Adigrat University Structural Design

Civil engg dpt Wind Loads

2. WIND LOADS
What is wind load?
Wind is air in motion. Structure deflects or stops the wind, converting the wind’s kinetic energy
into potential energy of pressure, thus create wind loads.
Wind loads have a great deal of influence on building design and the design of other kinds of
civil engineering structures. Many whole structures or parts of structures that fail, do so because
inadequate thought was given to wind actions at the design stage.
Wind forces are variable loads which act directly on the internal and external surfaces of
structures. The intensity of wind load on structure is related to the square of the wind velocity
and the dimensions of the members that are resisting the wind (frontal area).
The intensity of the wind pressure depends on
• Shape of structure.
• Angle of the induce wind.
• Velocity of air.
• Density of air.
• Stiffness of structure.
Wind velocity increases with the power of the structural height.
Because of friction effect on the ground surface and the wind strongly influences the wind
velocity. Near the ground surface, the friction between the air and ground reduces the velocity,
whereas at higher elevations above the ground, friction has little influence and wind velocities
are much higher.

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Adigrat University Structural Design
Civil engg dpt Wind Loads

Fig 1. Variation of wind velocity with height

Basic definitions
1.fundamental basic wind velocity v b,0
the 10-minute mean wind velocity with an annual risk of being exceeded of 0.02, irrespective of
wind direction, at a height of 10 m above flat open country terrain and accounting for altitude
effects (if required).
2. basic wind velocity v b
the fundamental basic wind velocity modified to account for the direction of the wind being
considered and the season (if required)
3. mean wind velocity vm
the basic wind velocity modified to account for the effect of terrain roughness and orography
4.pressure coefficient cpe,cpi
External pressure coefficients give the effect of the wind on the external surfaces of buildings;
internal pressure coefficients give the effect of the wind on the internal surfaces of buildings.
The external pressure coefficients are divided into overall coefficients and local coefficients.

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Civil engg dpt Wind Loads

Local coefficients give the pressure coefficients for loaded areas of 1 m2 or less e.g. for the
design of small elements and fixings; overall coefficients give the pressure coefficients for
loaded areas larger than 10 m2.
Net pressure coefficients give the resulting effect of the wind on a structure, structural
element or component per unit area.
5. force coefficient
force coefficients give the overall effect of the wind on a structure, structural element or
component as a whole, including friction, if not specifically excluded
6. Background response factor
the background factor allowing for the lack of full correlation of the pressure on the structure
surface
7. Resonance response factor
the resonance response factor allowing for turbulence in resonance with the vibration mode.

The effect of the wind on the structure (i.e. the response of the structure),
depends on the size, shape and dynamic properties of the structure. This Part covers dynamic
response
due to a long-wind turbulence in resonance with the along-wind vibrations of a fundamental
flexural mode shape with constant sign.
BASIC VALUES
basic wind velocity, v b
The fundamental value of the basic wind velocity, v b,0, is the characteristic 10 minutes
mean wind velocity, irrespective of wind direction and time of year, at 10 m above ground
level in open country terrain with low vegetation such as grass and isolated obstacles with
separations of at least 20 obstacle heights.

v b = cdircseason vb, Where:

v b -is the basic wind velocity, defined as a function of wind direction and time of year at
10 m above ground of terrain category II
vb,0 - is the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity
cdir-is is the directional factor, the recommended value is 1.0.

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Adigrat University Structural Design
Civil engg dpt Wind Loads

cseason -is the season factor, the recommended value is 1.0.

Mean wind velocity

Variation with height
The mean wind velocity v m(z) at a height z above the terrain depends on the terrain roughness
and orography and on the basic wind velocity, v, b and should be determined using Expression
below.
vm(z) = cr(z). c0(z). vb
Where:
Cr(z) is the roughness factor, given in 4.3.2 (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015).
C0(z) is the orography factor, taken as 1.0 (Flat surface) unless otherwise specified in 4.3.3 (ES
EN 1991-1-4:2015).

TERRAIN ROUGHNESS
1. The roughness factor, Cr(z), accounts for the variability of the mean wind
velocity at the site of the structure due to:
1. The height above ground level
2. The ground roughness of the terrain upwind of the structure in the wind
direction considered
The recommended procedure for the determination of the roughness factor at
height z is given by Expression and is based on a logarithmic velocity profile.

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Adigrat University Structural Design
Civil engg dpt Wind Loads

Table1.Terrain categories and terrain parameters

Terrain orography

Where orography (e.g. hills, cliffs etc.) increases wind velocities by more than 5% the effects
should be taken into account using the orography factor Co.

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Adigrat University Structural Design
Civil engg dpt Wind Loads

. Figure 2. Illustration of increase of wind velocities over orography

The effects of orography should be taken into account in the

following situations:

For sites on upwind slopes of hills and ridges:

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Adigrat University Structural Design
Civil engg dpt Wind Loads

Fig 3. Factor s for cliffs and escarpments

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Adigrat University Structural Design
Civil engg dpt Wind Loads

Fig 4. Factor s for cliffs and escarpments

The turbulence intensity lv(z)at height z is defined as the standard deviation of the turbulence
divided by the mean wind velocity.

The turbulent component of wind velocity has a mean value of 0 and a standard

deviation 𝜎v. The standard deviation of the turbulence sv may be determined using

Expression below.

The recommended rules for the determination of Iv(z) are given in Expression

The turbulence intensity lv(z):

The recommended value is kI= 1.0.

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Adigrat University Structural Design
Civil engg dpt Wind Loads

Peak velocity pressure

The peak velocity pressure qp(z) at height z, which includes mean and short-term velocity
fluctuations, should be determined. The recommended rule to determine qp(z) is given in
Expression below.

Fig 5. Illustrations of the exposure factor ce(z) for cO=1,0, kI=1.0 (For flat terrain)

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Adigrat University Structural Design
Civil engg dpt Wind Loads

Wind pressure on surfaces

When moving air - wind - is stopped by a surface - the dynamic energy in the wind is
transformed to pressure.

The wind pressure acting on the external surfaces of a structure, we, should be obtained from the
expression below.

The net wind pressure across a wall or an element is the difference of the pressures on

each surface taking due account of their signs. (Pressure directed towards the surface is

taken as positive and suction directed away from the surface is negative.)

Figure 6. Pressure on surfaces

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Adigrat University Structural Design
Civil engg dpt Wind Loads

Pressure coefficients for buildings

The external pressure coefficients cpe for buildings and parts of buildings depend on the size of
the loaded area A, which is the area of the structure, that produces the wind action in the section
to be calculated.

The external pressure coefficients are given for loaded areas A of 1 m2 and 10 m2 in the tables
for the appropriate building configurations as cpe,1, for local coefficients, and cpe,10, for overall
coefficients, respectively.

NOTE 1 Values for cpe,1 are intended for the design of small elements and fixings with an area
per element of 1 m2 or less such as cladding elements and roofing elements. Values for cpe,10
may be used for the design of the overall load bearing structure of buildings.

NOTE 2 The National Annex may give a procedure for calculating external pressure coefficients
for loaded areas above 1 m2 based on external pressure coefficients cpe,1 and cpe,10. The
recommended procedure for loaded areas up to 10 m2 is given in the Figure below.

The figure is based on the following:

Figure 7. Recommended procedure for determining the external pressure coefficient cpe for
buildings with a loaded area A between 1 m2 and 10 m2

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Civil engg dpt Wind Loads

Pressure Distribution for structures

NOTE The velocity pressure should be assumed to be uniform over each horizontal strip
considered.

Figure 8. Reference height, ze, depending on h and b, and corresponding velocity pressure profile

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Civil engg dpt Wind Loads

The external pressure coefficients cpe,10 and cpe,1 for zone A, B, C, D and E are defined in
Figure below.

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Figure 9. Key for vertical walls

Table 2. Recommended values of external pressure coefficients for vertical walls of rectangular
plan Buildings Zone

Flat roofs
Flat roofs are defined as having a slope (α) of –5°< α < 5°
The roof should be divided into zones as shown in Figure below.
The reference height for flat roof and roofs with curved or mansard
eaves should be taken as h.
The reference height for flat roofs with parapets should be taken as h +
hp. Pressure coefficients for each zone are given in Table 3.

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Adigrat University Structural Design
Civil engg dpt Wind Loads

Figure 10. Key for flat roofs

Table 3. External pressure coefficients for flat roofs

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Civil engg dpt Wind Loads

Mono pitch roofs

The roof, including protruding parts, should be divided into zones as shown in Figure below.

The reference height ze should be taken equal to h. The pressure coefficients for each zone that
should be used are given in Table 4.

Figure 11. Key for mono pitch roofs

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Adigrat University Structural Design
Civil engg dpt Wind Loads

Table 4a-External pressure coefficients for mono pitch roofs

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Table 4b-External pressure coefficients for mono pitch roof

Duo pitch roofs

The roof, including protruding parts, should be divided in zones as shown in Figure below.

The reference height ze should be taken as h. The pressure coefficients for each zone that should
be used are given in Table 5.

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Adigrat University Structural Design
Civil engg dpt Wind Loads

Figure 12. Key for duo pitch roofs

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Table 5a External pressure coefficients for duo pitch roofs

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Adigrat University Structural Design
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Table 5b External pressure coefficients for duo pitch roofs

Hipped roofs
The roof, including protruding parts, should be divided into zones as shown in Figure below.
The reference height ze should be taken as h. and the pressure coefficients that should be used
are given in Table 6.

Figure 13. Key for hipped roofs

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Civil engg dpt Wind Loads

Table 6 External pressure coefficients for hipped roofs of buildings

Internal pressure
Internal and external pressures shall be considered to act at the same time. The worst
combination of external and internal pressures shall be considered for every combination of
possible openings and other leakage paths.

The internal pressure coefficient, cpi, depends on the size and distribution of the openings in the
building envelope. When in at least two sides of the buildings (facades or roof) the total area of
openings in each side is more than 30 % of the area of that side, the actions on the structure
should not be calculated from the rules given in this section but the rules of 7.3 and 7.4 should
instead be used.

NOTE The openings of a building include small openings such as: open windows,
ventilators, chimneys, etc. as well as background permeability such as air leakage around doors,
windows, services and through the building envelope. The background permeability is typically
in the range 0.01% to 0, 1% of the face area.

Where an external opening, such as a door or a window, would be dominant when open
but is considered to be closed in the ultimate limit state, during severe windstorms, the condition
with the door or window open should be considered as an accidental design situation in
accordance with ES EN 1990.

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A face of a building should be regarded as dominant when the area of openings at that face is at
least twice the area of openings and leakages in the remaining faces of the building considered.

NOTE This can also be applied to individual internal volumes within the building.

When the area of the openings at the dominant face is twice the area of the openings in
the remaining faces,

cpi= 0.75 ⋅cpe

When the area of the openings at the dominant face is at least 3 times the area of the openings in
the remaining faces,

cpi= 0.90 ⋅cpe

where

cpe is the value for the external pressure coefficient at the openings in the dominant face.
When these openings are located in zones with different values of external pressures an area
weighted average value of cpe should be used.

When the area of the openings at the dominant face is between 2 and 3 times the area of
the openings in the remaining faces linear interpolation for calculating cpi may be used.

For buildings without a dominant face, the internal pressure coefficient cpi should be
determined from fig 14, and is a function of the ratio of the height and the depth of the building,
h/d, and the opening ratio µ for each wind direction θ, which should be determined from
Expression below.

Fig 14. Internal pressure coefficients for uniformly distributed openings

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NOTE 1 This applies to façades and roof of buildings with and without internal partitions.

NOTE 2 Where it is not possible, or not considered justified, to estimate µ for a particular case
then cpi should be taken as the more onerous of +0,2 and -0,3.

The reference height zi for the internal pressures should be equal to the reference height z e for the
external pressures on the faces which contribute by their openings to the creation of the internal
pressure. If there are several openings the largest value of ze should be used to determine zi. The
internal pressure coefficient of open silos and chimneys should be based on

cpi= -0.60

The internal pressure coefficient of vented tanks with small openings should be based on

cpi = -0.40 The reference height Zi is equal to the height of the structure

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