Integration by Partial Fractions

Lecture Notes

Abdul Rauf Nizami

April 2020
2

We are going to evaluate those integrals whose integrands are rational func-
tions.

Rational Function. A function f is called rational if it is a fraction of poly-

nomials. That is, f (x) = p(x)
q(x) , where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials.

x
For instance, f (x) = x2 −1 is a rational function with p(x) = x and q(x) =
x2 − 1.

How can we evaluate integrals with rational integrands? Well, such integrals
are evaluated by partial fractions, and the process is explained in the follow-
ing examples.

5x+1
R
Example 1. Use partial fractions to evaluate (x−1)(x+2) dx.

Solution.
Step 1. [Express the integrand as a sum of its partial fractions] Since the
integrand has two linear factors in its denominator, we express it as a sum
of two partial fractions:
5x + 1 A B
= + (1)
(x − 1)(x + 2) x−1 x+2
In order to find A and B we multiply (1) by the denominator of the integrand.
So, we get
5x + 1 = A(x + 2) + B(x − 1)
Now, depending on powers of x, we arrange the terms in different groups:
5x + 1 = (A + B)x + (2A − B)
Comparing like powers of x, we get two equations:
A+B = 5
2A − B = 1
Simultaneously solving these equations, we get A = 2 and B = 3. Now
putting these values in (1), we get the required sum of partial fractions:
5x + 1 2 3
= + (2)
(x − 1)(x + 2) x−1 x+2
Step 2. [Evaluate the integral] Using the partial fractions of (2), we get
Z Z h
5x + 1 2 3 i
dx = + dx
(x − 1)(x + 2) x−1 x+2
Z Z
2 3
= dx + dx
x−1 x+2
Z Z
1 1
= 2 dx + 3 dx
x−1 x+2
= 2 ln(x − 1) + 3 ln(x + 2) + c 
 Integration by Partial Fractions 3

x−1
R
Example 2. Use partial fractions to evaluate x2 −4 dx.

Solution.
Step 1. [Express the integrand as a sum of its partial fractions] First of all,
express the denominator of the integrand as a product of linear factors. That
x−1
is, (x−2)(x+2) . Since the denominator has two linear factors, we express it as
a sum of two partial fractions:
x−1 A B
= +
(x − 2)(x + 2) x−1 x+2
In order to find A and B, we multiply through by the denominator and get
x − 1 = A(x + 2) + B(x − 2)
Now, depending on powers of x, we arrange the terms in different groups:
x − 1 = (A + B)x + (2A − 2B)
Comparing like powers of x, we get two equations:
A+B = 1
2A − 2B = −1
Simultaneously solving these equations, we get A = 14 and B = 34 . Now,
putting these values in the first equation, we get the required sum of partial
fractions:
x−1 1 3
= +
(x − 2)(x + 2) 4(x − 2) 4(x + 2)
Step 2. [Evaluate the integral] Using the above partial fractions, we get
x−1
Z Z h
1 3 i
dx = + dx
x2 − 4 4(x − 2) 4(x + 2)
Z Z
1 1 3 1
= dx + dx
4 x−2 4 x+2
1 3
= ln(x − 2) + ln(x + 2) + c
4 4

R 2x+1
Example 3. Use partial fractions to evaluate (x−1)2 dx.
Solution.
Step 1. [Express the integrand as a sum of its partial fractions] Since the
linear factor in the denominator is repeating twice, we express the integrand
as a sum of two partial fractions:
2x + 1 A B
= +
(x − 1)2 x − 1 (x − 1)2
In order to find A and B, we multiply through by the denominator and get
2x + 1 = A(x − 1) + B
Now, depending on powers of x, we arrange the terms in different groups:
2x + 1 = Ax + (−A + B)
4 Integration by Partial Fractions

Comparing like powers of x, we get two equations:

A = 2
−A + B = 1
Simultaneously solving these equations, we get A = 2 and B = 3. Now,
putting these values in the first equation, we get the required sum of partial
fractions:
2x + 1 2 3
= +
(x − 1)2 x − 1 (x − 1)2

Step 2. [Evaluate the integral] Using the above partial fractions, we get
Z Z h
2x + 1 2 3 i
dx = + dx
(x − 1)2 x − 1 (x − 1)2
Z Z
1 1
= 2 dx + 3 dx
x−1 (x − 1)2
Z
= 2 ln(x − 1) + 3 (x − 1)−2 dx
h (x − 1)−1 i
= 2 ln(x − 1) + 3 +c
−1
3
= 2 ln(x − 1) − +c
x−1


Practice Problems. Use partial fractions to evaluate the following integrals.

1
R
1. (x+2)(x−1) dx
R x−1
2. x2 −5x+6 dx
x
R
3. (x2 −1)(x+3) dx
R 2x+3
4. (x−3)2 dx

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(I shall welcome your suggestions to improve these notes.)