benefits of blockchcin:
1. Accuracy of the chain:Transactions on the blockchain network are
approved by a network of thousands of computers. This removes almost
all human involvement in the verification process, resulting in less
human error and an accurate record of information.
2.
Cost reductions : Blockchain eliminates the need for third-party
verification and, with it, their associated costs.
3. Decentralization: Blockchain does not store any of its information in
a central location. Instead, the information is copied and spread across a
network of computers. Whenever a new block is added, every computer
on the network updates its blockchain to reflect the change.
4. Efficient transactions: Blockchain works 24 hours a day, seven days
a week, and 365 days a year. Transactions can be completed in as little as
ten minutes and can be considered secure after just a few hours.
5. Secure transactions :Once a transaction is recorded, its authenticity
must be verified by the blockchain network. After a computer has
validated the transaction, it is added to the blockchain block. Each block
on the blockchain contains its own unique hash, along with the unique
hash of the block before it.
6. Transparency : Most blockchains are entirely open-source software.
This means that anyone and everyone can view its code. This makes
blockchain more transparent.
1-12 P (IT-6/CS-7) Introduction to Blockchain

Que 1.11. What are the limitations of blockchain ? Explain in

detail. AKTU2020-21, Marks 07
OR
Mention various limitations of blockchaining in detail with proper
representation. |AKTU2021-22,Marks 07
Answer
Following are the limitations/disadvantages of blockchain :
1,
Scalability is an issue : Blockchains are not scalable as their
counterpart centralized system. Due to this there is problem of network
congestion. The more people or nodes join the network, the chances of
slowing down is more.
2. Consume too much energy : Bitcoin incentivizes the miner's to solve
complex mathematical problems. The high energy consumption is what
makes these complex mathematical problems not so ideal for the real
world. Every time the ledger is updated with a new transaction, the
miners need to solve the problems which means spending a lot of energy.
3 Datais immutable : Data immutability has always been one of the
biggest disadvantages of the blockchain. For example, you have processed
payment and need to go back and make an amendment to change that
payment,you cannot do that.
4. Blockchains are inefficient : There are multiple blockchain
technologies which have alot of inefficiencies within the systen, This is
one of the big disadvantages of blockchain. For example, the blockchain
technology used by Bitcoin is not efficient in data storage.
5. Not completely secure : Blockchain technology is more secure than
other platforms. However, this doesn't mean that it is completely secure.
There are different ways the blockchain network can be compromised
like 51% attack, double-spending, DDoS's attack,cryptographic cracking,
etc.
6. Cost of implementation : The underlying cost of implementing
blockchain technology is huge. Even though most of the blockchain
solutions are open source, they require a lot of investment from the
organization that is willing to pursue it.
7. Expertise knowledge : Implementing and managing a blockchain
project is hard. Business's need to hire multiple experts in the blockchain
field that leads to the problem and hence it is counted as one of the
disadvantages of blockchain.
PART-2
Digital Money to Distributed Ledgers.
Blockchain Architecture Design 1-13 P (IT-6/CS-7)

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.12. What is digital money ?

Answer
1. Digital money (or digital currency) refers to any means of payment that
exists in a purely electronic form.
2. Digital money is not a physically tangible asset like cash.
3 It is accounted for and transferred using online systems.
4 One well-known form of digital money is the cryptocurrency Bitcoin.
5. Digital money can also represent fiat currencies, such as rupees or
dollars.
6 Digital money is exchanged using technologies such as smartphones,
credit cards, and online cryptocurrency exchanges.
7. In some cases, it can be converted into physical cash through the use of
an ATM.
8. Digital money is susceptible to hacks and can compromise user privacy.
Que 1.13. What are distributed ledgers ?
Answer
1 A distributed ledger is a database that is consensually shared and
synchronized across multiple sites, institutions, or geographies, accessible
by multiple people.
2 It allows transactions to have public "witnesses."
3. The participant at each node of the network can access the recordings
shared across that network and can own an identical copy of it.
4 Any changes or additions made to the ledger are reflected and copied to
all participants in a matter of seconds or minutes.
5 Adistributed ledger is different from centralized ledger, which is the
type of ledger that most companies use.
6 Acentralized ledger is more prone to cyber attacks and fraud, as it has
a single point of failure.
7. Distributed ledgers use the same technology that is used by blockchain.
8. Blockchain is a type of distributed ledger used by bitcoin.
9. Bitcoin is a virtual currency that can be used for payments with
transaction fees less than conventional online payment methods.
1-14 P (IT-6/CS-7) Introduction to Blockchain

10. Ethereum is also an example of a distributed ledger. It enables the

developers to create their own applications.
11. Ripple is another example of a distributed ledger that is an open-source
ledger focusing on payments, especially cross-border transactions.
Que 1.14. Differentiate digital money and distributed ledger.

Answer
S. No. Digital money Distributed ledger
1 Digital money refers to any Adistributed ledger is merely a type
means of payment that exists of database spread across multiple
in a purely electronic form. sites, regions, or participants.
2.
Digital moneyis susceptible Distributed ledgers are inherently
to hacks. harder to hacks because all of the
distributed copies need to be
attacked simultaneously for an
attack to be successful.
3 Bitcoin is a form of digital Biteoin uses blockchain which is a
money. type of distributed ledger.

Que 1.15. What is a ledger? Is blockchain an incorruptible ledger ?

Explain common types of ledgers that can be considered by users in
blockchain. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
Ledger : Aledger is the principal book or computer file for recording and
adding economic transactions measured in terms of a monetary unit. A
ledger is a file that is growing continuously. It stores the permanent record of
allthe transactions taking place between the two parties on the blockchain
network.

Is blockehain an incorruptible ledger:

1. The blockchain is an incorruptible digital ledger of economic transactions
that can be programmed to record not just financial transactions but
virtually everything of value.
2. Blockchain is considered incorruptible. Any ill-intentioned individual
acting alone is powerless.
3 To take over the network, an attacker would have to control more than
51 percent of its total computing power.
4 Also the attacker requires energy to power the computers needed for
the blockchain system to work.
Blockchain Architecture Design 1-15 P (IT-6/CS-7)

Ledgers used in blockchain:

A Centralized ledgers :
1 Acentralized ledger system is a compilation of all transactions which
is controlled by a single entity.
2 Acentralized ledger system has a single point of control.
3 In centralized ledger system internal and external reconciliation of
data is required toensure the integrity of transactions.
4. The centralized system provides no restrictions on the operations
which can be performed in the ledger.
5. For example, any user can modify a transaction and back date
them. This can lead to misstatement of financial transactions and
fraudulent activities.
6 To avoid such transactional errors a decentralized system or a
distributed ledger can be used.
B. Decentralized ledgers:
1. In decentralized ledger the control and decision-making is
transferred from a centralized entity to a distributed network.
2 In a decentralized ledger no one has to know or trust anyone else.
3 Each member in the network has a copy of the exact same data in
the form of a distributed ledger.
4. If a member's ledger is altered or corrupted in any way, it will be
rejected by the majority of the members in the network.
5. In adecentralized ledger services are provided with better
performance and consistency, as well as a reduced likelihood of
catastrophic failure.
C. Distributed ledger:
1. A distributed ledger, also known as a shared ledger, is a list of
shared and synchronized data which are geographically spread
across multiple sites.
2. The data is exactly replicated and synchronized across all locations
to maintain data integrity, availability and resiliency.
3. Unlike the centralized system, there is no central administrator or
single point of control.
4. If one location abruptly fails then the remaining location has the
capacity to maintain the ledger or all transaction details.
5. This way a distributed ledger provides real-time information and
reduced error or fail rates of transactions.
6. This also reduces the costs of infrastructure as compared to the
centralized ledger system.
1-16 P (IT-6/CS-7) Introduction to Blockchain

7 A distributed ledger uses a peer-to-peer network to communicate

with nodes which are spread around the globe.

Que 1.16. How is blockchain distributed ledger different from a

traditional ledger ? AKTU2020-21, Marks 07
OR
What are function modifiers in solidity ? How is blockchain
distributed ledger different from a traditional ledger?
|AKTU2021-22, Marks 07

Answer
Function Modifiers in Solidity :
1 Function Modifiers are code that can be run before andor after a function
call.
2 Function Modifiers are used tomodify the behaviour of a function.
3. Function Modifiers can be used to:
i. Restrict access
: Validate inputs
:iüi. Guard against reentrancy hack

S. No. Blockchain ledger Traditional ledger

1. Information registered on a Information registered on a
blockchain distributed traditional ledger is reversible.
ledgers is irreversible.
2. A blockchain distributed | Atraditional ledger is less secure
ledger is more secure. than blockchain distributed ledger.
3 In a blockchain distributed TraditiQnal ledgers are based on the
ledger, there is no central concept of centralized control, which
authority. controls all transactions.

4 In a blockehain distributed In traditional ledger identities of all

ledger, identities of all participants have to be known
participants are unknown before the transactions happen.
and hidden.
5. In a blockchain distributed Traditional ledgers have a single
ledger, there is no single point of failure. Ifa single system
point of failure as the data is crashes, the entire network comes
distributed and information to a standstill.
is shared across multiple
nodes.
Blockchain Architecture Design 1-17P (IT-6/CS-7)

6 Ina blockchain distributed | In a traditional ledger, data

ledger, data modification or modification or change is possible.
change cannot be done.
7. In a blockchain distributed In atraditional ledger, validation is
ledger,validation is done by done by acentralized authority.
the participants in the
network.

8. The copy of the ledger is Inatraditionalledger, asingle copy

shared amongstparticipants is maintained in a centralized
in a blockchain distributed location. It is not shared amongst
ledger. the participants.

Que 1.17. Write a short note on : Bitcoin.

Answer
1. Bitcoin is a digital and global money system cryptocurrency.
2 It allows people to send or receive money across the internet.
3. It is the first of its kind technology that allows the transfer of digital
currency across the internet without needing a third party.
4. Money can be exchanged without being linked to a real identity.
5 The mathematical field of eryptography is the basis for Biteoin's security.
6. There are no physical Bitcoins, only balances kept on a publicledger
that everyone has transparent access to.
7. All Bitcoin transactions are verified by a massive amount of computing
power via a process known as "mining."
8. Bitcoin is built on a distributed digital record called a blockchain.
9 Blockchain is a record of all transactions that have taken place in the
Biteoin network.
10. It also keeps track of new Bitcoins as they are generated.
Que 1.18. How are transactions and blocksencrypted in the bitcoin
implementation ?What are the benefits of blockchain technology ?
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Answer
Encryption of transactions and blocks in the bitcoin :
1. Bitcoin blocks are public and they are not encrypted in any way.
2 The block content in Bitcoin is processed using a special hash function
called "SHA256" and the resulting value is stored in blockchain.
 1-18P (IT-6/CS-7) Introduction to Blockchain

3. Block hash not only prevents modifications, it als0 guarantees the data
integrity in the block content.
Benefits of blockchaintechnology :Refer Q. 1.10., Page 1-11P,Unit-1.
Que 1.19. How will youhandle the risk management when it comes
to securing the transactions records ? AKTU 2020-21, Marks 07
Answer
1. Risk management is basically a process of finding the threats and all the
vulnerabilities to the financial records of an organization.
2 The best thing that can be done with this approach is to take the right
countermeasures against them immediately.
3 Another approach is to pay attention to a backup plan.
4. Based on the value of information, more approaches such as buying
new risk management software can simply be considered.
5 The prime risk to information is from black-hat hackers.
Que 1.20. What is the difference between off-chain transactions
and on-chain transactions ? AKTU 2020-21,Marks 07

Answer

S. No. On-chain transactions Off-chain transactions

1. On-chain transactions are Off-chain transactions are the
the transaction that occurs transaction that does not occurs on
On the blockchain the blockchain but outside of it.
themselves.
2. On-chain transactions take Off-chain transactions are done
longer because of the instantly, without having towait for
different steps that have to the network confirmations.
happen before a transaction
is deemed to be successful.
3. On-chain transactions are Off-chain transactions are more
visible to allthe nodes on theprivate. These transactions are not
blockchain network. visible on the public blockchain.
4. Ahigh cost of transaction is Off-chain transactions are cheaper.
associated with on-chain In off-chain transactions made are
transactions. usually free.
5. On-chain transactions are Off-chain transactions are best for
best for cryptocurrency non-crypto related transfers.
transfers.
 Blockchain Architecture Design 1-19 P (IT-6/CS-7)

Que 1.21. Write a short note on : Ethereum.

Answer
1. Ethereum is adecentralized, open-source blockchain with smart contract
functionality.
2 Ethereum is ablockchain-based platform that is best known for its
cryptocurrency, Ether, or ETH, or simply Ethereum.
3. The blockchain technology that powers Ethereum enables secure digital
ledgers to be publicly created and maintained.
4 As a cryptocurrency, Ethereum is second in market value only to Bitcoin.
5. Bitcoin and Ethereum have many similarities but different long-term
visions and limitations.
6. Ethereum is transitioning to an operational protocol that offers incentives
to process transactions to those who own the largest amounts of ETH.
7 Open-source development is currently underway for a major upgrade
to Ethereum known as Ethereum 2.0or Eth2.
8 The main purpose of the upgrade is to increase transaction throughput
for the network from the current of about 15 transactions per second to
up to tens of thousands of transactions per second.

Que 1.22. List and explain the parts of EVM memory.

AKTU2020-21, Marks 07
OR
Mention and list the parts of EVM memory in blockchaining.
AKTU 2021-22, Marks 07
Answer
Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM):
1 Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) is a computation engine which acts
like adecentralized computer that has millions of executable projects.
2 It acts as the virtual machine which is the bedrock of Ethereum's entire
operating structure.
3. It is considered to be the part of the Ethereum that runs execution and
smart contract deployment.
4 The role ofthe EVM is to deploy a number of extra functionalities to the
blockchain to ensure users face limited issues on the distributed ledger.
5. Every Ethereum node runs on the EVM to maintain consensus across
the blockchain.
1-20 P (IT-6/CS-7) Introduction to Blockchain
6 Ethereum facilitates smart contract, which is a piece of code that is
running on Ethereum.
7 EVM is completely isolated meaning the code inside the EVM has no
access to the network, file system or other processes.
Parts of EVMMemory:
The memory of an EVM is divided into three types :
Storage:
1 Storage values are stored permanently on the blockchain network.
2 It is extremely expensive.
Memory:
1. Memory is a temporary modifiable storage.
2. It can be accessed only during contract execution. Once the execution is
finished, its data is lost.
Stack:
1. Astack is temporary and non-modifiable storage.
2. Here, when the execution completes, the content is lost.

Que 1.23.What is a dapp and how is it different from a normal

application ? AKTU2020-21, Marks 07
OR

What is the concept of double spending ? What is a dapps in

blockchain ? AKTU2021-22, Marks 07
Answer

Double Spending :
1. Double-spending is a potential flaw in a digital currency scheme in
which the same single digital token can be spent more than once.
2. Unlike physical cash, a digital token consists ofa digital file that can be
duplicated or falsified.
3. The primary reason for double-spending is that digitalcurrency can be
very easily reproduced.
4. Double-spending leads to inflation by creating a new amount of copied
eurrency that did not previously exist.
5. There are primarily two ways to combat double-spending - central
clearing counterparty and blockchain.
6. Fundamental cryptographic techniques to prevent double-spending are
blind signatures and secret splitting.
 Blockchain Architecture Design 1-21 P (IT-6/CS-7)

dapps in blockchain :
" 1 Adecentralized application (dapp) is an application built on a decentralized
network that conmbines a smart contract and a frontend user interface.
2 A
dapp has its backend code running on a decentralized peer-to-peer
network.
3. A dapp can have frontend code and user interfaces written in any
language to make calls to its backend.
4. Its frontend can get hosted on decentralized storage such as
InterPlanetary File System (IPFS).
Difference between dapp and a normal application:
S. No. dapp Normal app
1 dapps run on a decentralized Normal apps are not designed to
network or system. work in a decentralized ecosystem.
2 Most dapps charge users a fee Many normal apps are free.
to participate.
3 dapps store user data on the Normal apps store user data on a
application itself. separate server.
4. dapps tends to have a slower Normal apps have faster
verification process. verification process.
5 dapps does not require any An app requires an intermediary to
intermediary and it connectsconnect the users with application.
with users automatically.
6 dapp changes codes and An app is always under the control
functions automatically and of developers. They only can make
it resists the involvement of changes in codes and
developers. functionalities.

Que 1.24. Mention the benefits and drawbacks of dapp

development.
Answer
Benefits of dapp development : Following are the benefits of dapp
development:
1. Zero downtime : Using smart contract, the network as a whole serve
clients looking to interact with the contract. Malicious actors cannot
launch denial-of-service attacks targeted towards individual dapps.
2. Privacy: Individuals real-world identity is not needed to interact with
a dapp.
 Introduction to Blockchain
1-22 P (IT-6/CS-7)

3. Resistance to censorship: Nosingle entity on the network can block

users from submitting transactions, deploying dapps, or reading data
from the blockchain.
Complete data integrity: Data stored on the blockchain is
immutable
4. already
and indisputable. Malicious actors cannot forge data that has
been made public.
5.
Trustless computation : Smart contracts can be analyzed and are
guaranteed to execute in predictable ways, without the need to trust a
central authority.
Drawbacks of dapp development : Following are the drawbacks of dapp
development:
1.
Maintenance : Dapps can be harder to maintain because the code and
data published to the blockchain are harder to modify. It's hard for
developers to make updates to their dapps once they are deployed.
2. Performance overhead : To achieve the level of security, integrity,
transparency, and reliability every node runs and stores every
transaction. Due tothis there is a huge performance overhead.
3. Network congestion : When one dapp uses too many computational
resources, the entire network gets backed up.
4. User experience : It is harder to engineer user-friendly experiences
because the average end-user find it too difficult to interact with the
blockchain in atruly secure fashion.
5. Centralization: User-friendly and developer-friendly solutions built
on top of the base layer of Ethereum might end up looking like centralized
services anyways. Centralization eliminates many of the advantages of
blockchain over the traditional model.
Que 1.25. What do you know about blockchain ? What is the
difference between Bitcoin blockchain and Ethereum blockchain ?

AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Answer
Blockchain : Refer Q. 1.1, Page 1-2P, Unit-1.
Difference between Bitcoin and Ethereum blockchain:
S. No. Bitcoin blockchain Ethereum blockchain

1 Bitcoin was the first true Ethereum is a far more recent

cryptocurrency and has been development, going live in 2015.
in circulation since 2009.
2 Bitcoin blockchain is a The Ethereum blockchain is a more
database of accountswith an sophisticated construction, capable
amount of currency stored in of storing computer code.
each.
Blockchain Architecture Design 1-23 P (IT-6/CS-T)

3. Each block on the Bitcoin Each block on the Ethereum

blockchain is verified andblockchain is verified and created
created at an interval of 10 every 10-20 seconds.
minutes.
4 Bitcoin uses SHA-256 Ethereum uses ethash algorithm.
algorithm.
5. Bitcoin was created as an Ethereum was intended as a
altern ative to national platform to facilitate contracts and
currencies. applications via its own currency.
6. There is a strict cap of 21 Unlike Bitcoin, there is no limit on
million Bitcoins that will ever the supply of ETHin the market.
be created.

Que 1.26. What are tokens ? Give the types of token used in
blockchain ?

Answer
1. A token is a unit of value that is issued and defined by a specific
organization that is both accepted by a certain group of buyers and
sellers.
2 Within the crypto framework, a token needs to be supported by an
underlying blockchain network.
3 In this context, we can define a token as a cryptocurrency built onto an
existing blockchain.
4 The token is supported and given value based on the support and market
value of the specific blockchain frameworks capabilities.
Types of tokens : There are essentially two types of tokens :
A. Utility Tokens:
1. Utility tokens are essentially cryptocurrencies that are used for a
specific purpose, like buying a particular good or service.
2. For example, if you have to store large amounts of data you would
have to rely on companies like Google, Amazon, or Dropbox.
3. These large companies have a monopoly on data server storage so
they are able to dictate the price.
4. This is where the decentralized blockchain comes in with its utility
token.
5. Coins like Filecoin promise to store data in similar cloud storage
without using massive servers.
6. Users will be able to simply store data on the hard drives of other
people in the network.
1-24 P (IT-6/CS-7) Introduction to Blockchain

7. Essentially, you would pay someone running ahosting node through

the Filecoin utility token.
8 The more data you store the more Filecoin will deduct from your
token balance.
B. Security Tokens:
1. Asecurity token represents ownership in an underlying real-world
asset.

2. It essentially represents proof of ownership.

3 This framework is very much like the buying and selling of
traditional stocks and bonds.
4. Regular securities are tracked in acentralized database.
5. Security tokens use ablockchain system -adecentralized database
to do the tracking of who owns which assets.
6 Using blockchain-based security tokens expands trading beyond
regular bankers' and stock-market hours.
7. Security tokens also make it easy for people and investors to access
a wider portfolio revealing a number of transactions and
investments.

Que 1.27. What are different types of blockchains ? Also explain

why a blockchain needs a token to operate ?
AKTU2020-21, Marks 07
OR
Explain why a blockchain needs token to operate ?
AKTU2019-20, Marks 07

Answer
Different types of blockchains : Refer Q. 1.3, Page 1-3P, Unit-1.
Blockchain needs a token to operate : Following are the reasons why
blockchains need tokens to operate:
Tokens are needed to power blockchain.
i. Tokens are a currency.
ii. Tokens can represent asset ownership.
iv. Tokens can represent stake or equity ownership.
V. Tokens incentivize miners or nodes owners.
vi. Tokens can be tracking devices.
vi. Tokens allow for crowdfunding.
vii. Tokenization of non-physical assets and documents.
Blockchain Architecture Design 1-25 P (IT-6/CS-7)

PART-3
Design Primitives :Protocols, Security, Consensus,
Permissions, Privacy.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.28. What are blockchain protocols ? Give examples of

blockehain protocols.
Answer
Blockchain protocols :
1. Protocols are crucial components of blockchain technologies that enable
information to be shared automatically across cryptocurrency networks
securely and reliably.
2 In the field of computing, protocols are rules that define data transfer
between different computer systems.
3 Protocols define the way that data must be structured and they establish
safeguards to prevent malicious users from causing damage.
4 Ablockchain is a network of multiple devices (nodes) connected to each
other through the internet.
5. Essentially, a blockchain is a ledger which stores the record ofwhat has
come in and gone out after the transaction has been verified by all
participating nodes.
6 This distributed ledger works on pre-defined rules which are agreed
upon by all the participating nodes in the network.
7. These rules include :
Ahow-to for governing and validating transactions,
An algorithm that defines the mechanism for all participating nodes
to interact with each other, and
iii. Application programming interface.
These rules that govern a blockchain network are referred to as a
protocol.
9 It is essentially the common communication rules that the network
follows.
Examples of Blockchain Protocols : Following five major protocols are
often used in blockchain development services :
1-26 P (IT-6/CS-7) Introduction to Blockchain

1. Hyperledger :
i. Hyperledger is an open-source project that helps to deploy blockchain
technologies quickly and effectively.
The protocol is commonly used in blockchain software solutions
because it comes with its libraries that help to speed up development.
ii. The Linux Foundation is a strong supporter of Hyperledger.
2 Multichain :
i Multichain helps create private blockchains to facilitate more
efficient transactions and to develop new applications for the proof
of-work systems.
Multichain offer an API that can be used by blockchain development
services to streamline integration and accelerate deployment.
3. Enterprise Ethereum:
1. The goal of Ethereum Enterprise is to increase the business use
cases of blockchain software development.
The major advantage of Ethereum Enterprise is that it allows
businesses tocreate proprietary variants of Ethereum while still
taking full advantage of the latest Ethereum code.
4 Corda :

Corda offers a protocoldesigned for enterprises in the finance and

banking field.
i. Corda is accredited by the R3 banking consortium, so it is a good
choice for blockchain development solutions in the finance industry.
5. Quorum :
i. Quorum also offers a protocol designed for enterprises in the finance
sector.

Quorum is significant because it has strong backing from the

financial community.
iüi. Quorum is also strongly associated with Ethereum since the projecet
started by modifying the Ethereum code.

Que 1.29.Why selection of ablockchain protocol matters ?

Answer
1 The selection of a blockchain protocol is one of the most important
decisions to be made when launching a blockchain software development
project.
2 Protocols matter because they determine the scope offunctionality that
software can provide.
3 To develop protocol on your own requires the collaboration of thousands
of computer scientists.
Blockchain Architecture Design 1-27 P (IT-6/CS-7)
4. Instead of reinventing the wheel, your project can be completed in less
time and with fewer resources by taking advantage of an existing
protocol.
5. Therefore the selection of a blockchain protocol matters.
6. Also protocols are highly complex, so it is advisable to work with
customized blockchain developers.
7. Professionals can help you to seamlessly integrate existing software
with blockchain technologies.
8 Also they can ensure that the software is deployed and maintained
securely.
Que 1.30. Explain security in blockchain.
Answer
1 Security of blockchain involves the protection of information and data
used in cryptocurrency transactions and in blocks against various attacks.
2 Blockchain technology uses several techniques to ensure the security
required in transaction data or block data.
3 Several applications like Bitcoin use cryptographic techniques for data
safety.
4 Protection of information and data involves implementation of following
strategies :
1. Defense in penetration: This method enforces various corrective
measures to protect the data. It works on the principle of protecting
data in multiple layers of security.
ii. Minimum privilege : In this strategy, the accessibility of data is
reduced to the lowest possible level to strengthen and enhance the
security level.
ii. Manage vulnerabilities : Vulnerabilities are checked and manage
by modifying, identifying, authenticating the user, and patching
the gap.
iv. Manage risks : Risks of an environment are processed by
identifying, assessing, and by controlling the possibility of risks.
V. Manage patches : The administered part like code, application,
operating system are patched by acquiring, testing, and instaling
patches.

Que 1.31. What are Consensus Protocols ? How do Consensus

Protocols work ?
 1-28 P (IT-6/CS-7) Introduction to Blockchain

Answer
Consensus Protocols :
1 A blockchain is spread across nodes whose job is to verify transactions
on the network.
2 Anyone can submit information to be stored onto a blockchain.
3. Therefore it is important that there are processes in place that can
ensure everyone agrees on what information to add and what to discard.
4 These rules are essentially known as consensus protocols. They verify
transactions and help keep the network safe.
5 Consensus protocols form the backbone of blockchain by helping all the
nodes in the network verify the transactions.
6 Aconsensus protocol is traditionally set before the blockchain is first
created.
7 Consensus protocols prevent asingle entity taking control.
8.
Consensus protocols allow users on a decentralized network to trust
other users without a controlling third-party.
Working of Consensus Protocols :
1 The consensus protocol gives a specific method for verifying whether a
transaction is true or not.
2 It provides a method ofreview and confirmation of what data should be
added to a blockchain's record.
3. Blockchain networks don't have a centralized authority, so all nodes on
a blockchain must agree on the state of the network, following the
predefined protocol.
4. For Bitcoin,the consensus protocol is Proof-of-Work (PoW), the block
mining process which confirms each transaction.
Que 1.32. Explain permissions in blockchain.
Answer
1. In certain blockchain the access to the network is permissioned. This
means that permission and role for each node have to be granted.
2. These blockchains can be thought of as closed ecosystems that can only
be accessed by those who are allowed access.
3. Each contributor in the network will have the whole record of the
transactions and the associated blocks.
4. All blocks are encrypted by a private key and cannot be interpreted by
anyone.
5 They are controlled only by authorized users of a specific organization.
Blockchain Architecture Design 1-29 P (IT-6/CS-7)

6 This is useful for companies, banks, and institutions that are comfortable
to comply with the regulations and are very concerned about having
complete control of their data.
7 Examples of permissioned blockchain are Hyperledger Fabric, Corda,
and Quorum.
Que 1.33. Explain privacy in blockchain.
Answer
1 In a blockchain all transactions are transparent.
2. As the information is available to the public, it could be used to reach the
users involved in the transaction.
3. Each user can be identified through the nodes it connects to.
4 This information could be used to find the beginning of a transaction.
5 This violates the privacy of the user.
6. Methods to tackle this are as follows :
i. Mixing: This refers to performing transactionsthrough multiple
input and output addresses. This would make it difficult to find a
relationship between the two participants.
Anonymous : This refers to the idea of completely anonymous
transactions where the miners do not have any information about
the transaction and the user information is encrypted.
iü. Off chain:Sensitive data are not stored on the blockchain and can
only be accessed by authorized personnel. This also solves the
problem of space as some of the information is stored in adifferent
location.

PART-4
Blockchain Architecture and Design.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.34. Explain blockchain architecture in detail.

|AKTU2020-21, Marks 07
1-30 P (IT-6/CS-7) Introduction to Blockchain

OR
Write and explain the blockchain architecture in depth. What are
the primary benefits of immutability in blockchaining ?
AKTU2021-22, Marks 07

Answer
The following diagram displays the layered architecture of blockchain :
Application and Presentation Layer
Smart Contracts, dapps, User Interface
Consensus Layer
PoW, PoS, DPoS, PoET, PBFT
Network Layer
Peer-to-Peer (P2P)
Data Layer
Digital Signature, Hash, Merkle Tree, Transaction
Hardware / Infrastructure Layer
Virtual Machine, Containers, Services, Messaging

Fig. 1.34.1. Blockchain layered architecture.

A. Hardware /Infrastructure layer :
1 Blockchain is a P2P network of computers that computes
transactions, validates them, and stores them in an ordered form in
a shared ledger.
2 Each computer in a P2P network is called a node. These nodes are
decentralized and distributed.
3 Nodes are responsible for validating transactions, organizing them
into blocks, and broadcasting them to the blockchain network.
4 Upon reaching consensus, nodes commit the block to the blockchain
network and update their local ledger copy.
B. Data layer :
1 Blockchain is a decentralized, massively replicated database
(distributed ledger), where transactions are arranged in blocks,
and placed in a P2P network.
2. The current state of all accounts is stored in such a database.
3 The data structure of a blockchain can be represented as a linked
list of blocks, where transactions are ordered.
4 The blockchain's data structure includes two primary components
pointers and a linked list.
Blockchain Architecture Design 1-31 P (IT-6/CS-7)
5 The pointers are the variables, which refer to the location of another
variable.
6 Linked list is a list of chained blocks, where each block has data and
pointers to the previous block.
C. Network layer :
1 In a P2P network computers (nodes) are distributed and share the
network's workload to reach the end goal.
2. Nodes perform transactions on the blockchain.
3 The network layer, also known as the P2P layer, is responsible for
inter node communication.
4 It takes care of discovery, transactions, and block propagation. This
layer can also be termed as propagation layer.
5 This P2P layer ensures that nodes can discover each other and can
communicate, propagate and synchronize with each other to
maintain valid current state of the blockchain network.
6 This layer also takes care of the world state propagation.
D. Consensus layer :
1 The consensus protocol is the core to the existence of blockchain
platforms. Behind every blockchain there is a consensus algorithm.
2. The consensus layer is the most critical and crucial layer for any
blockchain.
3. Consensus is responsible for validating the blocks, ordering the
blocks, and ensuring everyone agrees on it.
4. Following are the key points regarding the consensus layer:
i Consensus protocols (algorithms) create an undeniable set of
agreements between nodes across the distributed P2P network.
i. Consensus keeps all the nodes synchronized. Consensus
ensures that allthe nodes agree to the truth.
iii. Consensus ensures that power remains distributed and
decentralized. No single entity can control the entire blockchain
network.
iv. Reliability in a P2P network is achieved by a consensus protocol.
E. Application layer:
1. The application layer is comprised of smart contracts, chaincode,
dapps and user interface.
2 Application layer can be further divided into two sub layers
application layer and execution layer.
3 Application layer has the applications that are used by end users to
interact with the blockchain network.
4. It comprises of scripts,APls, user interfaces, frameworks.
1-32 P (IT-6/CS-7) Introduction to Blockchain

5 Execution layer is the sublayer which constitutes of smart contracts,

underlying rules and chaincode.
6. This sub layer has the actual code that gets executed and rules that
are executed.
7. Atransaction propagates from application layer to execution layer;
however the transaction is validated and executed at the semantic
layer (smart contracts and rules).
Benefits ofimmutabilityin blockchain: Following are some benefits of
immutability:
1. Complete data integrity :
i Using blockchain technology ledger, you can guarantee the data
trail and full history of an application.
i. We can easily validate the chain's integrity by re-caleulating the
block hashes.
i . If discrepancy exists between the block data and its corresponding
hash, it means the transactions are not valid.
iv. This allows organizations and its industry regulators to quickly
detect data tinkering.
2. It simplifies auditing:
i The ability of an organization to produce a complete and indisputable
history of a transactional ledger makes the auditing process easy
and efficient.
Furthermore,the ability to prove that data has not been tampered
with is agreat benefit for organizations that comply with the industry
regulations.
3. It increases efficiencies:
The immutability of blockchain not only benefit auditing, it also
offers new opportunities in analytics, query, and overall business
processes.
This ability helps an organization save time and cost when auditing
specific application data, tracking major bugs, backing up and
restoring a database to retrieve information, etc.
4. It can be used as Proof of Fault :
It is common for organizations to have disputes over fault in business.
Although you cannot use blockchain to dissolve a massive category
of legal proceedings, you can leverage it to prevent the majority of
disputes related to data provenance and integrity.
i. Blockchain finality allows us essentially to prove who did what and
at what time.
Blockchain Architecture Design 1-33 P (IT-6/CS-7)

Que 1.35. Explain Blockchain architecture. Differentiate Digital

money and Distributed ledger. AKTU2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
i Blockchain architecture: Refer Q. 1.34, Page 1-29P, Unit-1.
ii. Differentiate Digital money and Distributed ledger :
Refer Q. 1.14, Page 1-14P, Unit-1.

PART-5

Basic Crypto Primitives : Hash, Signature.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.36. Discuss crypto primitives hash function and digital

signature in detail.
OR
What are the basic crypto primitives that can be applied to a
blockchain ?

Answer
1. Cryptographic primitives, or crypto primitives, are low-level cryptographic
algorithms that form the basic building blocks of a protocol.
2. Common examples of crypto primitives in the blockchain include hash
functions and digital signature.
3. Hash functions are mainly used in linking of blocksand in consensus
algorithms.
4. Digital signature is used in blockchain network for authentication.
A Hashing/Hash functions :
1 Hash value denotes a numeric value of a fixed length that will be
generated using eryptographic hash algorithm.
2 It identifies the data uniquely and blockchain state is represented
by hash function SHHA256.
3 Hashing generates a fixed length hash value that uniquely
represents the contents of an arbitrary length string.
4. Identical strings generate the same hash value.
1-34 P (IT-6/CS-7) Introduction to Blockchain

5. Retrieving the original string from hashed values is not possible,

since it is a one-way function.
6 Genesis block hash is calculated using initial transactions.
7 Index of the block, previous block hash, timestamp, block data, and
nonce are used for caleulating the hash value of the consecutive
blocks.
8 Example of a hash function :

Data : Blockchain concepts Book chapter

Hash : 06ecd9a034556c403064a9114d26e2d227324520e4c2d5b330cf5f881564ac9b

Even a very small change in input string results a new hash value. In
the above-mentioned string, only 'b' is changed in the book string. It
creates a completely new hash value for the new string.
Data : Blockchain concepts book chapter

Hash : def6a36ca079b54d3004cadfe 14068c54880b6a 1873e6da467120ac9 f44ba5b5

B. Digital signature :
1 Digital signature implements an asymmetric cryptography.
2. It uses public and private key pairs for encryption and decryption of
the data by the user, thus ensuring the privacy and security.
3 Both the keys are used in blockchain network for authentication.
4. Apair of private and public keys is possessed by every user.
5. The transactions are signed by private key and the transactions are
broadcasted in the whole network.
6 The transactions are accessed using public key by the users of the
network.
7. Signing and verification phases are two phases which are involved
in blockchain.

PART-6
Hash Chain to Blockchain.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Blockchain Architecture Design 1-35 P (IT-6/CS-7)

Que 1.37. Write a short note on : Hash chain.

Answer
1. A hash chain is commonly defined as the repeated application of a
cryptographic hash function to a given data.
2 This type of hash cryptography can be extremely useful in security
setups.
3 By providing a successive chain, hash chains make it harder for a hacker
to hijack data by applying a single input.
4 In hash chain a user supplies an individual input on the first session, and
then adds authenticating data on the next session.
5 Over a set of sessions,those individual hash inputs createa "hash chain"
that authenticates a single user input in a more profound way.
6 Security properties of hash chain come from the fact that the hash
function is a one-way function; therefore retrieving the original data is
not possible.
7. Ahash chain is similar to a blockchain, as they both utilize a cryptographic
hash function for creating a link between two nodes.
8 However, a blockchain is generally intended to support distributed
consensus around a public ledger (data), and incorporates a set of rules
for encapsulation of data and associated data permissions.

PART-7
Basic Consensus Mechanisms.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.38.What are the various basic consensus mechanisms used

in blockchain systems ?
OR
What is Consensus algorithm ? Explain the types of Consensus
algorithm. AKTU2020-21, Marks 07

Answer
A consensus mechanism/algorithm is a fault-tolerant mechanism that is
used in blockchain systems to achieve the necessary agreement on a single
data value or asingle state of the network among distributed processes.
 Introduction to Blockchain
1-36 P (IT-6/CS-7)
Following are the basic consensus mechanisms used in blockchain systems :
1. Proof of Work (PoW) :
i First algorithm PoW is developed and used in Bitcoin cryptocurrency.
This algorithm is widely used in mining process.
ii. In this algorithm, the nodes/computers in the network agree on
the hash of the miner and block will be added in the network.

iv. First miner will get the reward for solving puzzle.
2. Proof of Stake (PoS):
i. This algorithm validates the block according to the stake of
participants.
i. Validation is determined by the investment of the currency.
ii.Minersare not rewarded with the money.
3. Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance :
This algorithm is based on reaching agreement even when the
failure of the nodes happened in the network.
ii. This algorithm is focused on the node failure by considering both
faulty and working nodes.
ii. Fault tolerance can be achieved by taking the correct values of
working nodes and assigning the default vote value for the faulty
nodes.
iv. Thus network reaches an agreement on correct values.
4 Proof of Activity (PoA):
It is a combined approach of PoW and PoS.
ii. It provides assurance that all transactions are genuine in nature
and users reach at a consensus on the status of the ledger.
iüi. In first phase, miners are trying to find out the new block using
PoW consensus.
iv. When new block is identified, process changes into PoS.
5. Proof of Burn Time :
The principle behind this consensus algorithm is burning or
destroying coins detained by the miners.
i. It ensures the agreement of all participating nodes by valid state of
network, thus avoiding cryptocoin double spending.
i. Miners are allowed to write block proportion for destroying or
burning the number of tokens.
6. Proof of Capacity :
This algorithm is based on hard disk space instead of computational
power of the node.
i. Hard disk space of the nodes is utilized for mining the cryptocoins.
Blockchain Architecture Design 1-37 P (IT-6/CS-7)

ii. Miners can store the possible solutions in the hard drive before
mining, thus avoiding changes in the header value rapidly.
iv. Miners can match the required hash value from the list for winning
the reward.
7. Proof of Importance :
This algorithm is based on PoS.
It works on the concept of harvesting and vesting.
ii. Harvesting determines the node's eligibility for adding block into
the network and node vests transaction fees in turn within that
block.

Que 1.39. Mention the difference/state difference between proof

of-work and proof-of-stake in blockchaining.
|AKTU2021-22, Marks 07
Answer

Proof-of-Work Proof-of-Stake
1. Mining/ The amount of The amount of stake
validating a computing work or number of coins
block determines the determines
probability the likelihood of
of mining a block. validating a new
block.
2. Distribution of One who mines the block The validator does
reward first, receives a reward. not receive a block
reward as they are
paid a network fee.
3. Competition Miners must compete to An algorithm
solve complex puzzles determines a winner
using their computer based on the size
processing power. of their stake.
4 Specialized Application-specific A standard server
equipment integrated circuits and grade device is
Graphics Processing Unit sufficient for
are used to mine the PoS-based systems.
coins.
1-38 P (IT-6/CS-7) Introduction to Blockchain

5 Efficiency and PoW systems are less PoS systems are far
reliability energy-efficient more cost
and less expensive, and energy-efficient
but they are more although they are
reliable. less reliable.

6 Security The greater the hash, Staking helps lock

the more secure the crypto assets to
network is. secure the network
in exchange for a
reward.
7 Forking Through an economic Forking is not
incentive, PoW automatically
systems naturally discouraged by PoS
prevent constant systems.
forking.

Que 1.40. Explain the steps that are involved in the blockchain
project implementation. AKTU2020-21, Marks 07
OR
Explain the steps that are in the blockchain project implementation.
Mention the significance of blind signature and how it is useful ?
AKTU 2021-22, Marks 07

Answer
The blockchain development process consists of the following six stages:
1. Identify the goal :
i. First of all, it is essential to develop a problem statement and
understand all of the issues you want to solve with a proposed
solution.
Ensure that the blockchain solution will benefit your business
abilities.
ii. Analyze whether you need to migrate your current solution to the
blockehain,
scratch.
or you require anew application to be developed from
iv. Once you decide that you need a blockchain solution for your
business operations, the next step is toselect the right blockchain
platform and blockchain development tools for your project.
2 Choose the right blockchain platform:
i. Building a blockchain from seratch requires thorough research
and takes months to years to develop it successfully.
Blockchain Architecture Design 1-39 P (IT-6/CS-7)

ii. Therefore, you should build a blockchain app on top of a blockchain

platform that meets your business requirements.
ii. You should identify the right blockchain platform for your
application based on the factors like consensus mechanism and
problems you want to solve.
iv. When the blockchain platform is identified, you must do
brainstorming and understand the exact business needs.
3. Brainstorming and blockchain ideation :
Once you identify the blockchain platform, you should focus on
drafting business requirements and brainstorming ideas.
ii. Find what technology components should be added as off-chain or
on-chain entities on the blockchain ecosystem.
ii. Create a roadmap of the product that will help you to build an
application within a decided deadline.
iv. You should come up with a blockchain model and conceptual
workflow of the blockchain application.
V. Also, decide if the application needs to be developed on a
permissioned or permissionless blockchain network.
4. Proof of Concept (PoC):
i. Aproofof concept is done to represent the practical applicability of
a blockchain project.
ii. It can be either a design prototype or a theoretical build-up.
ii. In theoretical build-up, each project requires theoretical cases so
that users could understand the applicability and viability of the
product.
iv. After creating theoretical build-up and receiving feedback, a
prototype is designed.
V. When the client approves the PoC, the next step is to prepare
technical and visual designs for the application.
5. Visual and technical designs:
i Visual designs are created to give a look and feel to the application,
whereas technical designs represent the application's technology
architecture.
Uls are created for each software component.
iii. APls are designed and integrated to run an application at the back
end.
iv. Once the admin consoles and user interfaces are designed, the
application gets ready for development.
Development:
i. Development is the significant phase of the blockchain development
process, where you should be ready to build the blockchain app.
1-40 P (IT-6/CS-7) Introduction to Blockchain

In this specific stage, you either have to develop or integrate APls

for particular use cases of the application.
ii. The application is built under multiple versions.
Significance of blindsignature:
1 Blind signature is a kind of digital signature in which the message is
blinded before it is signed. Therefore, the signer will not learn the message
content.
2 After blinding the signed message can be unblinded. At this moment, it
is similar toa normal digital signature, and it can be publicly checked
against the original message.
3. Blind signature can be implemented using a number of public-key
encryption schemes.
4 Blind signatures are typically employed in privacy-related protocols where
the signer and message author are different parties.
Use of blind signature :
1 The blind signature is widely used in cryptography applications.
The blind signature is used in election/voting systems.
3 The blind signature is used in digital cash schemes.
 2
UNIT

Consensus

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Consensus : Requirements for 2-2P to 2-3P
the Consensus Proto cols

Part-2 : Proof of Work (PoW) 2-3P to 2-5P

Part-3 : Scalability Aspects of. 2-5P to 2-7P

Blockchain Consensus
Protocols

Part-4 : Permissioned Blockchains 2-7P to 2-9P

Part-5 : Design Goals 2-9P to 2-10P

Part-6 : Consensus Protocols for ....e.....eees..test 2-10P to 2-12P

Permissioned Blockchains

2-1 P (IT-6/CS-7)
2-2 P (IT-6/CS-7) Consensus

PART- 1

Consensus : Requirements for the Consensus Protocols.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.1. What do you understand by consensus and consensus

mechanisms ? Explain requirements for the consensus protocols.
OR
Discuss consensus. Explain requirements for the consensus
protocols. AKTU2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
Consensus :
1. Consensus is a process of agreement between distrusting nodes on a
final state of data.
2 In order to achieve consensus different algorithms can be used.
3 When multiple nodes are participating in a distributed system and they
need to agree on a single value it becomes very difficult to achieve
Consensus.

4 Thisconcept of achieving consensus between multiple nodes is known

as distributed consensus.
Consensus mechanisms :
1 Consensus mechanism is aset of steps that are taken by allthe nodes in
order to agree on a proposed state or value.
2 The consensus mechanism consists of some specific objectives such as
coming to an agreement, collaboration, co-operation, equal rights to
every node, and mandatory participation of each node in the consensus
process.
3. For decades, these mechanisms have been used to establish consensus
among database nodes, application servers, and other enterprise
infrastructure.
4. Consensus mechanisms have recently come into the limelight and gained
much popularity with the advent of bitcoin and blockchain.
Requirements for the consensus protocols : Following are the various
requirements which must be met in order to provide the desired results in a
consensus mechanism:
 Blockchain Architecture Design 2-3P (IT-6/CS-7)

1, Agreemnent: All honest nodes decide on the same value.

2. Termination :All honest nodes terminate execution of the consensus
process and eventually reach a decision.
3. Validity:The value agreed upon by all honest nodes must be thesame
as the initial value proposed by at least one honest node.
4. Fault tolerant : The consensus algorithm should be able to run in the
presence of faulty or malicious nodes (Byzantine nodes).
5. Integrity : This is a requirement whereby no node makes the decision
more than once. The nodes make decisions only once in a single consensus
cycle.

PART-2

Proof of Work (PoW).

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.2. Explain Proof of Work (PoW). Also mention its

advantages and disadvantages.
Answer
1. The first consensus protocol used in the blockchain network was Proof
of Work (PoW).
2. PoW selects one node tocreate a new block in each round of consensus
by computational power competition.
3. In the competition, the participating nodes need to solve a cryptographic
puzzle.
4 The node who first addresses the puzzle can have a right to create a new
block.
5 The flow of the block ereation in PoW is presented in Fig. 2.2.1.
Markle root adjust nonce

timestamp NO

previous create a block SHA256 block hash YES create a new

block hash header
input algorithm output < target block

version

nonce Fig. 2.2.1.

2-4P (IT-6/CS-7) Consensus

6. It is very difficult to solve a PoW puzzle.

7. Nodes need to keep adjusting the value of nonce (number used once) to
get the correct answer, which requires much computational power.
8 It is feasible for a malicious attacker to overthrow one block in a chain.
9 But as the valid blocks in the chain increase, overthrowing a long chain
requiresa huge amount of computational power.
10. PoW belongs to the probabilistic-finality consensus protocols since it
guarantees eventual consistency.
Advantages of PoW:
1. It is highly scalable.
2. High level of security.
3. Providesa decentralized method ofverifying transactions.
4. Allows miners to earn crypto rewards.
Disadvantages of PoW :
1. Probability of a "51% attack".
2. Inefficient with slow transaction speeds and expensive fees.
3. High energy usage.
4. Mining often requires expensive equipment.
Que 2.3. Why is Proof of Work (PoW) in Bitcoin necessary ?

Answer
1 Aproof of work verification is difficult, costly, and time-consuming to
create, but easy to verify.
2. Bitcoin is secure because it is computationally infeasible to attack the
network.
3. Requiring Proof of Work for participation is central to this property.
4. Hence Bitcoin relies on computational work on cryptographic challenges
as the basis for trust.
5. Proof of Work (PoW) is necessary for security, which prevents fraud,
which enables trust.
6. This security ensures that independent data processors (miners) can't
lie about a transaction.
7 Proof of Work is used to securely sequence Bitcoin's transaction history
while increasing the difficulty of altering data over time.
8 It is used to choose the most valid copy of the blockchain in the network
ifthere are multiple copies.
9. Finally, proof of work is the key to creating a distributed clock, which
allows miners to freely enter and leave the network while maintaining
a constant rate of operation.
Blockchain Architecture Design 2-5 P (IT-6/CS-7)

Que 2.4.Explain the working of Proof of Work (PoW) algorithm.

Answer
1. The Proof of Work (PoW) algorithm used by Bitcoin is a variant of
Hashcash algorithm.
2. Hashcash was originally proposed as a way to slow malicious actors by
making them play an expensive game of chance.
3. In the Bitcoin implementation, blocks are added to each miner's
blockchain when one miner solves the game of chance.
4 In order for miners on a network to add blocks to the blockchain, they
are required toguess a number which is less than or equal to a Difficulty
Target.
5. This value is anywhere between 1 and 2256, which is increased or
decreased tochange the difficulty required to guess the number.
6 To generate this number, the mining software takes the header of the
block they are trying to add and uses SHA-256 encryption to hash it.
7 The header contains key data required by the
block to make it secure,
including a nonce (number used once) value in the header.
8. This number is altered by miners each time they try to
guess the number.
9. If the number generated by the hash exceeds the Difficulty Target, the
process is retried until a number less than the value is found.
10. The higher the target value is, the higher the probability ofguessing the
nu iber and vice-versa.
11. The miners are rewarded in bitcoins and transaction fees if they are the
first to find a number less than or equal to the Difficulty Target.
12. Every 4 years the block reward halves, slowing inflation nd making
each coin more scarce, which should increase the value ofiBitcoin.
13. This is designed to keep miners invested even while as
they earn less
Bitcoin units.
14. Another key aspect of the design is that the Difficulty Target
aims to
ensure blocks are added to the blockchain every 10 minutes or
so-regardless of the computing power on the network.
PART-3
Scalability Aspects of Blockchain Consensus Protocols.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
2-6 P (IT-6/CS-7) Consensus

Que 2.5. Explain scalability aspects of blockchain consensus

protocols. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Answer
1 Scalability is a key barrier when applying blockchain to real business
environments.
2 The primary focus is toimprove the scalability of blockchain systems,
which is due tothe inefficiencies of the consensus mechanism- Proof of
Work (PoW).
3 The scalability issue is analysed from the perspectives of throughput,
storage and networking.
4 Currently, the throughput of the Bitcoin blockchain is restricted to
approximately 7transactions per second (TPS).
5. It is not possible to directly apply blockchain to real business environments
where nodes have limited storage and computing resources.
6. The traditional blockchain network is a broadcast medium, in which
each node relays all transactions. This data transmission mode cannot
be scaled up to handle a large number of transactions due to the
requirement for network bandwidth resources.
Approaches for improving the scalability of blockchain consensus
protocols : Following approaches exist for improving the scalability of
blockchain consensus protocols:
1. Increasing the Block Size :
i. Increasing the block size is an obvious solution to increase
throughput by including more transactions in each block.
ü. However, this solution increases the block propagation delay and
spends more nodes efforts to process and confirm transactions.
2. Reducing the Transaction Size :
i By increasing the number of transactions in each block we can
reduce the transaction size.
ii. In blockchain systems digital signatures account for 60-70 percent
of the transaction size.
ii. Segregated Witness (SegWit), separates digital signatures from
the rest of the transaction data and moves the digital signatures to
the end of blocks.
iv. In this way, the transaction size is reduced, and one block can
contain more transactions.
3. Reducing the Number of TransactionsProcessed by Nodes:
i. An alternative to improving the throughput is to reduce the number
of transactions processed by nodes.
 2-7P (IT-6/CS-7)
Blockchain Architecture Design
ii Off-chain transactions, sharding, and decoupling management/
control from execution are three solutions.
A. Off-chain transactions :Off-chain transactions make use of the fact
that if nodes make frequent transactions, then it is not necessary to
store every transaction on the blockchain, only the net settlement is
needed.
B. Sharding: Sharding is an effective technique to improve the horizontal
scalability of blockchain systems. With blockchain sharding, nodes are
separated into different shards. Each shard only processes a small portion
of all transactions. In this way, transactions are processed in parallel. In
sharding blockchain systems, the throughput increases linearly as more
nodes join the systems.
C. Decoupling Management/Controlfrom Execution :The decoupling
of management/control from execution can be done via virtualization,
with which multiple virtual DLT systems with varying characteristics
can be dynamically ereated on the same substrate DLT system to
accommodate different QoS requirements.

PART-4
Permissioned Blockchains.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.6. What are the permissioned blockchains ? What are its
key characteristics ?
Answer
1 Permissioned blockchains are blockchain networks that require access
to be part of.
2 These blockchains can be thought of as closed ecosystems that can only
be accessed by those who are allowed access.
3 Permissioned blockchains use an access control layer to govern who has
access to the network.
4. A permissioned blockchain provides a way to secure the interactions
among a group of entities that have a common goal but which may not
fully trust each other.
5 Each contributor in the network will have the whole record of the
transactions and the associated blocks.
2-8P (IT-6/CS-7) Consensus

6. All blocks are encrypted by a private key and cannot be interpreted by

anyone.
7. They are controlled only by authorized users of a specific organization.
8. A permissioned system also have a restriction on the consensus
participants.
9. This makes permissioned blockchains highly configured and controlled
by the owners.
10. Permissioned blockchains are crafted to take advantage of blockchains
without sacrificing the authority aspect of a centralized system.
11. Examples of permissioned blockchain are Hyperledger Fabric, Corda,
and Quorum.
Key characteristics of permissioned blockchains :
1 Controlled transparency based on the goals ofparticipating organizations.
2. Development by private entities.
3 Lack of anonymity.
4 Lack of a central authority, but a private group authorizes decisions.

Que 2.7. Give the benefits and drawbacks of permissioned

blockchains.
Answer
A. Benefits of Permissioned Blockchains : Following are the benefits
of permissioned blockchains :
on the
1. Efficient performance : The limited number of nodes
platform removes the unnecessary computations required to reach
consensus on the network, improving the overall performance.
comes
2 Proper governance structure:Permissioned networks
means that they
with an appropriate structure of governance. This
the
are organized. Administrators also require less time to update
rules over the network.
3. Decentralized storage : Permissioned networks utilizes
blockchain decentralized nature for data storage.
Cost-Effective: Permissioned blockchains are more cost-effective
4.
when compared with the permissionless blockchains.
: Following are the
B. Drawbacks of Permissioned Blockchains
drawbacks of permissioned blockchains:
Compromised security : The security of a permissioned network
1.
small section
is as good as the member's integrity. This means that a
modify the data
of a permissioned system can work together to network
stored within the network. In this way, the integrity of the
can be compromised.
Blockchain Architecture Design 2-9 P (IT-6/CS-7)
2. Control, Censorship, and Regulation : Permissioned
blockchains work like a public blockchains, but with regulations.
However, the regulations bring censorship to the network, where
the authority can restrict a transaction. These are a threat to
any
business that is using the permissioned network.
Que 2.8.Differentiate between permissioned and permissionless
blockchain.
Answer
S.No. Category Permissioned Permissionless
1. Speed Faster |Slower
2 Privacy Private membership Transparent and open
anyone can become a
member
3
Development via private entities Via open source
4
Ownership Managed by a group of Public ownership - no
nodes pre-defined one owns the network
5. Decentralization Partially decentralized Truly decentralized
6 Cost Cost-effective Not so cost-effective
7. Security Less secure More secure

PART-5
Design Goals.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.9. Explain design goals for permissioned blockchains.

Answer
1. Ifyou are trying todecide on the design goals for permissioned blockchains
following are some things that you should take into account:
i. The speed in which your blocks will need to be written into the
blockchain.
2-10 P (IT-6/CS-7)
Consensus
i. Type of network you will be using.
ii. How many miners, writers, or validators will be needed ?
iv. How "final" does a block need to be?
V. To what degree do you put your trust in the
2
nodes/operators ?
In a permissioned blockchain, choosing the right
consensus protocol for
permissioned blockchain depends on factors like the extent of
decentralization required.
3 For example, how much the participants in a network trust each
the number of permissions that must be granted other,
to all the
participants,
etc.
4 Permissioned blockchains usually use Practical Byzantine Fault
Tolerance (PBFT) algorithms and its variants like voting and lottery
based consensus.
5. Permissioned blockchains are crafted to take advantage of blockchains
without sacrificing the authority aspect of acentralized system.

PART-6
Consensus Protocols for Permissioned Blockchains.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.10. What are various types of consensus protocol used in

permissioned blockchain networks ?
Answer
Following are various types of consensus protocol used in permissioned
blockchains :
A. Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) Consensus :
1. One of the models that is used to facilitate consensus in permissioned
blockchain is the Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT)
algorithm.
2. In this model, each node exists in an internal state.
3. Each time a node receives a message, they use the message with
respect totheir internal state to perform a computation.
4. Consequently, this computation will send messages to other nodes
to ask ifthe transaction is valid.
Blockchain Architecture Design 2-11 P (IT-6/CS-7)

5. After receiving verification, the first node will broadcast that decision
with all the other participants in the network.
6. A consensus decision is achieved based on the total confirmations
submitted by all the nodes.
7 PBFT can be very beneficial for low latency storage systems.
8. This type of model is often used in digital assets backed platforms
that don't need big amount of capacity, but carry out a large number
of transactions.
9 PBFT makes sure that the transaction records within the network
are accurate.

10. Hyperledger, a permissioned blockchain, use this model.

B. Federated Consensus :
1. In federated consensus, a set of signers help each node in the
blockchain network to reach the consensus stage.
2. To carry out the process in an efficient manner the block signers
use a single block generator.
3. This block generator receives, holds and filters all the transactions.
4. The generator's signature is used to coordinate with the signers for
the block validation process.
5. Each block signer will verify the block which is signed by the block
generator and which fulfills the certain conditions set by the
network.
6. Once the block generator receives enough signatures from the
network, the block will get published to the network.
7. This model guarantees security and transparency.
8. It is ideal for use cases such as cross border remittance, real time
KYC, etc.
9. Common examples of blockchains that use this model are Stellar
and Ripple.
C. Round Robin Consensus :
1. In Round Robin Consensus,validators take part in the consensus
process by signing votes for blocks.
2. There are three main types of votes : a prevote, a precommit and a
commit.
3. A block is considered to be committed by the network when a two
third majority of validators have signed and broadcasted commits
for that block.
4. At each height of the blockchain a round-based protocol is run to
determine the next block.
5. Each round consists of three steps: propose, prevote, and precommit.
2-12 P (IT-6/CS-7) Consensus

6. The propose, prevote, and precommit steps each take one third of
the total time allocated for that round.
7. Each round is longer than the previous round followed by a small
fixed increase of time.
8 This allows the network to eventually achieve consensus in a limited
concurrent network.
9 In this mnodel, several nodes play a major role in validating and
signing transactions, which makes this process more secure.
10. There are also lower chances of double spend attacks due to the
voting power distribution among trusted nodes.
11. Round robin consensus mechanism is ideal for the trade, finance
and supply chain industries.
12. Common examples of blockchains that use this model are Multichain
and Tendermint.

Que 2.11. What is a permissioned blockchain ? Explain design

goals, consensus protocols for permissioned blockchains.
AKTU2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
Permissioned blockchain : Refer Q. 2.6, Page 2-6P, Unit-2.
Design goals : Refer Q. 2.9,Page 2-9P,Unit-2.
Consensus protocols for permissioned blockchains : Refer Q. 2.10,
Page 2-10P, Unit-2.
 3
UNIT
Hyperledger Fabric

CONTENTS
Part-1: Hyperledger Fabric .3-2P to 3-8P
Part-2 Decomposing the 3-8P to 3-9P
Consensus Process

Part-3: Hyperledger Fabric 3-9P to 3-11P

Components
Part-4 : Chaincode Design 3-11P to 3-15P
and Implementation

Part-5: Beyond Chaincode : Fabric 3-16P to 3-18P

SDK and Front End

Part-6 : Hyperledger Composer Tool ........... 3-18P to 3-20P

3-1 P (IT-6/CS-7)
3-2 P (IT-6/CS-7) Hyperledger Fabric

PART-1
Hyperledger Fabric

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.1. What is Hyperledger Fabric ?

OR
Discuss Hyperledger Fabric.
Answer
1 The Linux Foundation founded the Hyperledger project in 2015 to
advance cross-industry blockchain technologies.
2 Hyperledger Fabric is designed as modular, scalable and secure
foundation for offering industrial blockchain solutions.
3 It encourages a collaborative approach to develop blockchain technologies
via a community process that encourage open development and the
adoption of key standards.
4 Hyperledger Fabric is one of the blockchain projects within Hyperledger.
5. It consists of a ledger, uses smart contracts, and is a system by which
participants manage their transactions.
6 Hyperledger Fabric is private and permissioned.
7 The members of a Hyperledger Fabric network are enrolled through a
trusted Membership Service Provider (MSP).
8. Hyperledger Fabric also offers several pluggable options.
9. Ledger data can be stored in multiple formats, consensus mechanisms
can be swapped in and out, and different MSPs are supported.
10. Hyperledger Fabric also offers the ability to create channels, allowing a
group of participants to create a separate ledger of transactions.
Que 3.2. Mention the key design features of Hyperledger Fabric
model.

Answer
Following are the key design features of Hyperledger Fabric model :
1. Assets : Asset definitions enable the exchange of almost anything with
monetary value over the network,from whole foods to antique cars to
currency futures.
 Blockchain Architecture Design 3-3 P (IT-6/CS-7)
2 Chaincode : Chaincode execution is partitioned from transaction
ordering, limiting the required levels of trust and verification across
node types, and optimizing network scalability and performance.
3. Ledger Features: The immutable, shared ledger encodes the entire
transaction history for each channel, and includes SQL-like query
capability for efficient auditing and dispute resolution.
4. Privacy: Channels and private data collections enable private and
confidential multi-lateral transactions that are usually required by
competing businesses and regulated industries that exchange assets on
a common network.
5. Security and Membership Services : Permissioned member ship
provides a trusted blockchain network, where participants know that
alltransactionscan be detected and traced by authorized regulators and
auditors.
6. Consensus : Aunique approach to consensus enables the flexibility
and scalability needed for the enterprise.
Que 3.3. What are the advantages of Hyperledger Fabric ?
Answer
Following are the advantages of Hyperledger Fabric :
1. Rich queries: One can run these queries to find the transactions that
have been executed on the blockchain platform.
2. Modular architecture : Modular means that various modules can be
used either together or on-need basis.Thus, it is different from Ethereum
where you have to utilize the entire blockchain. In Hyperledger, you
can use a module that you require.
3. Protection of digital keys and sensitive data : Hyperledger works
on the same distributed ledger concept and keeps your digital keys and
data secure from tampering.
4 Permissioned data : A party can view/use the data only if it is
permissioned to do so. Unlike Ethereum and Bitcoin blockchain, everyone
cannot see all the data. This is essential for enterprise applications.
5. Performance and scalability: Hyperledger is better than many other
public blockchain networks when it comes to performance and scalability,
as its target audience is enterprises who have stringent performance
requirements. Moreover, it is undergoing further improvements in order
to make it more efficient and scalable.

Que 3.4. Briefly discuss the Hyperledger Fabric architecture.

 Hyperledger Fabric
34P (IT-6/CS-7)

Answer
permissioned
Hyperledger Fabric is a distributed operating system for
1. in general
executes distributed applications written
blockchains that
purpose programming languages.
execute-order-validate blockchain
2. Hyperledger Fabric introduces the order execute design.
architecture and does not follow the standard

Validate
Update state
Execute Order

" Validate endorse " Persist state on all

" Simulate trans. " Order rw-sets
" Atomic broadcast ments & rw-sets peers
and endorse
(consensus) Eliminate invalid
" Create rw-set and conflicting
" Collect endorse- " Stateless ordering
trans.
ments service
architecture of Fabric (rw-set
Fig. 3.4.1. Execute-order-validate
means a readset and writeset).

3 distributed application for Fabric consists of two parts:

A
program code that
A smart contract, called chaincode, which is the execution
implements the application logic and runs during
phase.
An endorsement policy that is evaluated in the
validation phase.
a set of nodes that form a
4. A Hyperledger Fabric blockchain consists of
network.
participate in the
5. As Hyperledger Fabric is permissioned, all nodes that service
network have an identity, as provided bya modular membership
provider (MSP).
6. Nodes in a Fabric network take up one of three roles:
Clients submit transaction proposals for execution, help orchestrate
E:
F: the execution phase, and, finally, broadcast transactions for ordering.
Peers execute transaction proposals and validate transactions.
iüi. Ordering Service Nodes (OSN) are the nodes that collectively form
the ordering service. In short, the ordering service establishes the
total order of all transactions in Hyperledger Fabric.
7 A Fabric network actually supports multiple blockchains connected to
the same ordering service.
8 Each such blockchain is called a channel and may have different peers
as its members.

9 Channels can be used to partition the state of the blockchain network,

but consensus across channels is not coordinated and the total order of
transactions in each channel is separate from the others.
Blockchain Architecture Design 3-5 P (IT-6/CS-7)

Que 3.5.Explain the transactionflow diagram of

consensuswith
example.
Answer
Following example explains the transactional mechanics that take place during
astandard asset exchange:
Example :
1. The scenario includes two
clients, A and B, who are buying and selling
"Quantum Series".
2. They each have a peer on the network through which they send their
transactions and interact with the ledger.
Process :
1. Client A initiates a transaction :
i. Client A sends a request to purchase "Quantum Series".
This request targets peerA and peerB, since all peers must endorse
any transaction.
ii. Next, the transaction proposal is constructed.
iv. The proposal is a request to invoke a chaincode function.
V. With the help of chaincode function the ledger is read and/or
updated.
vi. The transaction proposal is submitted to a target peer,
which will
manage the transaction submission on behalf of the client.
2 Endorsing peers verify signature and execute the transaction:
The endorsing peers verify :
that the transaction proposal is well formed,
b it has not been submitted
already in the past,
C the signature is valid, and
d. that the submitter is properly authorized to perform the
proposed operation on that channel.
ii. The endorsing peers take the transaction
proposal inputs as
arguments to the invoked chaincode's function,
iüi. The chaincode is then executed against the current state
database
to produce transaction results.
3. Proposal responses are inspected:
The target peer verifies that the proposal responses are the same
prior to proceeding with the transaction submission.
4. Target peer assembles endorsements intoa transaction :
i The target peer"broadcasts" the transaction proposal and response
within a "transaction message" to the ordering service.
3-6P (IT-6/CS-7)
Hyperledger Fabric
ii. The ordering service receives transactions, orders them, and creates
blocks of transactions per channel.
5. Transaction is validated and committed:
The blocks of transactions are "delivered" to all peers on the channel.
iü. The transactions within the block are validated to ensure
endorsement policy is fulfilled and there is no changes in ledger
state.
ii. Transactions in the block are tagged as being valid or
invalid.
6 Ledger updated:
i. Each peer appends the block to the channel's chain.
ii. An event is emitted by each peer to notify that the transaction has
been immutably appended to the chain and whether the transaction
was validated or invalidated.
OLnvocation1) Chaincode (2)Endorsement,
Ordering ) Validation Commit
execution collection BroadcastUDelivery

1
1

ordering
service

client endorsing endorsing endorsing Peer

peer 1 peer 2 peer 3 orderers (non-endorsing)
Fig. 3.5.1. Fabric high level transaction flow.

Que 3.6. What do you mean by Identity in a blockchain network ?

Answer
1. A blockchain network includes different actors like peers, orderers,
client applications, administrators and more.
2 Each of these actors has a digital identity encapsulated in an X.509
digital certificate.
3 These identities determine the exact permissions over resources and
access to information that actors have in a blockchain network.
4. Adigital identity has some additional attributes that Hyperledger Fabric
uses to determine permissions.
5. For an identity to be verifiable, it must come from a trusted authority.
Blockchain Architecture Design 3-7P (IT-6/CS-7)

6. A membership service provider (MSP) is that trusted authority in

Hyperledger Fabric.
7. An MSP is a component that defines the rules that govern the valid
identities for particular organization.
8. The default MSP implementation in Hyperledger Fabric uses X.509
certificates as identities, adopting a traditional Public Key Infrastructure
(PKI) hierarchical model.

Que 3.7. What do you mean by Membership Service Provider

(MSP) ?

Answer
1 Since Hyperledger Fabric is a permissioned network, blockchain
participants need a way to prove their identity to the rest of the network
in order to transact on the network.
2. Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) can provide verifiable identities through
a chain of trust.
3. However, a private key can never be shared publicly.
4 To overcome this,a mechanism is required to enable that proof which is
where the MSP comes in.
5. MSPs are used to define the organizations that are trusted by the network
members.
6. MSPs are also the mechanism that provides members witha set of roles
and permissions within the network.
7. The MSP is the mechanism that enables you to participate on a
permissioned blockchain network.
8. The MSP identifies which Root CAs and Intermediate CAs are accepted
to define the members of a trust domain.
9. MSP turns an identity into a role by identifying specific privileges an
actor has on a node or channel.
10. A Hyperledger Fabric blockchain network can be governed by one or
more MSPs.

Que 3.8. What is a policy ? Why are policies needed in Hyperledger

Fabrie ?

Answer
Policy : Apolicy is a set of rules that define the structure for how decisions
are made and specific outcomes are reached.
Need of policies in Hyperledger Fabrie:
1 Policies are one of the things that make Hyperledger Fabric different
from other blockchains like Ethereum or Bitcoin.
3-8 P (IT-6/CS-7) Hyperledger Fabric
2. The policies that govern the network are fixed at any point in time and
can only be changed using the same process that governs the code.
3. Policies allow members to decide which organizations can access or
update a Hyperledger Fabric network.
4. Policies contain the lists of organizations that have access to a given
resource.

5. They also specify how many organizations need to agree on a proposal

to update a resource.
6 Policies also evaluate the collection of signatures attached to transactions
and validate if the signatures fulfill the governance agreed to by the
network.

PART-2

Decomposing the Consensus Process.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.9. How do we decompose the consensus process ?

Answer
1. In distributed ledger technology, consensus has become synonymous
with a specific algorithm, within a single function.
2. However, consensus encompasses more than simply agreeing upon the
order of transactions.
3. This differentiation is highlighted in Hyperledger Fabric.
4. In Hyperledger Fabricconsensus is defined as the full-circle verification
of the correctness of a set of transactions comprising a block.
5. In Hyperledger Fabric consensus is achieved when the order and results
ofa block's transactions have met the explicit policy eriteria checks.
6. These checks take place during the lifecycle of a transaction.
7 These checks include the usage of endorsement policies and system
chaincodes to ensure that these policies are enforced.
8 These system chaincodes also helps to make sure that enough
endorsements are present and they are derived from appropriate entities.
9 Also a versioning check takes place during which the current state of
the ledger is agreed upon.
Blockchain Architecture Design 3-9P (IT-6/CS-7)
10. This versioning check takes place before any blocks
transactions are appended to the ledger. containing
11. This final check provides protection against
and other threats.
double spend operations
12. In addition to these, there are ongoing identity
in alldirections of the transaction flow. verifications happening
13. Access control lists are implemented on hierarchical layers of the
network.
14. Payloads are repeatedly signed, verified and authenticated as a
transaction proposal passes through the different architectural
components.
15. Consensus in Hyperledger Fabric is a byproduct of the
ongoing
verifications that take place during a transaction's journey from proposal
to commitment.

Que 3.10. Discuss Hyperledger Fabric.How do we decompose the

consensus process ? AKTU2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
Hyperledger Fabric : Refer Q. 3.1, Page 3-2P, Unit-3.
Decomposing the consensus process :Refer Q.3.9, Page 3-8P, Unit-3.

PART-3
Hyperledger Fabric Components.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.11. Mention the components of Hyperledger Fabric.

Answer
AHyperledger Fabric network has following components:
1. Assets : An asset is anything that has value. An asset has state and
ownership. Assets are represented in Hyperledger Fabric as a collection
of key-value pairs.
2. Shared ledger : The ledger records the state and ownership of an
asset. The ledger consists of two components:
3-10 P (IT-6/CS-7) Hyperledger Fabric

i. World state (State database) : The world state describes the

state of the ledger at a given point in time. It's the database of the
ledger.
i. Blockchain:The blockchain is a transaction log historythat records
all transactions.
3 Smart Contract :
i A smart contract is code that manages access and modifications to
aset of key-value pairs in the world state.
iü. Hyperledger Fabric smart contracts are called chaincode.
iüi. Chaincode is software that defines assets and related transactions.
iv Chaincode is invoked when an application needs to interact with
the ledger.
V. Chaincode is installed onto peer nodes and instantiated to one or
more channels.
4. Peer nodes:
i Peers are a fundamental element of the network because they
host ledgers and smart contracts.
i. A peer executes chaincode, accesses ledger data, endorses
transactions, and interfaces with applications.
üi. Peers are owned and maintained by members.
5. Ordering service :
The ordering service packages transactions into blocks to be
delivered to peers on a channel.
It guarantees the transaction delivery in the network.
ii. It communicates with peers and endorsing peers.
iv. The ordering service is a common binding for the overall network.
V. It contains the cryptographic identity material tied to each member.
vi. The supported configuration mechanisms for the ordering service
are Solo and Kafka.
6. Channels :
A channel is a private blockchain overlay which allows for data
isolation and confidentiality.
Achannel-specific ledger is shared across the peers in the channel.
ii. Transacting parties must be properly authenticated to a channel in
order to interact with it.
iv. Channels are defined by a Configuration-Block.
7. Hyperledger Fabric CA:
i. Hyperledger Fabric CA is the default Certificate Authority
component, which issues PKI-based certificates to network member
organizations and their users.
 Blockchain Architecture Design 3-11P (IT-6/CS-7)
The CA issues one root certificate to each member and one
enrollment certificate to each authorized user.

PART-4
Chaincode Design and Implementation.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.12. What is Chaincode ?

Answer
1. Chaincode is the term for programs that run on top of the blockchain to
implement the business logic ofhow applications interact with the ledger.
2. Chaincode is a program, written in Go, node.js, or Java.
3. The execution of chaincode is isolated from the endorsing peer process.
4. Chaincode initializes and manages ledger state through transactions
submitted by applications.
5. A chaincode typically handles business logic agreed to by members of
the network, so it may be
considered as a "smart contract".
6. Each chaincode is implemented as an isolated program that maintains
its own private state on the ledger.
7 State created by a chaincode can't be accessed directly by another
chaincode.

Que 3.13. Mention the parameters required in chaincode design.

Answer
Following are the parametersrequired in chaincode design:
1. Composite keys :
We often need to store multiple instances of one type on the ledger,
for example, multiple trade agreements.
The keys of those instances are constructed from a combination of
attributes.
ii. API functions can be provided in SHIM library to construct a
composite key of an instance based on a combination of several
attributes.
3-12 P (IT-6/CS-7)
Hyperledger Fabric
iv. These functions simplify composite key construction.
V. Composite keys can then be used to record and retrieve values.
vi. Composite keys allow you to search for assets based on
of the key in range queries. components
2. Range queries :
i. SHIM allows API functions to retrieve sets of assets based on a
range criteria.
The composite keys can be modeled to enable queries against
multiple components of the key.
The range functions return an iterator over a set of keys matching
the query criteria.
v The returned keys are in lexical order.
V. Also, when a composite key has multiple attributes, the range query
function can be used to search for keys matching a subset of the
attributes.
3. State queries and CouchDB :
E:
F:i. By default, Fabric uses LevelDB to store the world state.
Fabric can configure peers tostore world state in CouchDB.
When assets are stored in the form of JSON documents, CouchDB
allows you to perform complex queries for assets based on the asset
state.
iv. Fabric forwards queries to CouchDB and returns an iterator which
can be used to iterate over the result set.
4 Indexes:
Performing queries on large datasets is acomputationally complex
task.
ii. Fabric provides a mechanism for defining indexes on the CouchDB
hosted world state to increase efficiency.
ii. Indexes are also required for sorting operations in queries.
iv. An index is defined in JSON in a separate file.
V. During compilation, the indexes are packaged along with the
chaincode.
vi. Upon installation and instantiation of the chaincode on the peer,
the indexes are automatically deployed onto the world state and
used by queries.
5. ReadSet and WriteSet:
On receipt of a transaction invocation message, the endorsing peer
executes a transaction.
The execution invokes the chaincode in the context of the peer's
world state.
Blockchain Architecture Design 3-13 P (IT-6/CS-7)

ii. Itrecords all reads and writes of data on the ledger into a WriteSet
and ReadSet:
a. WriteSet:
1. The transaction's WriteSet contains a list of key and value
pairs that were modified during the execution by the
chaincode.
ii. When the value of a key is modified the WriteSet will
contain the updated key and value pair.
ii. When a key is deleted, the WriteSet will contain the key
with an attribute marking the key as deleted.
b. ReadSet:
i. The transaction's ReadSet contains a list of keys and their
versions that were accessed during execution by the
chaincode.
The version number of a key is derived from a combination
of the block number and the transaction number within
the block.
im. This design enables the efficient searching and processing
of data.
iv. Whenever a chaincode reads the value ofa key,the latest
committed value in the ledger is returned.
6. Multiversion concurrency control :
i. Fabric uses a multiversion concurrency control (MVCC) mechanism
toensure consistency in the ledger and to prevent double spending.
To ensure consistency, Fabric uses a versioning system of keys
stored on the ledger.
i . The aim of the versioning system is to ensure that transactions are
ordered and committed into the ledger in a sequence that does not
introduce inconsistencies.

Que 3.14. Explain the implementation of chaincode functions.

Answer
1. After establishing the basic building blocks of chaincode and the methods
which initiates the chaincode, we need to implement the functions of
the chaincode.
2. These functions help in recording and retrieving data to and from the
ledger to provide the business logic of the smart contract.
3. Following steps are involved in the implementation of chaincode
functions:
3-14 P (IT-6/CS-7) Hyperledger Fabric

A. Defining chaincode assets :

1. We first define the structure of assets, which will be recorded
onto the ledger.
2. The assets are defined as struct types with a list of attribute
names and types.
3. The attribute names are used to serialize the assets into the
JSON objects.
B. Coding chaincode functions :
1 In this section we will implement the chaincode functions.
2. To implement the chaincode functions, we will use three SHIM
API functions that will read assets from the world state and
record changes.
3 Reads and writes of these functions are recorded into ReadSet
and WriteSet respectively.
C. Creating an asset :
1 After implementing the chaincode function, we will create a
new asset.

2 Using a requestTrade function, we will create a new trade

agreement and then record that agreement on the ledger.
3 The implementation of the function is as follows:
i. The invoker invokes the function.
Then we validate and extract the arguments.
ii. We serialize trade agreement with JSON into an array of
bytes.
We create a unique key, under which we will store trade
agreement.
Finally, we use the key and serialized trade agreement to
store the value into the WriteSet.
D. Reading and modifying an asset :
1 After implementing the function to create a trade agreement,
we need to implement a function to accept the trade agreement.
2. This function will retrieve the agreement, modify its status to
ACCEPTED,and put it back on the ledger.
3 The implementation of thefunction is as follows:
i. First we construct the unique composite key of the trade
agreement we want to retrieve.
Then we retrieve the value using function Get State.
iii. Now, we deserialize the array of bytes into the instance of
the trade agreement struct.
iv. Then we modify the status so it reads ACCEPTED.
Blockchain Architecture Design 3-15P (IT-6/CS-7)
V Finally, we store the updated value on the ledger.
E. Main function :
1 The main function is added at the initial point of a program.
2 When an instance of the chaincode is deployed on a peer, the
main function is executed to start the chaincode.

Que 3.15. Write a short note on : Chaincode design and

implementation.
Answer
1. Designing and implementing a well-functioning chaincode is a complex
software engineering task.
2 It requires both the knowledge of the Fabric architecture as well as the
correct implementation of the business requirements.
3 Following steps are involved in chaincode design andimplementation:
Step 1:Setting up the development environment :
1. Before we can start coding our chaincode, we need to first set up
development environment.
2. This allows us to control how we built and run the chaincode.
Step 2: Creating a chaincode : It consists of thefollowing steps:
1. The chaincode interface : Every chaincode must implement the
Chaincode interface, whose methods are called in response to the
received transaction proposals.
2. Setting up the chaincode file.
3. The Invoke method : The Invoke method is invoked whenever
the state of the blockchain is queried or modified.
Step 3:Access control:Akey feature of asecure and permissioned
blockchain is access control mechanism. It consists of the following
steps:
1. Registering a user.
2. Enrolling a user.
3. Retrieving user identities and attributes in chaincode.
Step 4:Implementing chaincode functions :These functions help
in recording and retrieving data to and from the ledger to provide the
business logic ofthe smart contract.
Step 5: Testing chaincode :
1. The test suite file provides functions for managing test states and
supporting formatted test logs.
2. The output of the test is written into the standard output.
3. It can be inspected in the terminal.
3-16 P (IT-6/CS-7)
Hyperledger Fabric

PART-5
Beyond Chaincode : Fabric SDK and Front End.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.16. What are Hyperledger Fabric SDKs?

Answer
1 The Hyperledger Fabric SDK allows applications to interact with a Fabric
blockchain network.
2 It provides a simple API to submit transactions to a ledger or query the
contents of a ledger with minimal code.
3 The Hyperledger Fabric SDK provides a structured environment of
libraries for developers to write and test chaincode applications.
4. The SDK is fully configurable and extensible through a standard
interface.
5 Components, including cryptographic algorithms for signatures, logging
frameworks and state stores, are easily swapped in and out of the SDK.
6. The SDK provides APIs for transaction processing, membership services,
node traversal and event handling.
7. Currently, there are three officially supported SDKs -for Node.js, Java,
and Go.

Que 3.17. Write a short note on: Hyperledger Fabric SDK for
Node.js.
Answer
1. The Hyperledger Fabric SDK for Node.js is designed in an Object
Oriented programming style.
2. Its modular construction enables application developers to plug in
alternative implementations for handling transaction commit events,
transaction evaluation (query), and other behaviors.
3. The SDK is composed of following modules:
i. fabric-network: Provides high levelAPIs for client applications to
interact with smart contracts (chaincode), and is the recommended
API for building client applications.
Blockchain Architecture Design 3-17 P (IT-6/CS-7)
ii. fabric-ca-client : Provides APIs to interact with the optional
Certificate Authority component, fabric-ca, that contains services
for membership management.
iii. fabric-common : A low-level API, used to implement fabric
network capability, that provides APls to interact with the core
components of a Hyperledger Fabric network, namely the peers,
orderers and event streams.

Que 3.18. Write a short note on: Hyperledger Fabric SDK for Java.
Answer
1. The SDKprovides a layer of abstraction to interact with a Hyperledger
Fabric blockchain network.
2 It allows Java applications to manage the lifecycle of Hyperledger
channels and user chaincode.
3 The SDK also provides a means to execute user chaincode, query blocks
and transactions on the channel, and monitor events on the channel.
4 The SDK acts on behalf of a particular User which is defined by the
embedding application through the implementation of the SDK's User
interface.
5. Channels may be serialized via Java serialization in the context of a
client.
6.Applications need to handle migration ofserialized files between versions.
7 The SDK also provides a client for Hyperledger's certificate
authority.
8 The SDKis however not dependent on this particular
of a certificate authority. implementation
9 Other Certificate authority's maybe used by implementing the SDK's
Enrollment interface.

Que 3.19. Write a short note on : Hyperledger Fabric SDK for Go.
Answer
1 This SDK enables Go developers to build solutions that
interact with
Hyperledger Fabric.
2 Package client enables Go developers to build client applications using
the Hyperledger Fabric programming model.
3. Client applications interact with the blockchain network using a
Fabric
Gateway.
4 A client connection
to a Fabric Gateway is established by
calling
client.Connect() with a client identity, client signing
and client connection details. implementation,
3-18 P (IT-6/CS-7) Hyperledger Fabric

5. The returned Gateway can be used to transact with smart contracts

deployed to networks accessible through the Fabric Gateway.
Que 3.20. Write a short note on :Fabric front-end.
Answer
1 Front-end is typically written in HTML and makes up the user interface
ofthe application.
2. The front-end of a blockchain application is really no different from that
of atraditional web application.
3. Front-end devices can use the same CDNs and other libraries that they
use for conventional web applications.
4. Anode back-end server creates the blockchain interface for the front
end application.
5. This back-end interacts with the Fabric-SDK provided through the official
Hyperledger Fabric repository.
6. The Hyperledger Fabric network acts as the back-end layer for client
applications.
7. A client application can be anything such as a dapp, portal, business
activity, or web site; these types of applications are the front-end layer.
8. They can access chaincodes, transactions, and events through coding
the Hyperledger Fabric SDK.

PART-6
Hypeledger Composer Tool.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.21. Discuss Hyperledger Composer tool. What are its

components ? AKTU2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
1. Hyperledger Composer is a set of collaboration tools for building
blockchain business networks.
2. It accelerate the development of smart contracts and blockchain
applications, as well as their deployment across a distributed ledger.
 Blockchain Architecture Design 3-19 P (IT-6/CS-7)
3. Hyperledger Composer is used to model the participants, assets,
transactions, and events in a particular business network.
4. This model is then used to generate blockchain smart contracts and
ledgers that implement these elements to the blockchain network.
5. We also use the Hyperledger Composer model to generate a set of
domain-specific APls to access the transactions that manipulate them in
the Hyperledger Fabric blockchain.
6. These APIs will be used by applications on behalf of individuals,
organizations, systems, and devices.
Components of Hyperledger Composer: Hyperledger Composer includes
the following main components:
1. Business network archive: The business network archive captures
the core data of a business network like business model, transaction
logic and access controls. It then package these elements and deploys
them to runtime.
2. Composer playground : This web-based tool allows developers to
learn Hyperledger Composer, model out their business network, test
that network, and deploy that network to a live instance of a blockchain
network. The Composer playground offers a repository of sample
business networks that can provide a base for building your own business
network.
3. REST API support and integration capabilities : A LoopBack
connector for business networks has been developed that exposes a
running network as a REST APIwhich can easily be consumed by client
applications and an integrate non-blockchain applications.

Que 3.22. What is the use of Hyperledger Composer tool for

developers ?
Answer
Developers use Hyperledger Composer tool to :
1. Model reusable, core components in a business network-assets,
participants, transaction logic, and access controls for the business
network. These can then be shared across multiple organizations.
2. Generate JavaScript and REST APIs based on the business network
definition that can be used to interact with applications.
3 Integrate legacy systems, create skeleton applications, and run analytics
on the blockchain network.
4. Begin to develop and test on a web-based Composer playground without
installing anything.
5. Deploy the business network to a live blockchain instance of Hyperledger
Fabric or other blockchain network.
3-20 P (IT-6/CS-7) Hyperledger Fabric

Que 3.23. What are the benefits of adopting Hyperledger Composer

tool ?

Answer
Blockchain clients who adopt Hyperledger Composer experience the following
benefits:
1 Faster creation of blockchain applications.
2 Eliminating the massive effort required to build blockchain applications
from scratch.
3 Reduced risk with well-tested and efficient design.
4 Creates reusable assets based on best practices.
5 Greater flexibility as the higher-level abstractions make it far simpler to
iterate.
 4 UNIT
Use Case 1 &2

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Blockchain in Financial .4-2P to 44P
Software and Systems (FSS)
Part-2 : Settlements 4-4P to 4-5P

Part-3 : KYC (Know Your Customer) ............ 4-5P to 4-6P

Part-4: Capital Markets.... 4-7P to 4-8P

Part-5 : Insurance. 4-8P to 4-11P

Part-6 : Blockchain in Trade/Supply .. 4-11P to 4-12P

Chain

Part-7 : Provenance of Goods 4-12P to 4-13P

Part-8 : Visibility 4-13P to 4-14P

Part-9: Trade/Supply Chain 4-14P to 4-15P

Finance

Part-10: Invoice Management. 4-16P to 4-17P

Part-11 : Invoice Discounting 4-17P to 4-18P

4-1P (IT-6/CS-7)
4-2 P (IT-6/CS-7) Use Case 1 & 2

PART-1

Blockchain in Financial Software and Systems (FSS).

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.1. Discuss blockchain in financial software and systems.

Answer
Blockchain in financial software and systems :
1. Blockchain has been applied to banking and financial services in various
ways and getting numerous benefits.
2 Smart contract service helps in conducting financial transactions without
an intermediary.
3 It has the potential to manage securities, deeds, settlements, and claims
in an automated manner.
4 Most people know the term "blockchain" in relation to the cryptocurrency
Bitcoin.
5 However, mainstream financial institutions have started to use
blockchain technology without Bitcoin to make their own transactions
more efficient and secure.
6 Blockchain is essentially a ledger of recorded financial transactions.
7. This ledger is distributed, published, and stored in multiple locations.
When a transaction occurs, it is added to each copy of the ledger.
8 This helps ensure an accurate record of transactions.
9 Because there are many copies of the ledger, blockchain is practically
immutable and highly secure.
10. To alter any part of the record, a hacker would have to change every
copy of the ledger simultaneously, which would be extremely difieult.
Que 4.2. What is the feature of blockchain that make its
application useful in financial services?
Answer
1 Blockchain is one of the most exalted technology today which has a
pervading impact on financial servicex.
Blockchain Architecture Design 4-3P (IT-6/CS-7)

2. Blockchain uses digital signature to guarantee the provenance of the

transaction.
3. The key advantage ofblockchains resilient architecture is the protection
of distributed ledger.
4 Blockchain has the promising feature to make financial services efficient
and improve regulatory control.
5 Decentralized consensus mechanism makes transactions immutable
and updatable only through consensus among peers over the network.
6 This design protect displace traditional third-party functions in a
transaction.
7. Blockchain distributed ledger offers consensus and immutability about
the transfer of assets within a business networks.

Que 4.3. What are the benefits of blockchain technology in

financial sector ?

Answer
Financial sector is using blockchain because of the following benefits :
1. Transparency :
The distributed ledger is shared among all the participants over the
network.
ii All can keep an eye on every ongoing transaction leaving behind
any chance of discrepancy.
2 Security :
i. Hackers are trying all their tactics to hack the device.
It is very pricey to hack the blockchain network in terms of time.
iii. Blockchain technology is developed such that even if one block is
altered, all information of the block gets spoiled, makingit worthlesS
to hack.
3. Secure platform :
Blockchain provides a digital platform which ensures security to all
the intellectual property.
i. The digital certification and certification of ownership is some of
the reason to trust this technology.
4. Prevents payment scams:
i. Basic reason of why Blockchain provides powerful security is because
ifa coin is spent, it cannot be used for next payment.
This is the way it stopscorruption.
iüi. Another reason ofpopularity of the technology is that ifa transaction
occurs between two parties, it has digital signature from both parties
which prevents any fraud.
44P (IT-6/CS-7) Use Case 1 & 2
5. Transactions in minutes :
i. One can send or receive money or financial documents in minutes,
thus it saves time.
ii. Traditional payment system directs every document to the clearing
house for approval using third party, which causes down time in
the transaction.

PART-2
Settlements.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.4. Discuss application of blockchain in financial software

and systems with respect to settlements.
OR
Discuss application of blockchain with respect to settlements.
Answer
1. Settlement can be defined as the process oftransferring offunds through
a central agency, from payer to payee, through participation of their
respective banks.
2. In the current financial system, some payments can take up to a week
to finally settle.
3. The reason bebind it is mainly the presence of multiple intermediaries
in the system.
4. Present financial system is multi-layered, which means that every
transaction has to go through at least a couple ofintermediaries in order
to settle.
5. These intermediaries can be front and back offices of a bank, third
parties like currency exchangers in case of cross-border payments.
6. The presence of these intermediaries is a way to ensure security and
authenticity in acentralized system, but it leads to long settlement time.
7. Using blockchain peer-to-peer (P2P) transactions are possible.
8 It eliminates the need of intermediaries as smart contracts will be able
to manage transactions successfully.
9 As the "layers" of the system will be reduced, instant settlements of
payments will be facilitated.
 4-5P (IT-6/CS-7)
Blockchain Architecture Design
facilitate cross
10. Blockchain payment systems can also be implemented to
border payments instantaneously.
services.
11. In this way, blockchain facilitate instant settlements in financial

PART-3
KYC (Know Your Customer).

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.5. Discuss application of blockchain in financial software

and systems with respect to KYC (Know Your Custonmer).
OR
Discuss application of blockchain with respect to KYC (Know Your
Customer).

Answer
1. KYC (Know Your Customer) processes are the backbones of afinancial
institution's anti-money laundering efforts.
2.
Regulatory compliance committee in India has enforced KYC for every
bank.
3. However, KYC process takes long time for collecting and uploading the
data individually in the system.
4. It is estimated that 80% of KYC efforts go on gathering information and
processing.
5 Also, there is high possibility of false entry and duplication of the data.
6.
Blockchain carries the key to eliminating inefficiencies and duplication
in KYC processes.
7.
Blockchain stores this data in a central repository and generates a
reference number.
8
This reference number is shared among all banks and financial
institutions in near real time.

9. Banks can access the same data for due diligence related t0 any
customer's request for any other service in the same bank or with other
banks.
10. This helps in removing the efforts of collecting and checking KYC
information again and again.
11. Since the data are stored in encrypted form, security is maintained.
4-6P (IT-6/CS-7) Use Case 1 & 2

Que 4.6. Mention the benefits of blockchain in KYC process.

Answer
The benefit of ablockchain solution for KYC are:
1 Data quality :All data alterations are tracked and monitored in real
time.
2. Lowered turnaround time :Through KYC blockchain software
solutions, financial institutions get direct access to the data which saves
data gathering and processing time.
3 Reduced manual labor : KYC on blockchain eliminates paperwork
from the process.
4 Validation of information accuracy : KYC blockchain systems enable
transparency and immutability that, in turn, allows financial institutions
tovalidate the trustworthiness of data present in the DLT platform.
5 Real-time updated user data : Every time a KYC transaction is
performed, the information is shared within a distributed ledger. This
blockchain technology KYC system enables other participating
institutions to access real-time updated information.
6. Distributed datacollection : The introduction of blockchain in KYC
brings data on a decentralized network which can be accessed by parties
after permission has been given to them.
Que 4.7. Is blockchain solutions the answer to KYC issues ?

Answer
1 Gathering information and processing it takes up a great amount of
cost, time, and effort in the KYC process leaving very few resources
available for monitoring and assessing user behavior.
2. By offering speedy access to up-to-date data, blockchain KYC solutions
can lower the time needed for the laborious tasks.
3 This saved time can then be employed to find solutions to more complex
KYC challenges.
4 However, blockchain cannot solve allthe issues faced by KYC.
5 After the data is acquired, financial institutions still have to validate the
information.
6 For this, Artificial Intelligence and cognitive processing-like technologies
have to be employed for greater efficiencies.
7. In its present state, blockchain when used in combination with other
technologies can showcase high potential to help institutions lower the
cost and time linked with the KYC process.
 Blockchain Architecture Design 4-7P (IT-6/CS-7)

PART-4

Capital Markets.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.8. Discuss application of blockchain in financial software

and systems with respect to Capital Markets.
OR
Discuss application of blockehain with respect to Capital Markets.
Answer
1. In capital market trading, different parties like exchanges, central counter
parties, Central Securities Depositories (CSDs), and brokers are involved.
2. They have to maintain their ledgers based on the exchanged messages
between them.
3 For completing a transaction, the ledgers must be up-to-date and need
intermediate beneficiaries for cash management.
4 This leads todelay for the final settlement and involves additional costs.
5. Blockchain plays a vital role in each and every stage of the trade.
6. Blockchain system facilitates for Know Your Customer (KYC) check
and avoids multiple numbers of same checks again and again.
7. It provides transparency and verification ofholdings and reduced credit
exposure.
8. In the trade stage, it ensures the real-time transaction in more
transparent and secure way and provides the automatic reporting.
9. In post-trade, blockchain removes the concept of central clearing needed
for real-time cash transactions.
10. Blockchain also helps in the areas of Custody and Securities Servicing,
Pre-Initial Public Offer (IPO) shares allotment, Loan Syndication, Bond
Trading, Supply Chain Financing, etc.
Que 4.9. How investors in capital markets are benefitted from
blockchain ?

Answer
1. Blockchain technology significantly reduces the barrier to issue new
assets or financial products.
4-8 P (IT-6/CS-7) Use Case 1 & 2

2 Due to blockchain the cost of issuance of new securities drops and the
speed of issuance increases.
3. Using blockchain issuers will be able to tailor new instruments to the
needs of each investor.
4. The enhanced ability to more exactly match investor desire for return
will ereate a direct bond between capital seekers and investors.
5. Investors aim to mitigate risk while increasing their potential returns.
One of the key drivers of risk is a lack of liquidity.
6. This is addressed by the programmable nature of digital assets and
financial instruments which allows for lower transaction costs, increasing
the potential liquidity of an asset.
7. Combined with the increased connectivity and efficiencies across capital
markets, investors will see greater liquidity and a decreased cost of
capital.
8 The transparent and distributed blockchain ledger will enable more
robust insights intoasset quality.

Que 4.10. Discuss blockchain in financial software and systems

with respect to KYC and capital markets.
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
KYC: Refer Q. 4.5, Page 4 5P,Unit-4.
Capital Markets: Refer Q. 4.8, Page 4-7P, Unit-4.

PART-5

Insurance.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.11. Discuss application of blockchain in financial software

and systems with respect to insurance sector.
OR
Discuss application of blockchain with respect to insurance sector.
Blockchain Architecture Design 4-9P (IT-6/CS-7)

Answer
1 Blockchain is transforming the insurance sector by bringing optimization
in the business processes and sharing the information with better
efficiency, security, and transparency.
2 Using the smart contracts it is shifting insurance system from manual
to automated, thereby eliminating the traditional processing system.
3 Due to decentralization of blockchain, insurance sector will get
streamlined in underwriting, payments, claims, and reinsurance
processes.
4 In blockchain as the data is not stored at any centralized place it provides
higher level of protection and cost saving.
5 Blockchain technology provides benefits to following insurance verticals:
A. Health insurance :
1 Health insurance is in direct connection with the medical
institutions and patients using advanced data analytics.
2 All such processes and operations can be done through
blockchain in an efficient, secure, immutable, and transparent
manner.

B. Life insurance:
1 Blockchain can be used to connect various segments in life
insurance, namely, insurance companies, insuree,
beneficiaries, government, etc.
2 With the help of smart contract technology, insurance
companies can automate the whole processing.
3 They can operate smoothly with better efficiency, reduced
time and money on operations.
C. Auto insurance :
1 Auto insurance industry can be benefitted in terms of reducing
the level of paperwork and making underwriting easier.
2 Blockchain can help in faster resolution of accident claims.
D. Travel insurance :
1 Travel insurance could also be a vertical which use blockchain
to protect the traveler in case of flight delay.
2 Operational efficiency in this vertical of insurance would
increase international coverage.
Que 4.12. How blockchain technology can be used for claim
settlement in insurance sector?
 Use Case 1 & 2
4-10P (IT-6/CS-7)

Answer
1 Settlement of claims is the biggest challenge in insurance sector.
2 These claims settlement can become simpler with the help of custom
smart contract.
3. This smart contract takes various parameters of insurance policy and
processes the operation automatically through trustless identity
verification mode.
4. In distributed ledger system, smart contract processes the funds for
claims settlement.
5. Also, controlling is not done exclusively by either policy holder or
insurance company.
6. Funds can be directed to the genuine party automatically after the
verification using the digital contract.
7. Smart contracts can settle the insurance claims in a faster and speedy
manner without the requirement of any paper documents, photocopies,
and complicated web portals.
Que 4.13. How blockchain technology can be used for underwriting
in insurance sector ?

Answer
1. The process of underwriting involves calculation of the coverage amount
on the policy for policy holder and the annual premium charge.
2 It is very time-consuming process and need high level of data analysis.
3 With the help of blockchain, data analysis can be done automatically
using its tools for analysis.
4. It can help the underwriters to reduce the risk liability and automate
insurance policy price determination process.
5. This results in cost-efficient model of insurance and better experience
for the customer.
6. Transparency in the underwriting process helps in building trust between
customers and insurance companies.

Que 4.14. How blockchain technology can be used for reinsurance

in insurance sector ?

Answer
1. Reinsurance occurs when multiple insurance companies share risk by
purchasing insurance policies from other insurers to limit their own
total loss in case of disaster.
2. It is described as "insurance of insurance companies."
Blockchain Architecture Design 4-11 P (IT-6/CS-7)
3. Premiums paid by the insured are typically shared by all of the insurance
companies involved.
4. Blockchain can be used for reinsurance purpose, as it helps in automating
all calculations, balances, and reconciliation.
5. This technology can track the funds available for settlement of claims.
6. It can help the insurance companies in assessing financial risks and
improving upon the reinsurance strategy in totality.
7 Also, it can simultaneously benefit the insurance companies in terms of
minimizing cost and time.

PART-6
Blockchain in Trade/Supply Chain.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.15. Discuss application of blockchain technology in trade/

supply chain.
Answer
1 With manufacturing process taking place across the globe and the need
of transparency between suppliers and supply chains are must.
2. Supply chain is integrated with logistics industry, freight, trucking,
shipping, and other modes of transportation.
3 There is a strong need to streamline and make its system transparent.
4 Blockchain is perfectly suitable for supply chain management, with
real-time tracking of goods.
5. It is especially appealing to companies having multiple supply chains.
6 With the help of BCT, all inefficient and incompetent supply chain will
be eliminated.
7 Businesses are getting transformed with the help of blockchain-based
supply chain solutions which offer end-to-end decentralized processes
through DLT and digital public ledger.
Que 4.16. What are the problems associated with traditional
supply chain management ? How these problems are overcome by
decentralization of supply chain managemnent ?
4-12 P (IT-6/CS-7) Use Case 1 & 2

Answer
A. Problems associated with traditional supply chain
management :
1. The existing supply chain management system is outdated.
2. It is unable to match the pace of changes happening across the
globe.
3. The speed of existing supply chain is extremely slow.
4 Following are the major problems which have been face by the
industry in supply chain management :
i Problem of transparency related to supply of goods from one
place to other.
i. No surety of goods genuineness as "real and "certified".
iüi. Identifying the true value of transaction.
iv. Expensive and inefficient systems.
5. Risk of counterfeiting and fraud, lack of trust, unreliability, and
insecurity in data are also problems which have been observed.
B. Decentralization of supply chain management :
1 There are numerous benefits of decentralization of supply chain
management.
2 Major benefits are bringing traceability and transparency into the
system.
3 Real-time tracking of data is possible which helps to locate the
items and their conditions, resulting in reduction of human error.
4 There would be a change in the speed of transactions and efficiency
level will also be enhanced.
5. Since blockchain is trustless chain therefore it provides more
security and eliminates the chances of fraud and errors.
6. Other benefits of decentralized supply chain are improved inventory
management, lower courier costs, less paperwork, and faster issue
identification.

PART-7

Provenance of Goods.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Blockchain Architecture Design 4-13P (IT-6/CS-7)

Que 4.17. Discuss blockchain in trade/supply chain with respect

to provenance of goods.
OR
Discuss application of blockchain technology in provenance of goods.
Answer
1. In the supply chain industry, "provenance of goods" refers to the ability
to identify the origin location of a product.
2. Tracking provenance throughout supply chain journey is crucial to
ensuring product authenticity.
3. The complexity of supply chain has grown significantly due to the
expansion of globalization in the 21 century.
4. Due to the rise of globalization, it is now extremely challenging to ensure
the provenance (origin) of goods.
5 For big multinational companies, it is difficult to keep track of all
transactions and records.
6. This creates questions of company's reputation and reliability.
7. Blockchain-based supply chain solutions provide answers to such issues.
8. It makes provenance tracking possible with easy access to product
information using embedded sensors and RFID tags.
9. Blockchain can document provenance of goods to a single shared ledger,
which provides complete data visibility and asingle source of truth.
10. Because transactions are always time-stamped and up to date, companies
can query a product's status and origin at any point in time.
11. This helps to combat issues like counterfeit goods.

PART-8

Visibility.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.18. What does visibility in supply chain mean ? Explain

how blockchain helps in supply chain visibility (SCV)?
4-14 P (IT-6/CS-7) Use Case 1 & 2

Answer
1. Supply Chain Visibility (SCV) is the ability to track individual components,
sub-assemblies and final products as they travel from supplier to
manufacturer to consumer.
2 This data helps companies maneuver around inventory shortages, avoid
bottlenecks, meet compliance directives and track products through to
delivery.
Blockchain and supply chain visibility (SCV):
1 Asignificant motivation for companies investing in blockchain for SCV
is increasing consumer demand for information about product origins.
2 The internet has enabled information sharing among customers, and
blockchain offers the potential for the kind of visibility that can be
corroborated by the system.
3 The level and quality of visible data that blockchain might ofer could
increase service quality to consumers, creating greater value.
4 Blockchain is demonstrated as an enabler of visibility in supply chains.
5 Blockchain potentially offers the upstream visibility in supply chains.
6. This is largely a result of the decentralised, consensus-based trust
mechanism underpinning the technology.
7 The visibility provided by blockchain solutions aids decision-making by
enabling stakeholders to see timely, accurate, and reliable information.
8 Blockchain integrated with product labelling solutions offers a level of
visibility that was previously not possible.
PART-9

Trade/ Supply Chain Finance.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.19. What do you understand by supply chain finance ?

Explain the role of blockchain in supply chain finance.
Answer
1. Supply Chain Financing (SCF) is a financial management solution that
benefits both suppliers and buyers to increase working capital.
Blockchain Architecture Design 4-15 P (IT-6/CS-7)

2. Buyers use trade credit as cash flow management to maintain business

financial liquidity.
3 From the supplier's point of view, trade credit allows suppliers to set
favorable payment dates without disrupting their cash flow.
4 SCF main goals is to optimize financial flows between various levels of
business processes through solutions offered by financial institutions,
technology providers and other related parties.
Role of blockchain in supply chain finance :
1 Blockchain promises a supply chain data storage method with secure,
irreversible and transparent access.
2 Blockchain allows decentralization of data so that no party can claim
ownership of the supply chain data as their own.
3 Blockchain creates an immutable audit trail for all transactions. This
has the potential to increase trust between the relevant parties.
4. Blockchain can be used to achieve a single source of truth for activities
such as invoice receipt and approval.
5 Smart contracts can be used to automate transactions.
6. Blockchain provides the ability to access a wider range of funding
providers than a traditional supply chain finance solution.
7. In supply chain finance blockchain could be a useful tool to streamline
today's often manual and costly processes by catalyzing digitization.
8. In supply chain finance blockchain could increase the speed of
transactions as wellas their security, facilitating financial flows between
counterparties.
9. Blockchain provides solutions to SCF automation problems such as Know
Your Customer (KYC), accounting, and transaction settlement.
Que 4.20. What are the advantages and limitations of blockchain
in supply chain finance ?

Answer
Advantages of blockchain in supply chain finance include :
1. Decentralized and secure databases.
2. Anonymous and inexpensive transactions.
3. Smart contracts and product traceability.
Limitations of blockchain in supply chain finance:
1. Validation of successful adoption of blockchain technology.
2. Integration with existing IT systems.
3. Scalability.
4. Lack of computing power.
5. Regulatory and legal governance.
4-16 P (IT-6/CS-7) Use Casse 1 & 2

PART- 10
Invoice Management.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.21. What is invoice management/processing ? Explain

problems associated with manual invoice processing. Deseribe the
role of blockchain in invoice management.

Answer
1 Invoice management (invoice processing) is the method by which
companies track and pay supplier invoices.
2. The process involves receiving an invoice from a third party, validating
it as legitimate, paying the supplier, and noting the payment in company
records.
Problems associated with manual invoice processing :
1. Lack of Process Transparency : The status of manual invoice
processing is opaque. The status of the entire process and the duration
it will take to mature often lacks transparency.
2. Hidden Costs: Hidden costs often linger in manual invoice processing,
where one invoice is handled several times, even before an approval
decision is made.
3. High Error Rates: Manual invoicing is vulnerable to numerous errors
with accuracy plainly in the hands of the invoice processing handlers.
This can give rise to costly problems.
4. Unnecessarily Complex Processing : During the early stages, a
business might handle invoices as they arrive. However, as a company
grows, its processes become unnecessarily complex.
Role of blockchain in invoice processing :
1. Blockchain technology can streamline invoice processing, save costs,
minimize settlement times, and improve the business agility.
2. In an environment where businesses experience errors and fraud
attempts concerning invoice processing, guaranteeing trust becomes
obligatory .
3 For this purpose, blockchain offers an invoicing solution that brings
trust toevery step of the invoicing process.
4. The solution leverages blockchain technology to gather and process
data in a faster and effective manner.
Blockchain Architecture Design 4-17P (IT-6/CS-7)
5. The invoice solution ensures that invoices are from legitimate suppliers
and for expected and genuine orders.
6 It also inhibits fake and erroneous typing and double spending of invoices.
7. With this invoice solution, businesses can confirm and authorize every
step of the invoicing process, match invoice data with purchase order
data, from the reception of an invoice to the authorization of payment.
Que 4.22. Discuss blockchain in trade/supply chain with respect
to trade/supply chain finance, and invoice management.
AKTU2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
Trade/Supply Chain Finance: Refer Q. 4. 19, Page 414P, Unit-4.
Invoice Management:Refer Q. 4.21, Page 4-16P,Unit-4.
PART-11
Invoice Discounting.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.23. What is invoice discounting ? Describe the role of

blockchain in invoice discounting.
Answer
1. Invoice discounting is a funding option provided to businesses that are
issued by finance companies.
2 Under the invoice discounting process, the business uses the unpaid
invoices of its customers as collateral to access advances on cash funds
that improve the working capital and cash flow position of their business.
3 Invoice discounting significantly improves the cash flow and growth of a
business.
4 This is because the business obtains fast funding as immediate cash
rather than having to wait the usual 30-60 days.
5. This improved cash flow is critical for businesses as businesses can then
invest in growth.
6. The two major downsides of invoice discounting are the cost and the
reduced funding capacity.
 4-18 P (IT-6/CS-7) Use Case 1 & 2

Role of blockchain in invoice discounting:

1. Blockchain adoption enhances the overall invoice discounting process.
2 The trust and security mechanisms of the blockchain allow for the
elimination of on-site audits of receivables and debtors.
3. Adoption of blockchain will also allow for a fast and cheaper value
transfer, in particular for cross-border payments.
4. Using blockchain, debtor's verification of the invoice validity, reduces
significantly the risk of dispute and non-payment of that invoice.
5. Using blockchain the record of debtor invoices would be visible to his
suppliers and thus it could be used to influence the payment terms and
the offered contract prices.
6. This immutable debtor's verification could also potentially eliminate the
risk of invoice fraud.
7 The blockchain provides a complete and transparent record of a supplier's
completed transactions and their success rate on which to ground funding
and recourse decisions.
8. The blockchain provides a complete and transparent record of debtor's
payment history that can be used to evaluate decisions about credit
limits and debtor limits.

Que 4.24. What is the concept of executive accounting ? Does

blockchain support the same ? AKTU2021-22, Marks 07

Answer
1
Executive accounting is designed for service type businesses that require
a sophisticated yet simple to use accounting system.
2. Executive accounting contains many advanced features such as three
account
styles of invoicing, multi-currency capabilities, multiple bank
capabilities and other powerful features.
3 Executive accounting is a single-user system that can be upgraded to an
unlimited number of users.
offers
4. Executive accounting is designed exclusively for a business that
services to the people.
manage any
5. There is no strict upper limit on services and a business can
service through the executive accounting.
6 Yes, blockchain support executive accounting.
executive
7. Blockchain has algorithms that are specially meant to handle
accounting. executive
are associated with
8. In fact, it cut down many problems that
accounting.
 UNIT
5 Use Case 3

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Blockchain for Government .5-2P to 5-2P

Part-2 : Digital Identity 5-3P to 5-5P

Part-3 : Land Records 5-5P to 5-5P

Part-4 : Other Kinds of Record 5-6P to 5-9P

Keeping between
Government Entities

Part-5 : Public Distribution System 5-9P to 5-11P

Part-6 : Social Welfare Systems 5-11P to 5-12P

Part-7: Blockchain Cryptography 5-12P to 5-13P

Part-8 : Privacy on Blockchain 5-13P to 5-15P

Part-9: Security on Blockchain 5-15P to 5-21P

5-1 P (IT-6/CS-7)
5-2 P (IT-6/CS-7) Use Case 3

PART- 1

Blochchain for Government.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.1. How governments can harness the potential of

blockchain ?
OR
What are the benefits of blockchain in government sector ?
Answer
1 Government adoption of blockchain can be viewed from regulatory,
consumer, and developer perspectives.
2 As a governing body, a state may wish to monitor how blockchains are
used.
3 As a user of applications, governments may use blockchains to improve
processes.
4. Ablockchain-based government can protect data, streamline processes,
and reduce fraud, waste, and abuse while simultaneously increasing
trust and accountability.
5 On a blockchain-based government model, individuals, businesses, and
governments share resources over a secured distributed ledger.
6 This structure eliminates a single point of failure and inherently protects
sensitive data.

7. Ablockchain-based government enables the following advantages:

i. Secure storage of government, citizen, and business data.
Reduction of labour-intensive processes.
ii. Reduction of excessive costs associated with managing
accountability.
iv. Reduced potential for corruption and abuse.
V. Increased trust in government and online civil systems.
8. The distributed ledger format can be leveraged to support an array of
government applications, including digital identity, land records,public
distribution system, social welfare systems, etc.
Blockchain Architecture Design 5-3P (IT-6/CS-7)

PART-2
Digital Identity.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.2. What are the problems associated with existing digital
identity management system ? How blockchain helps in overcoming
those problems ?
OR
Discuss blockchain for government with respect to digital identity.
Answer
A. Problems in the existing identity management system :
1 Due to the lack of common platform of digital identity management,
individuals every time need to verify and authenticate their identities
at all places.
2 Existing digital identity management system are based on biometric
identification, which is password-based and stored in an unsecured
system.
3 These unsecured systems are highly prone to data theft and
hacking.
4 The centralized systems are identity centric and people get one
social security number containing all details.
5 Misuse of this information may result in disastrous acts such as
frauds in banking, purchasing, fake identity creation, etc.
6 Moreover, companies also sell the personal information for
commercial purposes and generate revenues.
B. Role of blockchain in overcoming existing identity management
problems :
1 Blockchains decentralized mechanism of identity management helps
resolves allexisting issues by providing a new model of identity
management using BCT.
2. Cryptography is used to separate data from the identity of individuals
for better security.
 Use Case 3
5-4 P (IT-6/CS-7)
possess
3 With the help of separate data management companies can
preserving the individuals'
and obtain data which is oftheir use while
privacy.
individuals', and
4 This creates a win-win situation for government,
companies.

Que 5.3. Give some use cases for blockchain application in identity
management.
Answer
identity
Following are some use cases for blockchain application in
management :
1. Datacollection and its analysis :
Accuracy of data is of utmost importance for any country, state, or
company.
ii.
The real-time data storage using blockchain can be analyzed and
improved in numerous industry practices.
üüi. This will also bring faith in terms of security of data.
iv. Analysis and analytics can be applied in a better manner for the
research and development, decision-making, and further
betterment of the society.
2. E-Residency :
i.
The identity management done using BCT can help individuals to
vote, file their income tax returns, perform various other processes
in a more efficient and secure manner.
It can also help virtual residency authentication due to government
verified ID's maintained using DLT.
iüi. Allthe government transactions can be moved to blockchain using
e-residency identity management in order to streamline all
interactions among individuals and government.
3. Immigration and identity :
i Digital identity card can be linked tothe details on the blockchain,
and this will act as a temporary ID card when entering in new
country.
ü. This will help immigration services to get smoother.
i. Travelers can also link their debit/eredit cards and can monitor
their account activity.
4. Self-s0vereign identities :
i The individuals can have a better life with the secure, transparent,
reliable, and accurate identity management system provided by
BCT.
Blockchain Architecture Design 5-5 P (IT-6/CS-7)

This will eliminate the involvement of third parties for digitalmanual

identity management; eliminate identity sprawl and identity theft.

PART-3
Land Records.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.4. Discuss blockchain for government with respect to land

records.

Answer
1. Anumber of governments around the world suffer from bad land registry
records.
2 There are hundreds of years of land records, which make keeping track
of land ownership difficult.
3 Factors contributing to the growing problems faced by land registry
officials are:
i. Discrepancies with the paperwork.
Forged documents and counterfeit titles.
Occasional loss of all documents.
4 For developing countries bad land registry records, government
corruption, the use of paper-only systems, and natural disasters all
contribute to the growing problems faced by land registry officials.
5. Blockchain-based technology is a cost-effective solution to these
problems.
6 The transparent nature of blockchain makes it an effective technology
for use in public records systems, title registry, and land right
management.
7 Blockchain is more efficient, reliable and cost-effective than current
models in use.
8 It provides immutable records, secure access and storage, user
friendliness, and operational simplicity.
9 Blockchain technology allows users to easily secure the deeds of
transactions by entering the details and uploading them on distributed
document storage with immutable logs.
 5-6P (IT-6/CS-7) Use Case 3

PART-4
Other Kinds of Record Keeping between Government Entities.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.5. What type of records can be kept in a blockchain ? Is

there any restriction on same ? AKTU2021-22,Marks 07
Answer
1. Following are two types of records that can be kept in the blockchain :
i Transactional Records
Block Records
2. Both these records can be easily aceessed.
3. It is also possible to integrate them without following the complex
algorithms.
Restriction for keeping records:
1 No, it is not possible to give restriction for keeping records in the
blockchain approach.
2 We can put any type of data on a blockchain such as bank records,
medical records, images, documents, Instagram messages, etc.
3 However, blockchains are not designed to store large data.
4 It is recommended to not keep large dataset in blockchain.
Que 5.6. Explain government adoption of blockchain in health
sector/healthcare.

Answer
1. Digitization of health records is a significant task in the public health
sector, which is huge,complex and associated with ethical issues.
2. Medical records are scattered and erroneous, with inconsistent data
handling processes.
3. Sometimes, hospitals and clinics are forced to work with incorrect or
incomplete patient records.
4. Blockchain technology can help public health by creating a secure and
flexible ecosystem for exchanging patient's electronic health records.
Blockchain Architecture Design 5-7P (IT-6/CS-7)

5 Blockchains in healthcare can be envisaged in five primary areas :

E:F: Managing electronic medical record (EMR)data.
ii. Protection of healthcare data.
ii. Personal health record data management.
Point-of-care genomics management.
V. Electronics health records data management.
6 This technology could also make the space more transparent by creating
a basis for critical drugs, blood, organs, etc.
7. In addition, by putting allmedical licenses on a blockchain, fraudulent
medical practitioners, druggists, chemists be prevented from practicing
and selling drugs.
Que 5.7. Explain government adoption of blockchain in energy
resources management in smart city.
Answer
1. By 2030, 60% of mankind will be city-inhabitants.
2 Populace thick urban communities are enormous and generate a
comparable extent of worldwide carbon discharges.
3. Due to this urban communities are major contributor of environmental
pollution.
4. To balance this there is a need to develop distributed energy resources
to supports urban communities and incorporate more sustainable power
Sources.

5. The distributed energy resources reduce variable costs ofretail payment

processing and accounting.
6. They improve greater transparency into billing and greater customer
choice of energy supply.
Role of blockchain in energy resources management in smart city:
1. Blockchain could improve retailpower by utilizing digitalcurrencies for
bill repayment.
2. Blockchain could lessen the variable expenses of install ment handling
and bookkeeping.
3. Blockchain could improve client's relationship by empowering more
prominent straightforwardness into vitality charges and bill segments.
4. Blockchain could impart clients with the capacity to enter and leave
vitality contracts any time.
5. Blockchain could help utility make more prominent decision and build
straightforwardness into vitality supply.
5-8 P (IT-6/CS-7) Use Case 3

Que 5.8. Give the application of blockchain in voting.

Answer
1. Ademocratic country depends on voter consensus to elect officials.
2 Unfortunately, the voting systems at present are inefficient and
manipulation prone.
3 Blockchain can improve the system to identify the rationality of the
individual citizens.
4 BCT uses decentralized ledger to store voting data. The result is not
managed by a centralized authority.
5. This eliminates the menace of voting result manipulations.
6 Voters can cast votes the same way they initiate other secure transactions.
7. They can also validate that their votes were cast or not.
8. Potential solutions are currently working to blend secure digtal identity
management, anonymous vote-casting, individualized ballot processes,
and ballot casting confirmation verifiable by the voter.

Que 5.9. Give the application of blockchain in notary services.

Answer
1 Notary services may be transformed using blockchain.
2. These administrative time stamps actually validate an action that happens
in a person's life including:
birth and death details,
i. documentation for new identity,
iüi. receiving educational certificate,
iv. transfer of ownership titles.
databases or
3. As of now, many of these practices are done on secluded
through brick-and-mortar offices, which are generally prone to errors.
a blockchain,
4 Due to the encryption of the data and information stored in
all these recorded data will be stored safely.
permitted
5. These recorded data will be only observable to the owner or the
parties.
sector.
Que 5.10. Give the application of blockchain in energy
Answer
aspects, ranging
Blockchain in the energy sector can involve multiple energy
1 resources
energy trading to management of IoT devices and
from
management.
Blockchain Architecture Desigm 5-9 P (IT-6/CS-7)

2. "Energy trading, especially renewable energy trading and management,

is one of the main areas found in current blockchain projects.
3 The projects utilize the cryptocurrency side of the blockchain technology
to build the trading system.
4 The energy is first converted into tradable values and sent to the
blockchain network.
5 The real-time trading prices are then calculated according to the exchange
cost and demand.
6 When the transactions are finalized, energy can be exchanged locally
without having to be transmitted to a central location.
7 These methods have been shown to greatly reduce the management
and trading cost.
8 The adoption of blockchain could potentially reduce the cost for any
financial transaction in the energy sector and remove the need for a
trusted single party.
Que 5.11. Discuss blockchain for government with respect to
digital identity, land records and other kinds of record keeping
between government entities. Is it safe ? Justify your answer.
AKTU2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
Refer Q. 5.2, Page 5-3P, Q. 5.4, Page 5-5P, Q.5.5 to GQ. 5.9; Unit-5.

PART-5
Public Distribution System.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.12. What do you understand by Public Distribution System

(PDS) ? Give the process flow for PDS.
Answer
Public Distribution System (PDS):
1. Public distribution system is a government-sponsored chain of shops
entrusted with the work of distributing basic food and non-food
commodities to the needy sections of the society at very cheap prices.
 Use Case 3
5-10 P (IT-6/CS-7)
month to the ration card
2. Subsidised ration distribution takes place each
holders under public distribution system (PDS).
till distribution to ration
3. PDS involves procurement from the farmers
card beneficiaries.
central and state agencies,
4. PDS comprises different entities such as beneficiaries.
millers, transporters, shop owners and the
general lack of accountability down
5. A major feature of the PDS is the
the entire supply chain.
chain effectively
6 Blockchain technology can be useful in managing supply
using distributed ledger technology.
till disbursement can be
7 Entire supply chain starting from procurement
part of blockchain.
corruption, exclusion
8 Blockchain provides an effective way to combat grains and is cost
food
errors of targeted beneficiaries,leakage of PDS
effective.
Process flow for PDS:
then procured by the
1 Farmer cultivates the food grains which are
government under minimum support price (MSP).
grains initially and
2 Millers identified by the government collect food
then hull it to be returned to government.
distributed to various block
3 It is then moved to state godowns to be
godowns.
distributed to various
4 From the block godowns these commodities gets
distribution.
fair price shops (FPS)for beneficiary
PDS.
Que 5.13. Explain the role of blockchainin
Answer
Distribution System
1 The blockchain technology implemented in Public using standard
advances the management structure of the process by
procedures and entry systems.
architecture with
2 It keeps track and create secured and reliable updates.
permissions to all nodes to transact and review the
farmers based on
3 Use of blockchain can remove delay in payment to the transaction is
procurement done by the miller. However, unless the
collected.
approved by the farmer, miller cannot register the quantity
4 This makes each transaction Non-repudiation.
this initial data,
5. Since calculation and payment must happen based on
data provenance (recording history of data) can be sealed using blockchain
technology.
Blockchain Architecture Design 5-11 P (IT-6/CS-7)
6. The decentralized distributed ledger makes all the stake
their local copy of the ledger tomake decisions and act holders refer to
accordingly.
7. Certain activities such as payment to farmers can be done without
waiting for the miller to hull them.
8 Since the procurement season is defined for each
commodity, payment
can start immediately without waiting for the other actors to complete
their process.
9 This makes each transaction as non-time critical and thus
eligible to be
part of blockchain technology.

PART-6
Social Welfare Systems.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.14. Explain the role of blockchain in social welfare systems.

Give an example of blockchain based social welfare system.
Answer
1. Government in its several welfare schemes get benefited by adopting
blockchain technology.
2 It can improve its delivery services, eliminate the middleman, and prevent
tax fraud cases.
3. Most of the government functions and blockchain technology are
essentially the same.
4. Government launches welfare schemes that can be considered as a
network involving several stakeholders.
5. Similarly blockchain maintains a distributed ledger.
Example: GovCoin blockchain-based system:
1. The UK government has teamed up with the
company GovCoin in
order to develop a blockchain for welfare payments.
2. GovCoin has developed specialized blockchain systems for
welfare transactions.
seamless
3. The welfare distribution mechanism with the assistance of
blockchain
systems is fairly straightforward.
5-12 P (IT-6/CS-7) Use Case 3

4. The GovCoin-powered mobile application allows individuals on welfare

support to use transferred monetary amounts to cover grocery, rent,
maintenance and other daily expenses.
5 Additionally, the distributed ledger can also monitor where exactly the
money handed out is being spent.

PART-7
Blockchain Cryptography.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.15. Explain how blockchain uses cryptography?

Answer
1. Blockchain uses cryptography to derive most of its properties.
2 Each participant on the network is categorized as a node and has a pair
of public and private keys.
3 The public key acts as a public address of the node, and private key is
used for authentication.
4 When a transaction is created, it will have the public key of the sender,
public key of the receiver, and the transaction message.
5 Then the transaction is cryptographically signed using the private key
and transmitted over the blockchain network.
6. This completes one transaction.
7. A block is a collection of many such valid transactions which are sent
over the network within a specified time limit.
8. Validation of transaction ensures that the transaction is legitimate and
generated from a valid and connected node.
Que 5.16. How cryptography provides trustless environment in
blockchain network ?

Answer
1. Cryptography is method for protecting information through the use of
encrypting and decrypting the data.
2. Blockchains mainly make use of two types of eryptographic algorithms:
Hash functions
Blockchain Architecture Design 5-13 P (IT-6/CS-7)
i. Asymmetric-key algorithms
3. Hashing is mainly used in linking of blocks and in
consensus algorithms.
4 Asymmetric key cryptography is driving the blockchain applications for
identifying the contributors of the network and proof of their ownership.
5. So cryptography is an excellent way for replacing the third parties and
provides trustless environment in blockchain network.

PART-8
Privacy on Blockchain.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.17. Discuss privacy issues of blockchain technology.

Answer
1. Different blockchain applications present different and unique privacy
challenges.
2. Following three general categories currently concern legal privacy
experts:
The first involves the necessary bridge between the physical and
cyberspace limits.
The second involves sensitive information that is actually stored on
the blockchain.
iüi. The third involves the very existence of blockchains.
3. Each of these options offers tradeoffs between security, privacy, speed,
and functionality.
4. Different applications require different blockchain networks to work
according to each application's specific requirements.
A Physical-cyberspace boundary :
1 The "physical cyberspace boundary" refers to the concept that when
a person interacts in cyberspace, he do so through an "online
identifier."
A
connection between person and his online identifier needs to be
established to participate ina transaction.
3 At present, this is achieved through username and
passwords,
sometimes with the expansion of multifaceted verification
techniques.
5-14 P (IT-6/CS-T) Use Case 3
4 In the near future, biometric identifiers will be used as the
methods
for intersecting the physical-cyberspace boundary.
5 For a person to log into a network, the network must have a copy
of the login credentials coupled with the online identifier of that
person.
6 These credentials would be stored in a blockchain network on all
the nodes with which you want to interact, some of which can be
more easily compromised.
7. This is particularly important when it comes to biometric identifiers,
which are not easily changed once they are compromised by identity
thieves.
B. Information storage and inference :
1. Some of the data which will be stored on blockchains will be
particularly sensitive.
2. While any sensitive information stored on the blockchain will be
encrypted, hackers may target those specific nodes that can be
more easily compromised to access the encrypted information.
3. Privacy risks can be mitigated by operating in closed networks.
4. However, there are benefits to open networks that require at least
some blockchains containing sensitive information to operate in
networks that are less than completely closed.
5. Another concern about open networks is that, although the
information itself is encrypted, sensitive information can be gathered
from the fact that transactions took place.
6. Also it is unclear who might be legally liable in the event, the
information is accessed and harm results to the owner of the
information.
C. Nature of the blockchain (Eternal Records):
1. As we create more data and as these data are cataloged and easily
searched, the data becomes eternal and visible to the general public.
2. The technology of blockchain is likely to accelerate this trend.
3 As the types oftransactions stored in blockchains increase, eternal
records of each transaction will increase.
4. You willhave no control over where this information is stored or
how it is used and no way to delete it.
5. There are numerous concerns about privacy involved in these
eternal records.
6. For example, the simple fact that these records exist could pose
problems for anyone who does not want to have a complete record
of all their transactions for all time.
7. In addition, there is currently no clear agreement on who "owns"
the information in these records as a legal matter.
Blockchain Architecture Design 5-15 P (IT-6/CS-7)

8 In the absence of clear ownership rules, public bodies and private

citizens may also have access to these data.

PART-9
Security on Blockchain.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.18. What are the key principles in blockchain that are helpful
in eliminating the security threats that needs to be followed ?
AKTU2020-21, 2021-22; Marks 07
Answer
The fundamental principles in blockchain that must be followed to eliminate
security threats are:
1. Auditing :
i An audit involves an assessment that recorded transactions are
supported by evidence that is relevant, reliable, objective, accurate,
and verifiable.
The acceptance of a transaction into a reliable blockchain may
constitute sufficient appropriate audit evidence for certain financial
statement assertions such as the occurrence of the transaction.
iii For example, in a Bitcoin transaction for aproduct, the transfer of
Bitcoin is recorded on the blockchain.
iv. However, the auditor may or may not be able to determine the
product that was delivered by solely evaluating information on the
Bitcoin blockchain.
2. Securing applications :
i. Blockchain technology produces a structure of data with inherent
security qualities.
i It's based on principles of cryptography, decentralization and
consensus, which ensure trust in transactions.
3. Securing testing and similar approaches :
To guarantee trust, testers must ensure that all the components of
a blockchain are working perfectly and that all applications are
interacting with it in a trusted manner.
 Use Case 3
5-16P (IT-6/CS-7)
Some of the core tests that should be run include functional,
performance, API, node testing, and other specialized tests.
4. Database security :
1. The records on a blockchain are secured through cryptography.
iü. Network participants have their own private keys that are assigned
to the transactions they make and act as a personal digital signature.
5. Continuity planning :
i Business Continuity Planning (BCP) is the process involved in
creatinga system of prevention and recovery from potential threats
to a company.
i. The plan ensures that personnel and assets are protected and are
able to function quickly in the event of a disaster.
6. Digital workforce training :
The digital workforce is use to describe a variety of robotic and
automated solutions for driving productivity efficiencies in the
workplace.
i. Digital workforce training helps in making blockchain security more
efficient.

Que 5.19. Explain the use of cryptography Hash function/Hashing

in blockchain network.

Answer
1. Data in blockchain are cryptographically hashed.
2 Hash function is aone-way function which means that hash can be
generated from the plain text, but deriving the plain text from the hash
is extremely difficult.
3 Thus, tracking of information and unautho.ized tampering of data cannot
be done.
4 Hash value denotes a numeric value of a fixed length that will be generated
using cryptographic hash algorithm.
5 It identifies the data uniquely and blockchain state is represented by
hash function SHA256.
6 Hashing generates a fixed length hash value that uniquely represents
the contents of an arbitrary length string.
7. Identical strings are generating the same hash value.
8 Retrieving the original string from hashed values is not possible, since it
is a one-way function.
9. Genesis block hash is calculated using initial transactions.
10. Index of the block, previous block hash, timestamp, block data, and
nonce are used for calculating the hash value of the consecutive blocks.
Blockchain Architecture Design 5-17 P (IT-6/CS-7)

Que 5.20. Explain the use of eryptographic digital sigmature in

blockchain network.

Answer
1. Asymmetric cryptographic mechanism is used to verify the credibility of
the transaction ina deceitful environment.
2 Digital signature works on the principle of asymmetric cryptography.
3 Each transaction member is provided with aprivate and public key.
4. A private key is stored confidentially because it is used for signing
negotiations.
5 The transactions that are signed are transmitted across the distributed
network and the public keys are used for their accessibility.
6. Indigital signature there are two levels involved: verification phase and
signing.
7. During the phase of signing, the encryption of the data is carried out
using the private key by the sender.
8. Encrypted result and native data are delivered, which are sent to the
receiver of the transaction.
9. For the validation of the received value by the receiver, the public key is
used and the data are checked if it has been meddled.
10. Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA) is used to implement
digital signature mechanism in blockchains.
11. Fig. 5.20.1 shows the process of assignment of the digital signature.

Private Sign database

record or attribute
key
Message |Digital signature
Validate digital Public
signature key

Fig. 5.20.1. Digital signature assignment process.

12. The private key is used to sign and record various messages, while the
digital signature is validated using the public key.

Que 5.21. What is Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) ?

Answer
1. Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) is a key-based technique for
encrypting data.
5-18 P (IT-6/CS-7) Use Case 3

2 ECC focuses on pairs of public and private keys for decryption and
encryption in blockchain network.
3 ECC is a powerful cryptography approach.
4. It generates security between key pairs for public key encryption by
using the mathematics of elliptic curves.
5 ECC has gradually been growing in popularity due to its smaller key size
and ability to maintain security.
6. ECCbases its approach to public key cryptographic systems on how
elliptic curves are structured algebraically over finite fields.
7 ECC creates keys that are more difficult, mathematically, to crack.
8 For this reason, ECC is considered to be the next generation
implementation of public key cryptography in blockchain network.
Que 5.22. What is SHA-256 hashing algorithm ?
Answer
1 Secure Hashing Algorithm (SHA)-256 is the hash function and mining
algorithm of the Bitcoin protocol.
2. It refers to the cryptographic hash function that outputs a 256 bits long
value.
3. It moderates the creation and management of addresses, and is also
used for transaction verification.
4. It is a Secure Hashing Algorithm, commonly used for digital signatures
and authentication.
5. SHA-256 is the most famous of all cryptographic hash functions because
it's used extensively in blockchain technology.
6. SHA-256 Hashing algorithm was developed by the National Security
Agency (NSA)in 2001.
7 The algorithm is a variant of the SHA-2 (Secure Hash Algorithm 2).
8 SHA-256 is also used in popular encryption protocols such as SSL, TLS,
SSH and open source operating systems such as Unix/Linux.
9 The hash algorithm is extremely secure and its workings aren't known
in the public domain.
10. It is use to protect sensitive information, due to its ability to verify a
content of data without revealing it.
11. It is also utilized for password verification, since it does not require the
storage of exact passwords.
12. Due to the astronomical number of potential combinations a brute force
attack is extremely unlikely to succeed.
Que 5.23.What is Merkle Tree and Merkle Root ?
Blockchain Architecture Design 5-19 P (IT-6/CS-7)

Answer
MerkleTree:
1. A Merkle tree is a data structure that is used in computer science
applications.
2. In bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies, they're used to
data more efficient.ly and securely. encrypt blockchain
3. It's a mathematical data structure made up of
hashes of various data
blocks that summarize all the transactions ina block.
4. It also enables quick and secure content verification across big
and verifies the consistency and content of the data. datasets

Root hash Merkle Root

Hash01i Hash23 i
L

I Hash0i Hashl i Hash2 i Hash3 i.

T1 T2 T3 T4

Fig.5.23.1. Merkle tree.

Merkle Root :
1 Merkle root is the name of the root node in the tree.
2 A Merkle root is a simple mathematical method for confirming the facts
on a Merkle tree.
3. They're used in cryptocurrency to ensure that data blocks sent through
a peer-to-peer network are whole, undamaged, and unaltered.
4. They play a very erucial role in the computation required to keep
cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ether running.
Que 5.24. Explain the working of Merkle Trees.
Answer
1 A Merkle tree totals all transactions in a block and generates a
digital
fingerprint of the entire set of operations, allowing the user to verify
whether it includes a transaction in the block.
5-20 P (IT-6/CS-7) Use Case 3

2. Merkle trees are made by hashing pairs of nodes repeatedly until only
one hash remains.
3 This hash is known as the Merkle Root or the Root Hash.
4. They're built from the bottom, using Transaction IDs, which are hashes
of individual transactions.
5. Each non-leaf node is a hash ofits previous hash, and every leaf node is
ahash of transactional data.
Example: Consider the following scenario :
1 A, B,C, and D are four transactions, all executed on the same block.
2. Each transaction is then hashed. After hashing we get the following :
Hash A Hash B Hash C Hash D
3 The hashes are paired together, resulting in Hash AB and Hash CD.
4 The Merkle Root is formed by combining these two hashes i.e., Hash
ABCD.

Markle Root
Hash ABCD

Non-Leaf Nodes
Hash AB Hash CD

Leaf Nodes Leaf Nodes

Hash B Hash C Hash D

Hash A

Transaction Transaction Transaction Transaction

ID A ID B ID C ID D

Fig. 5.24.1. Working of merkle tree.

Que 5.25. What is the application of merkle trees ? Write use of

merkle trees in blockchains ? AKTU2021-22, Marks 07

Answer
Application of Merkle trees:
1. Merkle trees are used in distributed systems for efficient data verification.
2
Merkle trees can be used to verify any kind of data stored, handled and
transferred in and between computers.
Blockchain Architecture Design 5-21 P (IT-6/CS-7)
3 Merkle trees help ensure that data blocks received from other peers in
a peer-to-peer network are received undamaged and unaltered.
4 Merkle trees can be used to check that other peers in a
network do not lie and send fake blocks.
peer-to-peer
5. Merkle trees can be used to check inconsistencies.
Use of Merkle trees in blockchains : Following are various Merkle tree
implementations in blockchains :
1 Git, a distributed version control system, is one of the most widely used.
Git uses Merkle tree to store its data (source).
2 Interplanetary File System, a peer-to-peer distributed protocol, uses
Merkle tree toprovide a solution for private file storage in the blockchain.
3 Apache Cassandra uses Merkle Trees to detect inconsistencies in replicas.
4 Amazon DynamoDB, a No-SQL distributed databases, use Merkle trees
to control discrepancies.
5 Ethereum also uses a Merkle Tree, but a different type than Bitcoin.
Ethereum uses a Merkle Patricia Trie.

Que 5.26.Mention security components used in blockchain.

Answer
Following security components are used in blockchain:
1. Hash Function : Refer Q.5.19, Page 5-16P, Unit-5.
2. Digital Signature : Refer Q. 5.20, Page 5-17P, Unit-5.
3. Elliptic Curve Cryptography : Refer Q. 5.21, Page 5-17P, Unit-5.
4. Merkle Tree : Refer Q. 5.23, Page 5-18P, Unit-5.
Que 5.27. Which cryptographie algorithm is used in blockchain ?
Explain in detail. AKTU2020-21, 2021-22; Marks 07
Answer
Following cryptographic algorithms are used in blockchain:
1. Unit-5.
Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) : Refer Q. 5.21, Page 5-17P,
2. SHA-256 Hashing Algorithm : Refer Q. 5.22, Page 5-18P,Unit-5.