UNIT-05 (Introduction Measurement and Mechatronics)

1. What do you understand by measurement also explain the generalized measurement system?
Measurement: Measurement is defined as the process of obtaining a quantitative comparison between a
predefined standard and a measurand or unknown magnitude.
Generalized measurement system: The various elements of measurement system are:
1. Primary sensing Element: it is the first element which receives energy from the measured medium
and it produces an output corresponding to the measurand. This output is then converted into some
useful form (electrical, mechanical) with the help of transducer.
2. Variable conversion element: It converts the output signal of the primary sensing element into a
more suitable form signal without changing the information containing in the input signal. It is used only
if necessary.
3. Variable manipulation element: This element amplifies the input signal to the require
magnification.
4. Data transmission element: It transmits the data from one element to the other. It may be as shaft
and gear assembly system or as complicated as a telemetry system which is used to transmit the signal
from one place to another.
5. Data processing Element: It is an element which compares the measured value with a standard value
and produce suitable output
6. Data presentation element: These are the elements that they finally communicate the information of
measured variables to a human observer for monitoring, controlling or analyzing purposes. The value of
measured variables may be indicated by an analog indicator, digital indicator, or by a recorder.

2. What is the difference between accuracy and precision?

Accuracy: it is defined as the closeness of the measured value to a true value
Precision: It is defined as the closeness of two or more measurements to each other.

3. What do you understand by resolution of any measuring instrument?

Resolution: The resolution of an instrument is the smallest amount of change in a physical quantity that
an instrument can sense.
4. What do you understand by calibration of any measuring instrument and what is its importance?
Calibration: It is the process in which the readings obtained from the measuring instrument are
compared with the standard in the laboratory at several points along the scale of the instrument. If the
instrument is accurate then there will be matching of the scales of the instrument and the reference
standard. If there is deviation of the measured value from the instrument against the standard value, the
instrument is calibrated to give the correct values.
Importance of calibration: All the new instruments have to be calibrated against some standard in the
very beginning. For the new instrument the scale is marked as per the standards available in the
laboratories, which are meant especially for this purpose. After continuous use of the instrument for long
periods of time, sometimes it loses its calibration or the scale gets distorted, in such cases the instrument
can be calibrated again if it is in good reusable condition.
5. Explain the different types of errors in measurement.
Error: Errors is defined as the difference between true value and the measured value.
Error = measured value - true value.

1. Gross errors: The gross error occurs because of the human mistakes so also called as human error..
Gross errors can be avoided as below:
(i) Proper care should be taken in reading, recording the data.
(ii) By increasing the number of experimenter so that they take different readings at different points.
2. Systematic errors
(a) Instrumental errors: These errors arise due to faulty construction and calibration of the
measuring instruments. Example: zero error
(b) Observational errors: These are the errors that arise due to individual’s carelessness in taking
observations. The measurement errors also include wrong readings due to Parallax errors.
(c) Environmental errors: This type of error arises in the measurement due to the effect of the
external conditions on the measurement. The external condition includes temperature, pressure, and
humidity and can also include an external magnetic field.
3. Random errors: The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and hence are random.
These can arise due to random and unpredictable fluctuations in experimental conditions (Example:
unpredictable fluctuations in temperature, voltage supply, mechanical vibrations of experimental set-
ups. For example, when the same person repeats the same observation, he may likely get different
readings every time.
6. What do you understand by gauge pressure and absolute pressure?
Gauge pressure: It is the pressure relative to the atmospheric pressure. When the pressure is more than
atmospheric pressure then it is called +ve gauge pressure and when it is less than atmospheric pressure
then it is called as –ve gauge pressure (vacuum pressure).
Absolute pressure: It is the pressure relative to absolute zero pressure
7. Explain the working principle of manometers for pressure measurement?
Manometers: A manometer is a device used to measure the pressure of a fluid by balancing it against a
column of a liquid. Different types of manometers are as follow:
(i) U-tube manometer: It consists of a U – shaped bend whose one end is attached to the gauge point
‘A’ and the other end is open to the atmosphere. It can measure both positive and negative (vacuum)
pressures. It contains a liquid (manomateric fluid) of specific gravity greater than that of a liquid of
which the pressure is to be measured.

# Pressure at A; PA = ρmgh2 – ρAgh1

(ii) Differential U-tube manometer: It is used to measure the pressure difference of two fluids. Its two
ends are connected to the gauge point A and gauge point B.

# Pressure at A and B; PA-PB = ρmgh2 + ρBgh3– ρAgh1

8. Explain the working principle of bourdon tube pressure gauge for pressure measurement?
Bourdon Pressure gauge: A Bourdon gauge is a mechanical device used to measure and display
pressure. The gauge can be used for measuring pressure in both gas and liquid state systems. The
Bourdon gauge was invented in France by Mr. Eugene Bourdon in 1849. The bourdon tube is
manufactured in a semi-circular C-shape, or, coiled shape. Any increase in system pressure within the
tube causes the tube to expand and straighten; the change is small but magnified due to the shape of the
tube. The change in C-shape or coil radius is transferred to the indicator needle and this movement
allows personnel to visually view the pressure within the system.

9. Explain the working principle of thermocouples to measure the temperature.

The thermocouple working principle is based on the Seeback Effect. This effect states that when a
closed circuit is formed by jointing two dissimilar metals at two junctions, and junctions are maintained
at different temperatures then an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is induced in this closed circuit. The
amount of induced e.m.f. is different for different metal combinations and is proportional to the
temperature difference of the junctions.

10. Explain the working principle of optical pyrometer

The optical pyrometer is shown in the figure below. It consists the lens which focuses the radiated
energy from the heated object and targets it on the electric filament lamp. The intensity of the filament
depends on the current passes through it. Hence the adjustable current is passed through the lamp.
The magnitude of the current is adjusted until the brightness of the filament is similar to the brightness
of the object. When the brightness of the filament and the brightness of the object are same, then the
outline of the filament is completely disappeared.
11. Explain the working principle of Venturimeter to measure flow rate.
Working principle of Venturimeter: The venturimeter works on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation,
The cross-section of the throat is less than the cross-section of the inlet pipe. As the cross-section from
the inlet pipe to the throat decreases, the velocity of the fluid increases, and hence the pressure
decreases. Due to the decrease in pressure, a pressure difference is created between the inlet pipe and the
throat. This pressure difference can be measured by applying a differential manometer between the inlet
section and throat section or using two gauges on the inlet section and throat. The flow rate is calculated
by knowing this pressure difference.

Applying bernoulli’s equation at sections 1 and 2

Where, (P1-P2) / ρg = h = Difference of pressure head at section 1 and section 2

Let us recall the continuity equation and applying at section 1 and section 2
a1v1 = a2v2, v1 = (a2v2)/ a1
Now we will use the value of v1 in above equation no. 1 and we will have following result as mentioned
here

Rate of flow of fluid i.e. discharge:

Rate of flow of fluid i.e. discharge will be determined with the help of following equation
Q = a2v2
12. Explain the working principle of orifice meter to measure flow rate.
Orifice meter: Venturimeter is expensive due to complexity of its design. Therefore, in order to
determine the rate of flow of fluid through small pipe lines, orifice meter is better to use as compared to
venturimeter. Orifice meter consists of one flat circular plate and this circular plate will have one
circular sharp edge hole bored in it. The circular sharp edge hole is termed as orifice.

The rate of flow or discharge through orifice meter.

13. What do you understand by bonded and unbonded strain gauge?

Strain gauge: The strain gauge is a transducer used to measure strain. When a metal wire is stretched or
compressed, its length and diameter change due to which the resistance of the wire will change. This
effect is known as the piezo-resistive effect. Hence, these are also referred to as piezo-resistive gauges.
Types of Strain Gauges: Strain gauges are mainly classified into two types:
(i) Bonded strain gauges (ii) Unbonded strain gauges
(i) Bonded strain gauges: Bonded strain gauges are directly placed or bonded on the surface of the
device or component which is subjected to stress. When a force or pressure is applied to the device, its
physical dimensions will change. This change in resistance can be measured by connecting this gauge in
one of the 4 arms of the balanced Wheatstone bridge. This connection makes the bridge unbalance, and
some output voltage will be generated which gives the value of resistance. This measured resistance
gives the applied force.
 (ii) Unbonded strain gauges: In an unbounded strain gauge, the strain gauge is not directly bonded to
the surface which is subjected to stress or which is under study. It consists of resistance wire stretched
between frames A and B with the help of insulated pins as shown below. These two frames are movable
with respect to each other, and this arrangement can be connected in one of the arms of Wheatstone's
bridge.

14. Explain the working principle of proving ring to measure the force?
Proving ring: It consists of an elastic ring in which the deflection of the ring when loaded along a
diameter is measured by means of a micrometer screw and a vibrating reed. When a steel ring is
subjected to a force across its diameter, it deflects. This deflection is proportional to the applied force
when calibrated. A steel ring attached with external bosses to apply force. A precision micrometer with
one of its ends mounted on a vibrating reed. The force to be measured is applied to the external bosses
of the proving ring. Due to the applied force, the ring changes in diameter. This deflection of the ring is
proportional to the applied force and measured by micrometer wheel.

15. Explain the working principle of prony brake dynamometer to measure the torque?
Prony brake dynamometer:A Prony brake is an absorption type of dynamometer which develops
mechanical friction on the periphery of a rotating pulley by means of brake blocks that are squeezed
against the wheel by tightening the bolts until the friction torque (F x R) balances the
applied torque (W x L).

Torque (T) = F x R = W x L
Power (P) = Torque (T) x (2πN/60)
16. What do you understand by mechatronics? Also write the objectives of mechatronics.
Mechatronics is the science that deals with mechanical,
electronics, and digital components needed for the
mixed systems.

Objectives of mechatronics:
(i) To improve products and processes
(ii)To develop novel mechanisms
(iii)To design new products
(iv) To create new technology using novel concepts

17. What are the advantages and disadvantages of mechatronics?

Advantages of Mechatronics:
 Good quality products
 High degree of flexibility to modify or redesign
 Good performance characteristics
 Greater productivity
 Greater extend of machine utilization

Disadvantages of Mechatronics:
 High initial cost
 Multi disciplinary engineering background is required to design and implementation
 Need of highly trained workers
 Complexity in identification the correction of problems

18. What are the industrial applications of mechatronics?

The relevant technology applications of Mechatronics are:
Domestic appliances: fridges and freezers, microwave ovens, washing machines, vacuum cleaners,
dishwashers, digital cameras,
Office equipment: laser printers, hard drive positioning systems, liquid crystal displays, tape drives,
Scanners, photocopiers,
Retail equipment: automatic labeling systems, bar-coding machines,
Banking systems: cash registers, automatic teller machines;
Manufacturing equipment: numerically controlled (NC) tools, Pick and-place robots, welding robots,
automated guided vehicles (AGVs), and other industrial robots;
Aviation systems: cockpit controls and instrumentation, flight control actuators, landing gear systems,
and other aircraft subsystems.

19. What do you understand by autotronics? Also write its applications.

Autotronics is defined as the use of electronics science in automobile vehicles. The main areas
of automobiles using autotronics are as follows:

 Electronic braking system (ECB) : The anti-lock braking system and traction control system
are the essential components of ECB. ABS is responsible for manoeuvre control by deciding
the braking pressure and wheel rotation control. Traction means providing movement or
acceleration to a vehicle. So, to control the acceleration the control on traction system should
be applied. This system controls the movement of wheel and its steadiness.
  Control of steering system: In the vehicle the power steering system is used which maintains
the communication between pressure applied by steering system on the hydraulic pump and
the speed of the automobile. The EPS (electric power steering) uses sensors and motor. Motor
controls the steering motions and sensors gives signal to the wheels by analyzing the speed
and torque.
 Suspension system: Suspension system makes the ride on vehicle shock free, comfortable
and safe. The important task of the system is to dissipate the heat produced in the system due
to friction. The conventional method of suspension is called passive suspension and when we
add electronic sensors and hydraulic system then its performance incre ases and it is called
active suspension system.
 Transmission control: The transmission of gearing system controls the shifting of gears.
Using the electronic gear transmission improves the shifting operation and increases the fuel
efficiency by reducing the losses.
 Electronic control of fuel intake in engine: The electronic system used to analyze the
amount of fuel to supply to the cylinder of engine so that the maximum efficiency can be
achieved with minimum loss of energy.

20. What do you understand by bionics? Also explain its applications.

Bionics is the replication of biological systems by mechanical and electronic systems. Bionic implants
refer to electronic or mechatronic parts that augment or restore physical functionality to a differently-
abled person. The bionics industry has grown along four major application areas: vision, hearing and
orthopedics .

 Vision Bionics: The bionic eye or visual neuro prosthesis, as vision bionics are sometimes called
as bio-electronic implants that restore functional vision to people suffering from partial or total
blindness.

 Auditory Bionics: Cochlear implants, auditory brainstem implants and auditory midbrain
implants are the three main classes of neuroprosthetic devices for people suffering from
profound hearing loss. Auditory bionics creates an artificial link between the source of sound and
the brain, in this case, with a microelectronic array implanted either in the cochlea or the brain
stem.

 Orthopedic Bionics: Orthopedic bionics is designed to restore motor functionality (not

necessarily sensory functionality) to the physically challenged. Bionic limbs are replacing
prosthetic limbs, which were standard fare for more than 100 years. Despite notable innovations
that resulted in lighter devices and better designs, prosthetic limbs did not provide the necessary
functional restoration that bionic devices now do. A bionic limb is interfaced with a patient’s
neuromuscular system for limb control flexing, bending and grasping using the brain.

21. What do you understand by avionics? Also explain its applications.

“Avionics” is a word derived from the combination of aviation and electronics. The term ‘avionics
system’ means any system in aircraft which is dependent on electronics for its operation, although the
system may contain electromechanical elements. Followings are the application areas in avionics:

 Communications: Aircraft contains avionics in the cockpit. They usually need quick access by
pilots, and aircraft design places them within reach. One of the more essential functions is
communications. Advanced military vessels also contain communication avionics to reach
satellites.
  Navigation: Air navigation depends on the position of the aircraft on or above the Earth’s
surface. Avionics uses satellite systems, like GPS or WAAS, or inertial navigation systems and
ground-based radio.
 Flight control: Flight control refers to autopilot. Available on commercial aircraft, this system
initially kept bomber planes steady to ensure accuracy. It later evolved to prevent pilot error and
reduce challenges during takeoff and landing.
 Collision avoidance: Traffic alert and collision avoidance systems (TCAS) detect other
airplanes and alert pilots to possible collisions. The software includes instructions to avoid
accidents once it detects aircraft. TCAS makes flying safer and air traffic control easier.
 Fuel systems: Running out of fuel in your car leaves you stranded, but the same incident in an
airplane is a disaster. The fuel quantity indication system (FQIS) calculates the remaining fuel,
and the fuel control and monitoring system (FCMS) manages fuel for various tasks. These
technologies together ensure efficient fuel usage.
 Weather systems: Pilots can’t see future weather conditions, but these systems can warn of
turbulence or excessive precipitation. These warnings allow pilots to adjust altitude to maintain a
safe flight path. There are affordable light aircraft options, which detect storm activity and
lightning, and more advanced systems that produce weather radar.

22. What is the difference between sensor and transducer?

23. What are the different types of Sensors/Transducers used in engineering?

Sensors can be classified into various groups according to the factors such as measurand, application
fields, conversion principle, energy domain of the measurand and thermodynamic considerations.
A. Displacement sensors
• Potentiometer E. Liquid flow
• Strain-gauged element • Orifice plate
• Capacitive element • Turbine meter
• Differential transformers (LVDT) F. Liquid level
B. Velocity and motion • Floats
• Incremental encoder • Differential pressure
• Tachogenerator G. Temperature
C. Force • Bimetallic strips
• Strain gauge load cell • Resistance temperature detectors
D. Fluid pressure • Thermistors
• Diaphragm pressure gauge • Thermo-diodes and transistors
• Capsules, bellows, pressure tubes • Thermocouples
• Piezoelectric sensors • Light sensors
24. What do you understand by actuators? Also give the classification of actuators.
As sensors and transducers produce the input to the mechatronic system, drives and actuators provide
the output of the system, influencing the system itself and its environment as depicted in figure.
Actuation systems are the elements of control systems which are responsible for transforming the output
of a microprocessor or control system into a controlling action on a machine or device.

Classification of actuators:
i. Mechanical actuators: Transform motion from one form into another form. Example:
Kinematic chain, Gears, Belt etc
ii. Hydraulic Actuators: converts hydraulic energy supplied by the pump into useful mechanical
motion. Example: Hydraulic car jack
iii. Pneumatic Actuators: converts energy typically in the form of compressed air(pneumatic
energy) into useful mechanical motion. Example: Pressure control valves
iv. Electrical actuators: convert electrical energy into kinetic energy (mechanical motion).
Examples: DC and AC motors, solenoids

25. How kinematic chain is used as a mechanical actuator?

Kinematic chains: A sequence of joints and links
is known as kinematics chain.
Consider motor car engine where the reciprocating
motion of a piston is transformed into rotational
motion of a crankshaft on bearings mounted in a
fixed frame.

26. What do you understand by cam follower mechanism?

Cam & Follower: A cam is a body which rotates

or oscillate and in doing so, imparts a reciprocating
or oscillatory motion to a second body called the follower ,
with which it is in contact.
Example: Cam follower mechanism is used for
operating the valve mechanism in I.C engines.
27. Explain the ratchet pawl mechanism.

Ratchet & Pawl Mechanism: The purpose of a ratchet and pawl is to allow a shaft to rotate in one
direction only. A ratchet is a wheel with a shape similar to a circular saw blade. A pawl is a metal part
that rests on the ratchet. As the ratchet rotates, the pawl drops onto each of the steps on the ratchet rim,
preventing the ratchet from turning in the direction of the pawl. Sometimes a spring is used to keep the
pawl in contact with the ratchet.

28. How gears are used to transfer the motion? Also explain the different types of gears train.

Gears are used to transfer and transform rotational motion. They are used when a change in speed or
torque of a rotating device is needed.
Example: the car gear box enables the driver to match
the speed and torque requirements of the terrain with
the engine power available

Gear Train: Sometimes, two or more gears are made to mesh with each other to transmit power from
one shaft to another. Such a combination is called gear train. The nature of the train used depends upon
the velocity ratio required and the relative position of the axes of shafts.
1. simple gear train: this term is used for a system where each shaft carries only one gear wheel
here we have, gear ratio (G):

2. Compound gear train: This term is used to describe a gear train when two (or more) wheels are
mounted on a common shaft. When two wheels are mounted on the same shaft, they have the
same angular velocity. Thus, the compound gear train gear ration(G):
29. How belt drive is used to transfer the motion?

Belt drive: It is used to transmit motion from one shaft to another with the help of a thin inextensible
band that runs over two pulleys.
Open Belt drive : An open belt drive is used when the driven pulley is desired to be rotated in the same
direction as the driving pulley.
Crossed-belt drive: It is adopted when the driven pulley is to be rotated in the opposite direction to that
of the driving pulley

30. What are the different types of bearings used in power transmission?
A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the desired motion, and
reduces friction between moving parts. The main purpose of bearings is to prevent direct metal to metal
contact between two elements that are in relative motion.
Bearings have three major functions: (i) to reduce friction; (ii) to support a load; (iii) to maintain
alignment.

Types of bearings:

 Hydrostatic bearings are externally pressurized fluid bearings, where the fluid is usually oil,
water or air, and the pressurization is done by a pump. For this bearing: Cost is high, Speed is
low, Load carrying capacity is high.

 Hydrodynamic bearings rely on the high speed of the journal (the part of the shaft resting on
the fluid) to pressurize the fluid in a wedge between the faces. Fluid pressure is created by the
relative motion between the moving parts. For this bearing: Cost is less, The speed is high, Load
carrying capacity is less.

 Antifriction bearings: Antifriction bearings minimize friction by removing any possible sliding
between bearing surfaces and replacing all contacts with rolling interfaces and rolling contact
bearings are often called antifriction bearings.
31. Explain the working principle of hydraulic actuation system with diagram.
Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid as a fluid for
transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to accomplish useful
work. Figure shows a simple circuit of a hydraulic system with basic components.

Cylinder movement is controlled by a three-position change over a control valve.

1. When the piston of the valve is changed to upper position, the pipe pressure line is connected to upper
port and thus the load is raised.
2. When the position of the valve is changed to lower position, the pipe pressure line is connected to lower
port and thus the load is lowered.
3. When the valve is at center position, it locks the fluid into the cylinder.

32. Explain the working principle of pneumatic actuation system with diagram.
A pneumatic system carries power by employing compressed gas, generally air, as a fluid for
transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to accomplish useful
work. Figure shows a simple circuit of a pneumatic system with basic components.
33. What do you understand by pressure control valves? Explain with examples.
Pressure-control valves are found in every pneumatic and hydraulic system. They help in a variety of
functions, from keeping system pressures below a desired limit to maintaining a set pressure level in part
of a circuit. Pressure control valves are usually named for their primary function such as:
Pressure relief valve, unloading valve, sequence valve, counterbalance valve and pressure
reducing valve
a. Pressure relief valve
It is normally a closed valve whose function is to limit the pressure to a specified maximum
value by diverting pump flow back to the tank.
b. Unloading valves:
These are the pressure-control devices that are used to dump excess fluid to tank at little or no
pressure.
c. Sequencing valves:
A sequence valve’s primary function is to divert flow in a predetermined sequence.
d. Counterbalance valves:
A Counterbalance valve is used to maintain back pressure to prevent a load from failing.
e. Pressure reducing valves:
Pressure reducing valve is used to limit its outlet pressure.

34. What do you understand by direction control valves? Explain with examples.
Directional control valves are used to control the direction of flow in a hydraulic circuit. Directional
control valves perform only three functions: (i) stop fluid flow (ii) allow fluid flow, and (iii) Change
direction of fluid flow
Classification of directional control valves:
A. According to the number of ports:
(1) Two-way valves: Two-way valves are also simple two positions ON/OFF valves but actuated by
actuators. A flow path is established or closed when the actuator is moved. These valves are also called
as on-off valves

2) Three-way valves: These valves have three ports that’s why named three-way valve and three-way
valves allows two positions of actuation in ON condition. A three-way valve controls the flow in two
different ways. The two plug positions are shown in the above figure. When one of the plugs closes a
node other one opens the other node.
1) Four-way valves: Four-way valve or three position valves which got three working positions for the
actuators to control the flow direction. These valves are generally used to operate cylinders and fluid
motors in both directions hydraulically.

B. According to the fluid path

(1) Check valve: This valve would allow the flow of fluid in one direction but blocks in other direction.

(2) Shuttle valve: A shuttle valve allows the flow in two different directions.

35. What do you understand by rotary actuators?

Rotary actuators produce oscillating power by rotating an output shaft through a fixed arc. They are
compact, simple, and efficient. They produce high instantaneous torque in either direction and require
only a small space and simple mountings.
Examples: (i) Rack-and-pinion actuators use fluid pressure to drive a piston connected to a gear rack,
which rotates a pinion.

(ii)Vane actuators consist of a shaft mounted in a cylindrical housing, with one or more vanes attached
to the shaft. Applying fluid pressure to the vanes produces shaft rotation.

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