DESIGN AND CALCULATION METHODS FOR

HIGH-SPEED GEARS OF ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY

by
Dr. Manfred Hirt
Director of Engineering
Renk Gear Company

Augsburg, West Germany

try, for instance, must function properly in essentially continu­

Manfred Hirt studied mechanical en­ ous operation over decades.
gineering at the Technical University of
Munich, West Germany, and he worked DESIGN OF HIGH-SPEED GEARS
there for five years as a research assist­
ant in the FZG gear research laboratory. Design of the Gearing
His Ph.D. research dealt with gear '

bending strength. He has been a member

In modern high-speed gears, fully case-carburized teeth
of ISO/DIN working groups on gear cal­
are used to a great extent, providing a very high power density.
A prerequisite for using this high power density is a well­
culations, and he has authored publica­
tions on tooth root stresses, gear capaci­
adapted design of the entire gear. By utilizing fully case­
ty calculations, and gear design.
carburized teeth instead of through-hardened teeth, the power
to be transmitted can be nearly doubled, and/or the weight and
After three years at C. Hurth Gear Manufacturer in
Munich, Dr. Hirt assumed his present position as Director of
size of the gear greatly reduced. The following relation roughly
Engineering at Renk Gear Company, Augsburg, West Ger­
describes this effect.
many.
The centre distance, a, is decreased in relation to the
admissible Hertzian pressure, 8Hp:

ABSTRACT (1)
High-speed gears of very high powers and/or very high The admissible Hertzian pressure ratio is about 2. 0; e.g., to
speeds must be exactly analyzed and optimized in gearing, DIN/ISO for 60 HRC case-carburized material, as c ompared
bearing and housing in order to achieve low noise, low vibra­ with through-hardened teeth of 300 HB [1]. For the centre
tion running with maximum safety in operation. The gearing distance, the following is applicable:
must be checked by detailed calculations in load capacity,
including an exact analysis of the scoring safety. Special design a = 0.62a' (2)
means must be applied in order to cover thermal problems at
the gearing. where
Besides this, the calculation and design of the plain bear­
a = centre distance for case-carburized teeth
ings are of main interest. They also must be analyzed in detail,
not only in general hydrodynamic load capacity, but also in a' = centre distance for through-hardened teeth
their real temperature and pressure conditions in the oil film. Since the weight of the gear set, W, is
The design of the plain bearing then has to be adapted to its
vibration behaviour. w�a2 (3)
Using modern CAE methods, the design process can be
made faster and safer. Practical examples of some of the the weight of the case-carburized gear set will be reduced:
highest-powered high-speed gears of the world prove the
methods used in design, calculations and manufacturii).g. W = 0.4W'. (4)

INTRODUCTION where
Gear units for high-speed plants are used for a wide range W = weight of the gear set for case-carburized teeth
of applications, such as generators, compressors, pumps, gas W' = weight of the gear set for through-hardened teeth
turbines, steam turbines and motors. These drive systems On the other hand, as has already been said, the casing
must provide maximum reliability and smooth operation. Such and the bearings must be designed to accommodate the high
gears are designed with single-helical or double-helical teeth. load capacity of the case-carburized teeth. This results in a
In most cases, they are running in high-precision plain bear­ comparative weight of the case-carburized gear approximately
ings. High-speed gears in use today transmit as much as 70,000 half that of the through-hardened gear. Such a comparison is
kW, with circumferential speeds in the teeth of over 200 shown in Figure 1.
meters per second (m/s). To ensure optimum running be­ The centre distance, a, and the gear weight, W, for case­
haviour with maximum reliability, it is imperative to analyze carburized teeth are shown as a function of the transmitted
both the load capacity and the design of gearing, bearings, and power, P. One can recognize the interrelations illustrated: the
casings. In the following, a number of items will be presented reduced centre distance, a, and the considerably decreased
that must be considered in a modern analysis. Only a detailed weight, W, of the case-carburized teeth, as compared with the
examination, accompanied by high-precision manufacture and values a' and W' of the through-hardened teeth. In addition, it
careful monitoring of the operation, will ensure the optimum is evident that increased power can be transmitted by the case­
running behaviour which has become a standard requirement carburized gears for a determined circumferential speed of the
for such plants today. Installations in the petrochemical indus- teeth. For instance, a limit circumferential speed of 125 m/s

1
2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWELFTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM

durability value, <THJim, for case-carburized teeth is l. 6 times

1000-,--------��-,--"""'l,.---r
Vz m/s � �� zoooo
that for through-hardened teeth when calculated by the AG­
MA formula, and 2. 0 times that by the DIN/ISO formula.
Bending Strength
vz= 100m/s � � An increase in bending strength also can be observed for
I 15000 case-carburized teeth. Figure 2 shows the formula for bending
I strength calculations. The increase in bending strength is,
carb,__/ however, not of the same order as that of pitting durability.
"E I From this, it can be concluded that the tooth size (module)
.s I should be increased correspondingly. If one uses roughly the
500
I 10000

I
same safety factors for bending strength and pitting durability,
"'
-i'i I -"' he will obtain an optimal module of about
I :E
a>
�
.1!'
c ;;;
w
LJ
I 3 u
--- X (0. 096 . . . . 0. 90)
0
" 5000 :3
// (u + 1)2 (5)

with module m0, ratio u, and centre distance, a, in mm.

Figure 3 illustrates this relation as a function of the centre
distance. The modules calculated using Equation .5 arc repre­
10 50 100 sented by the solid curves. The broken curves indicate the
Power IMWI
performance in actual practice. One can recognize that the
module values used in practice are clearly below the theOI·eti­
Figure 1. Centre Distances and Weights for Case-Carburized cally calculated values. This is due to the limitation of the load
and Through-Hardened Gears. capacity by scoring.

would mean an increase in transmittable power from 20,000 25 -- theor calculated

kW to about 50,000 kW. Conversely, the circumferential ---practical
speed can be diminished by about 40% when using case­
carburized teeth. 20
To make full use of the advantages of case-carburizing, the
teeth must be designed for roughly the same load capacity in
terms of pitting durability, bending strength, and scoring
capacity. The following discussion will briefly illustrate the way f5 15
::;.
in which this optimization may be achieved. "'
N
"

E.
Pitting Durability " 10
The pitting durability is calculated from the Hcrtzian �
!
pressure, oH, on the tooth flank and an admissible Hertzian
pressure, OHP· The latter results from a strength value, oHlim·
and a safety factor, Su. For this calculation, the influences of
external loads, KA, the internal dynamic forces, Kv, and the
load distribution, KHB· over the width are considered. Addi­
tional influential factors are the oil film between the tooth
flanks (Zv X Z X ZR), and the material combination, Zw. 500 1000

Figure 2 illustrates the construction of a formula used for

- Center distance lmml
this calculation, according to DIN/ISO and AGMA [2]. The
Figure 3. Relation of Tooth Size (Module) to Centre Distance.
AGMA 218.01 DIN 3990/ISO DP 6336
Bending stress Bending stress Scoring Capacity
Scoring capacity is the factor that must be most accurately
Wt·Ko._ Bt_ , Ks ·Km
6F F, investigated in the case of such high-speed gear units. There
St "' b· m ·YFO YSo· yc .Yp-KAK v· K�p KF«
=

K, F J n are several calculation methods, such as the flash temperature

K, C1F1m · Ysr .YNT
procedure of Blok [3]. When this method is used, the instan­
=s,,·-- '--S - --YdrelT-YRreiT ·Yx
• <

K,· K R , taneous local temperature between the tooth flanks is cal­

culated. The maximum surface temperature will be the result
of the blank temperature prior to the gear mesh and the actual
�t-18 �18.01 DIN 3990 /ISO DP 5336 flash temperature. The flash temperature is calculated from the
Contact stress number Contact stress number
local and instantaneous amounts of load and the radii of curva­
� W, · c,.__s__ ..s_s_ ' . ture, and from the circumferential speeds and the coefficients
s =C
' P C, d· F J O'H::: ZH ZE.Zl Zp
�v '
KA· Ky· KHo:'KHp of friction. The problem with the flash temperature method is
that it does not account for all other influences, such as tip
1 O'Hom · Z N relief.
= Soc·
CL . CH
z L ·Z R ·Z v .Z W .z X
Cr
oo;

CR SH
·
There is only one limit value of the critical temperature
depending on oil viscosity; therefore, it is not possible to duly
consider products such as EP oils. The new AGMA standard
Figure 2. Load Capacity Calculation Formulas. 42l.X.X [4] mentions a criterion derived from the temperature
 DESIGN AND CALCULATION METHODS FOR HIGH-SPEED GEARS OF ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY 3

by Blok's method, and further simplified. For this scoring and

index limit, values are presented for different oil temperatures
and/or blank temperatures. Ti = Toil + 0. 7Tslm + 1.5Tslm = TM + 1.5Tslm (9)

where
Scoring criterion number=
(6) Ti = a result of the blank temperature before the gear
mesh and a mean flash temperature.
where In Figure 4, this safety value, Ssr. is also represented as a
Wt = tangential load, lbs. function of the power.
Fe = face width, in. It is evident that this safety value varies only within a
relatively restricted area between 2.0 and about 1.3. It can also
np = pinion speed
be seen, however, that the safety factors have a tendency to be
Pd = diametral pitch = 25.4/m lowered as the transmittable power increases. The reason is
that for large output values, there is an ever-increasing tenden­
In Figure 4, this scoring index, SI, is represented as a cy towards reduced centre distance and, consequently, re­
function of the transmittable load. It can be seen that this duced circumferential speeds. As a result, a relatively large
scoring index has no fixed value for gear units in actual use, but module must be chosen, and the risk of scoring rises. So, it is
that it increases considerably with the transmittable power. all the more important to correctly determine all influential
The admissible constant number of AGMA 42l.XX is definitely factors: surface finish, tooth correction, material, friction coeffi­
below the values obtained from actual use. In the latest cient, driving pinion or gear, additives to the oils, etc.
calculation methods according to Winter and Michaelis [5], the Figure 5 shows limit powers as a function of the centre
scoring capacity is based on a weighted mean integral tempera­ distance for both bending strength, S F, and scoring resistance,
ture. For this calculation, a mean surface temperature is used Ss1, for case-carburized teeth. It can be seen that, for centre
that is calculated from the mean values of the friction coeffi­ distances of about 400 mm and higher, the scoring load limit
cients and the mean dynamic loads. The decisive mean flank restricts the transmittable power. In the case of large gears,
temperature, the so-called integral temperature, is represent­ therefore, it may be necessary to take special measures, such as
ed from the blank temperature and a weighted integrated flash surface treatment of the tooth flanks.
temperature.
MW
100 ,-------�

50

2.0
Vi
!1)

�
.0
X E ...
OJ :>
"0 z (].>
1.5 :s:
E 0
a.. 10
en
>.

c ]!0
!1) (].>
'§
u ::0
!1) 0 0
1.0 !!2 :t: 5
.E
Ill
c::

1}.
10 50 100 MW
Transmittable Power

Figure 4. Scoring Index and Scoring Safety Factor Dependent

on Transmitted Power for Actual Installations. 300 400 500 600 7 00 800 900 1000 mm

Centre distance
This procedure now is being adopted also by DIN/ISO.
The limit values of the integral temperature are ascertained Figure 5. Power Limits in Bending Strength and Scoring
with the same procedure as the known scoring tests carried out Resistance.
on gear wheels. The safety, Ss, then, is the ratio of the
admissible integral temperature and the actually occurring Figure 6 shows a high-speed gear for 70,000 kW. In order
integral temperature. to increase the tooth root load capacity and improve the
running-in effect, the flanks of the wheel are copper-plated. To
Ssr = improve the scoring capacity by means of copper-plating,
(7) DIN/ISO provide certain reference values. In addition to this
special treatment by copper-plating, tooth corrections were
with carried out with special care in this gear unit. The tooth
corrections included relieving those areas of the tooth that are
g subject to scoring, and influencing the temperature variation
Ti = TM + B f TsLd x/g = TM + BTslm (8) on the tooth flank.
4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE 1WELFTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM

Bearing Design
Design of the high-speed plain bearings is an essential
factor in gear unit optimization. Bearings must be designed for
maximum load capacity and for optimum vibration.
The high-speed pinion shaft must be investigated to as­
sure the elimination of unbalance-excited vibrations and self­
excited oil-whip vibrations. The damping effect of the plain
bearings determines the vibration behaviour with respect to
the self-excited "oil-whip" vibrations. This damping behaviour
depends on the type of bearing; i. e. , the bearing bore design.
The types of bearings used are cylindrical, two-lobe, four-lobe,
and tilting pad. Extensive computing programs are available
for the calculation of the damping behaviour, which allows
calculation of the so-called stability border speed. Self-excited
oil whip vibrations may occur above this border speed. For a
specific bearing type, this stability border speed depends on
the relative load, SoK, and the relative shaft stiffness, fl.·
Figure 8 illustrates this stability border speed, with regard
to the lateral natural frequency (with rigidly supported shaft),
Figure 6. High-Speed Gear for 70,000 kW at Assembling for as a function of the load for a fl.-value of 0.1, which, roughly,
Use at a Gas Turbine Power Station. will occur in practice. One can see that the cylindrical bearing
Figure 7 illustrates the calculated temperature variation shows the most reduced stability border speed over the entire
over the entire zone of contact, with and without tooth correc­ load range. The values given by the two-lobe and four-lobe
tions. A reduction of the peak temperatures is clearly visible bearings are already considerably improved, while the tilting
for properly performed tooth corrections. pad bearing has extremely stable border speeds.

GAO C
1100

wgr
wk

i
�
...
....
z
C) 2,0
0.: >-
±
� '8
't;;
� �
1,0

I
o-r-------r--�
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
1100
rei. loading Sok=ji '1'2
"fWK

�00 Figure 8. Stability Limits in Oil Whip Vibrations in Relation to

Bearing Type.

Apart from the check of the stability border speed for oil­
whip vibrations, running behaviour must be investigated for
unbalance-excited vibrations; i. e. , the lateral natural frequen­
cies of the various lateral vibration modes are to be ascer­
tained. In this regard, the stiffness of the bearing, including
the oil film effect, is of decisive importance. For this problem,
too, there are extensive computing programs available. The
lateral natural frequency with rigidly supported shafts is re­
duced by the resilience of the bearings. It is imperative that
B
there be sufficient distance between the operational speed and
this reduced lateral natural frequency. Limit values are given
for the admissible vibration amplitude under operational con­
ditions; e. g. , according to API 613. This problem will be
further dealt with below.
E When analyzing the load capacity of the bearings, the
Figure 7. Calculated Distribution of Flash Temperature With­ hydrodynamic quantities must be precisely determined. These
out and With (Lower Part) Tooth Correction for the 70,000 kW are the oil film thickness, and the film's temperatures and
Gear. pressures. When considering the relative oil film thickness (oil
 DESIGN AND CALCULATION METHODS FOR HIGH-SPEED GEARS OF ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY 5

film thickness compared with half of the bearing clearance) as a TWO LOBE BEARING
function of the referred load (Figure 9), one recognizes that the
conditions here are roughly contrary to those for the damping Measured values
behaviour. In other words, bearings with high damping values spud: n=10055 r.p.m
have relatively reduced oil film thicknesses. For example, it Calculated temperature
may appear desirable to use a four-lobe bearing because of its
high stability limit. However, the reduced oil film thickness
might lead to an overload of the bearing. A favourable com­
promise must be reached, perhaps by use of a two-lobe bearing
by a modification to the shaft.
1,0-r-----.-----.-...---,--,---.,

Ho

:1!
.. 0,6
c:

-5
£
.§
"'
0,4
'6

�
0, 2

0, 2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1.0

- 2
S o =ll
"t'W
Figure 10. Temperature Distribution in a Sliding Bearing of a
Figure 9. Relative Oil Film Thickness for Different Bearing High-Speed Gear of 11,700 kW at 10,055 rpm.
Types.
over the range of 100 to 110 m/s.
The calculations for vibration and load capacity, as set In addition to determination of the oil film thickness, as
forth above, are based on certain simplifying hypotheses, such shown above, the pressure variation (Figure 11) also is used in
as linearized stiffness and damping constants. In the light of the determining the load capacity of the plain bearing. Beyond
high circumferential speeds presently used, further influences certain critical pressure peaks, lasting deformations may occur
on the oil film, such as turbulence and mass inertia forces, in parts of the bearing material. Reference values for permiss­
must be properly considered. According to Glienicke [6], for ible bearing data have been ascertained from numerous ex­
the calculation of the static and dynamic code numbers of such ecuted high-speed gear units. These are used to safely design
high-speed plain bearings, the modified Reynold value new high-speed gear units. The numbers shown in Figure 11
Re * = Re X y is determined, and the change in the oil film are typical for such applications.
properties due to the influence of the mass inertia is calculated
using Re * larger than 1. In the area of large Re * values, Taylor
Gear Housing Design
eddies and turbulent oil film streams occur. Because of this,
the power loss and the load capacity of the oil film will mount. The high power density of case-carburized gear units must
In an extensive computing program [7], the Navier-Stoke also be considered for the design of the gear unit casing, which
and/or Reynold equations are solved, and the pressure dis­ must achieve high dynamic and static stiffnesses. Relatively
tribution in the oil film is determined, giving due consideration extensive calculations are needed in order to determine the
to the turbulent streams at very high circumferential speeds. stresses in the casing. In difficult cases, the calculations may
In this calculation, the temperature variation in the oil film also require modern methods such as finite element analysis.
is defined. Figure 12 shows an example of such a gear unit casing as a
Figures 10 and 11 illustrate the temperature and pressure finite element structure. The result obtained is to be checked
variations along the periphery of the bearing. The calculated to ensure that the distortions under static load are sufficiently
values are compared with measured values obtained using small and symmetrical. It is necessary to investigate not only
thermocouples. There is relatively good agreement with the the static, but also the dynamic behaviour of the gear unit
measured values. The differences can be explained by the fact casing. In doing so, the individual plates may also be checked
that the positions of the thermocouples over the considerable for natural frequencies using the finite element method, in
width do not exactly correspond to the calculating points. order to avoid dangerous vibrations of the steel plates. In
Limit values from executed high-speed plain bearings can be addition to such primary vibration problems inherent in parts
discovered from peak temperatures and the temperature varia­ of the gear unit casing, the secondary vibration behaviour of
tion. Here, it is necessary to appreciate not only the peak the gear unit casing must be checked. Here, the vibration
temperatures but also the whole temperature variation (gra­ behaviour is especially decisive. Precise damping measures
dient) along the circumference. Bearings with peak tempera­ can contribute considerably to optimizing the vibration and
tures of over 120°C have proved their usefulness in continuous noise behaviour of the entire gear unit. Special-design, double­
operation, and extreme values of up to 148°C have been noted. walled parts filled with damping material provide a consider­
These values occurred in bearings with circumferential speeds able damping effect.
6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWELFTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM

TWO LOBE BEARING

Hydrodynamic pressure curve over

the bearing width
A-8
25 N/mm2
22,5 1
20
17,5
15
12,5
10
7,5
5
2,5
0
-·

'

--·- --1- -·
I

C-D
l:-1
10
12,5
15
17, s
20
22,5
25 N/ mm
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B 9 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Figure 11. Hydrodynamic Pressure Distribution over Circumference and Width of the Bearing.

Gear Unit Noise

The gearing design, as outlined under Design of the
Gearing, is also optimized in terms of vibration behaviour. To
achieve this, special tooth corrections are necessary. Such
corrections must provide relief to that part of the tooth that
comes into the gear mesh first. Therefore, the design of the
tooth corrections in terms of noise optimization is roughly
parallel to the design of tooth corrections with regard to scoring
capacity. The result must be favourable noise behaviour of the
gear unit under full load conditions.

Vibration Behaviour
As stated under Bearing Design, the bearings are rated to
achieve low lateral vibration values. High damping effects
must be achieved. Also, the complete system-shaft, casing,
and bearings-must be designed so that small residual unba­
lance does not produce important transverse vibration am­
plitudes. According to API, the admissible shaft vibration
Figure 12. Finite Element Structure of Gear Housing for amplitude is
Stiffness Calculations.
25.4 (f¥2000 .
s = --
2 -
nl
- , m
- JJ..m
(10)

gear unit for transmission of as much as 70

Built gear units such as the one presented in Figure 6 (a

95.8
MW) testify to the
For a balancing quality, Q, to equal 1, this means that a specific

55
magnifying factor, f, can be accepted:

0.145Vll
suitability of the measures taken. Its noise level of dBA
sound pressure level at MW is at the lower level of noise
f = (11)
values that have yet been achieved for such power output

.25.
values.
Figure 13 illustrates the admissible magnifying factors for
balancing qualities of Q = 1 and Q = The balancing quali­
OPERATIONAL BEHAVIOUR ty, Q, is defined as speed of the centre of gravity, v, of the
In this section, experience in practical service with gear theoretical eccentricity of the centre of gravity, e:
units will be discussed, especially with regard to the operation­
al reliability and the noise and vibration behaviour. Q = v5 = e w, in mm/s (12)
 DESIGN AND CALCULATION METHODS FOR HIGH-SPEED GEARS OF ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY 7

20 -r------.--�--�

15

�
.E 10
c:
0
+=
8
""
a
E
"
5

Figure 15. One of Thirteen High-Speed Gears of 15,000 kW for

Gas Pipeline.
Figure 13. Amplification Factors for Lateral Vibrations Due to
Unbalancing. have been in operation in a gas pipeline station for many years.

Achievable magnifying factors for well-designed and properly CONCLUSIONS

manufactured gears are indicated. Modern calculating methods make it possible to design
extremely high-power or high-speed gears for safe and reliable
GEAR UNIT INSTALLATIONS operation. By precise calculations of the teeth, bearings, and
Figure 14 illustrates a high-speed gear for the first air­ casing, it is possible to achieve a favorable running behaviour.
storage power plant in the world. The gear is single-helical and It can be supposed that the performances of such gear units
fully case-carburized, and its thrust collar technology has a must be further increased to meet the requirements of plant
rated output of 45,000 kW at speeds over the range of 3, 000 to builders. The limits in the performances of such high-speed
7,600 rpm. A circumferential speed of 151 m/s results. The gear units might range today to about 120,000 kW. Such gears
thrust collar technology enables the entire arrangement to be require thorough analysis and precise manufacture to assure
guided by an axial bearing positioned on the low-speed side. that they meet service demands.
The thrust of the teeth from the helical gearing system is
received by the thrust collar, so no internal forces act on the REFERENCES
axial bearing. 1. DIN 3990/ISO SP 6336, Calculation of Load Capacity of
Spur and Helical Gears (Proposal), Normenausschuss An­
triebstechnik (Nan) in Din Deutsches lnstitut fuer Nor­
mung E. V. (1978).
2. AGMA 218. 01, Rating the Pitting Resistance and Bending
Strength of Spur and Helical Involute Gear Teeth, Ameri­
can Gear Manufacturer Association, Arlington, VA (1982).
3. Blok, H. , "Theoretical Study of Temperature Rise at Sur­
face of Actual Contact Under Oiliness Lubricating Condi­
tions, " Proceedings of General Discussion, Lubrication In­
stitute Mechanical Engineering, London, England (1937).
4. AGMA 42l. XX, Practice for High Speed Helical Gear Units
(Draft), American Gear Manufacturer Association, Arling­
ton, VA (1983).
5. Winter, H. and Michaelis, K., "Fresstragfahigkeit von Stir­
nradgetrieben, " Antriebstechnik
. 4, pp. 405-409, 461-465
(1975).
6. Glienicke, J., "Feder- und Daempfungskonstanten von
Gleitlagern fuer Turbomaschinen und Deren Einfluss auf
Figure 14. High-Speed Gear at Assembling for 45,000 kW at an
das Schwingungsverhalten Eines Einfachen Rotors, " Dis­
Air Compressor Station.
sertation, Technische Hochschule Karlsruhe (1966) und
Figure 15 shows another gear unit, this one for the drive weitere publikationen.
of compressor plants. This unit transmits a power of 15, 000 kW 7. Dong-Chul, H. , "Statische und Dynamische Eigenschaften
over a speed of 1, 500 to 10,000 rpm, yielding a circumferential Be: Hoben Umfangsgeschwindigketien und Bei Verkan­
speed of approximately 110 m/s. It can be seen that the teeth tung, " Dissertation, Technische Universitaet Karlsruhe
are double-helical, and again case-carburized and ground. The (1979).
casing is of welded design. A large number of these gear units
8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWELFTH TURBOl\lACHINERY SYMPOSIUM