Subject: PHYSICS (DU- CBCS Syllabus)

SEMESTER – III
Paper 3: Geometrical Optics and Electricity
52 hours (4 Hours of Teaching per Week)
Module 2: (13 hours)
Syllabus:
Scalar and vector fields: Scalar and Vector point function, concept of scalar and vector fields, spatial
derivatives, variation with respect to space co-ordinates- Del and Laplacian operators – Cartesian expression.
Gradient of scalar, and its significance, divergence and curl of a vector and their significance. Mention of
Vector Identities, Proof of curl grad φ =0 and div curl A=0. Gauss divergence theorem and Stokes theorem
(statement and explanation).
Electric filed and potential: Review of concept of charge. (Qualitative) Coulomb’s inverse square law,
concept of potential in a conservative field and potential difference. E=- grad V (proof), Gauss law in
electrostatics, field near the surface of a charged conductor (derivation), Coulomb’s law from Gauss law.
Mention of Poisson’s and Laplace’s equation and uniqueness theorem. Energy density in an electrostatic field
(derivation). Electrostatic Pressure on the surface of a charged conductor (derivation)
Electric filed and Potential
Electric Charge:
Introduction:
The unit of electric charge is the Coulomb (abbreviated C). Ordinary matter is made up of atoms which have
positively charged nuclei and negatively charged electrons surrounding them. Charge is quantized as a
multiple of the electron or proton charge:

The influence of charges is characterized in terms of the forces between them (Coulomb's law) and the electric
field and voltage produced by them.
Coulomb’s Law:
Introduction:
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, a French physicist in 1784, measured the force between two point charges and
he came up with the theory.
Coulomb’s Law gives an idea about the force between two point charges. By the word point charge, we mean
that in physics, the size of linear charged bodies is very small as against the distance between them. Therefore,
we consider them as point charges as it becomes easy for us to calculate the force of attraction or repulsion
between them.
Statement: Coulombs law states that the force of attraction or repulsion between any two point charges at rest
is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between the charges.

Let’s say that there are two charges q1 and q2. The distance between the charges is ‘r’, and the force of attraction
𝟏
or repulsion between them is ‘F’. Then 𝑭 ∝ 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝑂𝑟, 𝑭 ∝ 𝒓𝟐

𝒌 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭 =
𝒓2
1
Where k is proportionality constant and equals to 𝑘 = 4π𝜀 , The value of k= 9 × 109 Nm2/c2. Here, ε0 is called
𝑜

permittivity of a vacuum. When we take the S.I unit of value of ε0 = 8.854 × 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2.
In vector form:
Now, the force on charge q2 due to q1, in vector form is:
𝐤 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝒓̂𝟐𝟏
2
𝑟21
Now, the force on charge q1 due to q2, in vector form is:
𝐤 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝒓̂𝟏𝟐
2
𝑟12
and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭𝟐𝟏 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭𝟏𝟐
Electric field: When a charged body is placed in space the space around the charged body is affected. “The
space of influence of charged body around it is called electric field”.
Electric field intensity: The electric field intensity or electric field strength at a given point is equal to force
⃗𝑭
⃗ =
experienced by test charge (unit positive charge) placed at that point. That is (𝑬 ), Where, F- force
𝒒𝟎

acting on test charge q0 at a point. Unit of electric field intensity: N/C or V/m
Electric field due to a point charge:
Let the test charge 𝑞0 be placed at a point P at a distance r from
charge q placed in free space then electric field intensity at point ‘P’ is given
by
⃗𝑬 = 𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒓̂
𝟒𝝅ɛ˳ 𝒓

The direction of E is along OP if the charge q is positive and is along PO if the charge is negative.
Electric field intensity due to group of charges
It is given by 𝐸⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸2 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸3 ….. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑛
𝐸⃗ = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐸𝑖
The electric field intensity at any point is also given by
1 𝑑𝑞
𝐸⃗ = 4𝜋ɛ˳ ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑟̂

This equation represents principle of super position of charges. The integration is taken over complete charge
distribution. The electric field intensity of any point is vector sum of field intensity due to the number of
charges.
Electric potential:
At any point in an electric field is a property which requires performance of work in moving an electric charge
from one point to another in the field. The potential energy at point due to electric field to a charge is called
electric potential at that point.
“Electric potential at a point is measured by the work done on the system in bringing a unit positive charge
from infinity to that point”.
Electric potential is a scalar quantity represented by ‘V’
𝟏 𝒒
𝑽= 𝟒𝝅ɛ𝟎 𝒓
𝟏
For group of charges which are continuous 𝑽= 𝟒𝝅ɛ𝟎
∫ 𝒅𝒒
𝒓

Electric potential difference:

Consider two points A and B in the electric field due
to a charge. If a test charge q0 is moved from A to
B, certain amount of work has to be done. The work
done is given by,
WAB = 𝒒𝟎 ( VB –VA )
Where, VA – Potential at A and VB – Potential at B
Work done is positive if VB > VA and
Work done is negative if VB < VA and
Work done is zero if VA = VB
The electric potential difference is given by
𝑾𝑨𝑩
VB – VA = 𝒒𝟎

. ̇ . Electric potential difference between A and B is defined as the work done in taking unit positive charge
from A to B against electric forces.
If the test charge q0 is brought from infinity to the point B, generally point A is considered to be at infinity
and VA = 0 then equation becomes
 𝑊𝐴𝐵 𝑊𝐴𝐵
VB = or V =
𝑞0 𝑞0

The unit of electric potential is Volt or joule / Coulomb, 1 volt = J/C.

Relation between electric field and electric potential:

Consider two points A and B at potential VA and VB respectively in uniform electric field ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . They are
separated by distance r in field direction. If a test charge q0 is moved from point A to B along line joining
two points against electric force ‘𝐸⃗ ’.
Then the work done to move the test charge is given by

𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 𝐹 . 𝑟⃗⃗ ------------ (1)

𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 𝑞0 (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 )-------- (2)
𝐹 . 𝑟⃗⃗ = 𝑞0 (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 )
𝐹 . 𝑟⃗⃗
(𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 ) =
𝑞0
(𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 ) = 𝐸⃗ . 𝑟⃗⃗ ---------- (3)
Note: We can also write VB - VA = E. r [∵ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸. 𝑟 = 𝐸𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛳 𝑖𝑓 𝛳 = 0, 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛳 = 1, 𝐸⃗ . 𝑟 = 𝐸𝑟 ]

If two points A and B are separated by small distance ‘dr’ the potential difference
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑣 = − ⃗𝑬 𝒅𝒓 − − − − − −4
𝑑𝑣
∴ 𝐸⃗ = − 𝑟̂
𝑑𝑟

- ve sign indicates work done is against force.)

Consider
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑣 = (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ) (𝑖̂ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑗̂ 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑘̂ 𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Substitute the value of 𝑑𝑣 in equation 4, we get
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
(𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝑬
) 𝑉𝒅𝒓 ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒓
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
∵ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒓 = (𝑖̂ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑗̂ 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑘̂ 𝑑𝑧)
⃗ 𝑉 = −𝐸⃗
∇
 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
(𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ) is called del operator.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Hence, electric field at any point in any direction is the negative of the potential gradient at that point in that
𝒗
direction. When the field is uniform then ⃗𝑬
⃗ = − 𝒓̂
𝒓

1. State and explain Coulombs Law (in vector form)

2. Question: Define electric intensity and electric potential and obtain relation between them. Or
Define electric intensity and electric potential and hence prove Electric Intensity is equal to negative
potential Gradient.
Gauss law in electrostatics:
Gauss law is just an integral form of Coulomb’s law in electrostatics.
𝟏
“It states that the total flux of electric field over any closed surface is equal to times total charge enclosed
ɛ𝟎

by the surface”.
𝑸
⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
⃗ . 𝒅𝒔
ɸ𝑬 = ∮ 𝑬
𝒔 ɛ𝟎

Where, Q- total charge enclosed

Gauss’s law Proof:

Consider a positive charge q situated at point ‘O’ which
is enclosed by hypothetical closed surface of any arbitrary shape
(Gaussian surface).
The electric field intensity at a point ‘P’ on the given surface is
given by
𝟏 𝒒 𝟏 𝒒
⃗𝑬
⃗ = . 𝟐 . 𝒓̂ … … … . (1) 𝑜𝑟 𝑬 = . 𝟐
𝟒𝝅ɛ𝟎 𝒓 𝟒𝝅ɛ𝟎 𝒓
The electric flux over the closed surface is given by

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ɸ𝑬 = ∮ ⃗𝑬 𝒅𝒔
𝒔

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ɸ𝑬 = ∮ ⃗𝑬 𝒅𝒔. 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 … … … . (𝟐)
𝒔

Substitute for E from equation (1)

𝟏 𝒒
ɸ𝑬 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
. 𝟐 . 𝒅𝒔
𝒔 𝟒𝝅ɛ𝟎 𝒓
𝒅𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
Here , = 𝑑𝜔 is by definition called solid angle at centre.
𝒓𝟐
𝒒
ɸ𝑬 = ∮ 𝒅𝝎
𝟒𝝅ɛ𝟎 𝒔
But ∮𝑠 𝒅𝝎 = 𝟒𝝅, since this integral total solid angle subtended by closed surface at point inside it
 𝒒
ɸ𝑬 =
ɛ𝟎
If large number of charges enclosed within surface then total charge is given by
𝒏

𝑄 = ∑ 𝒒𝒊
𝒊=𝟏

Then the electric flux is given by

𝑸
⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
⃗ . 𝒅𝒔
ɸ𝑬 = ∮ 𝑬
𝒔 ɛ𝟎
Hence, proof of Gauss’s law. This equation is the integral form of Gauss’s law.
Question: 1. State and Explain Gauss Law in Electrostatics. (2 Mark)
2. State and prove Gauss Law in Electrostatics (8 Mark)
Differential form of Gauss’s law:
Consider continuous charge distribution over a wall. Let ‘ρ’ be charge density (charge/volume). The
total charge within the closed surface enclosing volume is given by
𝑄 = ∫𝒗 𝝆 𝑑𝑣-------------------1
According to Gauss’s law
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑸 --------------------2
⃗ . 𝒅𝒔
∮𝒔 𝑬 ɛ 𝟎

Substitute equation 1 in equation 2

𝟏
∮ 𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒔 = ∫ 𝝆 𝐝𝐯 … … … . . (𝟑)
𝒔 ɛ𝟎
𝒗

Now applying Gauss divergence theorem to LHS to convert the surface integral into volume integral 𝝆 hence,

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ 𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑬
𝒅𝒔 = ∫ (𝛁. ⃗ )𝐝𝐯 … … … … . (4)
𝒔 𝒗
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗ = 𝑖̂
Where, ∇ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Equating equations (3) and (4)

𝟏
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗𝑬 )𝐝𝐯 =
∫ (𝛁. = ∫ 𝝆 𝐝𝐯
𝒗 ɛ𝟎
𝒗
𝝆
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗𝑬
(𝛁. ⃗ )=
ɛ𝟎
This equation is one of the famous Maxwell’s Equations in Electromagnetism.
Question: Deduce differential form of Gauss Law.
Poisson’s equation:
Consider the different form of Gauss’s law
⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸⃗ ) = 𝜌 ----------1
(∇. ɛ 0

But we can write

𝐸⃗ = −∇
⃗ 𝑉---------- (2)
 Substitute 2 in 1
𝜌
⃗⃗⃗ (−∇
(∇. ⃗ 𝑉) ) =
ɛ0
𝜌
∇2 𝑉 = −
ɛ0
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
This equation is known as Poisson’s equation and ∇2 is laplacian operator given by ∇2 = 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 in

Cartesian system
Laplace’s equation: When there are no sources of charges then the region is free of charges i.e ρ = 0 and
∇2 𝑉 = 0

This equation represent as inverse square law and implies the meaning that lines of forces start from positive
charge and end on negative charge. ∇2 𝑖𝑠 Laplace’s operator given by
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
∇2 = 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 In Cartesian system

The Uniqueness Theorem: For Poisson's equation states that, for a large class of boundary conditions, the
equation may have many solutions, but the gradient of every solution is the same. In the case of electrostatics,
this means that there is a unique electric field derived from a potential function satisfying Poisson's equation
under the boundary conditions.
Questions:
1. State and explain Poisson’s equation Laplace’s equation (2 M)
2. State and explain uniqueness theorem
Derivation of Coulomb’s law from Gauss law:
Consider an isolated point charge ‘q’ as shown in figure. Let us
apply Gauss law to this. Hence, construct a Gaussian surface by
taking ‘r’ as radius. Electric field intensity is radial. Hence, write
from Gauss’ law,
𝒒
⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒔
∮ 𝑬
𝒔 ɛ𝟎
𝒒
⃗ ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗𝑬 𝒅𝒔 =
𝒔 ɛ𝟎
𝒒
⃗⃗⃗ 4𝜋𝑟 2 =
𝑬.
ɛ𝟎
1 𝒒
⃗𝑬 = . 2
4𝜋ɛ𝟎 𝑟
In vector form,
1 𝒒
⃗𝑬 = . 2 . 𝑟̂
4𝜋ɛ𝟎 𝑟
Let us put second point charge 𝑞0 at a point where ‘E’ is to be calculated.
Then by definition,
⃗ = 𝑬
𝑭 ⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑞0
⃗⃗ it becomes,
Substituting for 𝑬
1 𝒒. 𝒒𝟎
⃗ =
𝑭 . . 𝑟̂
4𝜋ɛ𝟎 𝑟 2
This is Coulomb’s Law
Question: State Gauss Law and hence Derive Coulomb’s law from Gauss law (8 M)
Electric field on the surface of a charged conductor:
Consider a charged conducting surface AB having a local
surface charge density σ.
Let C be a point very close to this surface, draw a
Gausian cylinder CD whose sides are perpendicular to the
charge surface and the ends C and D are perpendicular to the
surface such that the end C lies just outside the charged surface
and the end D inside it.
If 𝒅𝒔 is the area of the charged surface enclosed with in cylinder then the charge within the cylinder
𝑄 = 𝜎. 𝑑𝑠----------- (1)
∴ According to Gaus’s theorem total electric flux over surface of cylinder
𝝈 𝒅𝒔
𝜙𝐸 = ------------ (2)
Ԑ𝟎

The surface of the conductor AB is equipotential surface, then the direction of electric field intensity at every
point is therefore along outward drawn normal.
The closed cylinder has the surface S1, S2 and S3
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∴ Electric flux over the surface S1 at C is ∬𝒔 𝐄 𝒅𝒔
𝟏

Where, E = Electric field just outside cylinder.The electric flux (field) over the area S2 at D = 0 as the electric
field intensity inside charge conductor is zero (Because always charges reside on outer surface of conductor).
The electric flux over the curved surface S3 of cylinder is also zero as the direction of electric field intensity
is parallel to the surface.
∴ Total electric flux over closed surface of cylinder is given by

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∬ 𝐄
⃗ . 𝒅𝒔
Total electric flux of cylinder = ∬ 𝐄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∬ 𝐄
⃗ . 𝒅𝒔 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∬ 𝐄
⃗ . 𝒅𝒔 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝒅𝒔
𝒔 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 𝒔𝟑

As the term 2 and 3 are equal to zero hence we can write

Total electric flux of cylinder = ∬𝒔 𝐄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∬ 𝐄
⃗ . 𝒅𝒔 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑬
⃗ . 𝒅𝒔 ⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒔---------- (3)
𝒔 𝟏

Equating 2 and 3, we have

𝝈 𝒅𝒔
⃗𝑬. 𝒅𝒔 =
Ԑ𝟎
 𝝈
⃗𝑬 =
Ԑ𝟎
𝟏
Thus the field at point on surface of conductor is equal to Ԑ times surface charge density ‘σ’ at the point.
𝟎

Question: State Gauss’ law and hence obtain an expression for Electric field on the surface of a charged
conductor.
The electrostatic pressure on the surface of a charged conductor:
Or Mechanical force per unit area on the surface of a charged conductor:
The charge on any small area of a conductor experiences an
outward mechanical force due to repulsion of charge on the rest of
area.
Electrostatic pressure means the mechanical force per unit
area on the surface of a charged conductor.
Let AB represent a charge conducting surface. Consider a
small element of area ds and let ‘P’ be a point just outside it.
If ‘σ’ is the surface charge density then electric field at ‘P’
is given by
⃗ = 𝝈 ---------- (1)
⃗𝑬
Ԑ 𝟎

The electric field at P may be regarded as made up of two parts.The outward force F1 due to charge on
the small area ds very close to P. An outward force F2 due to charge on the rest of the surface
𝝈
∴ 𝑭𝟏 + 𝑭𝟐 = ⃗𝑬 = Ԑ --------- (2)
𝟎

Consider a point Q just inside the charged surface, since point Q lies inside the conductor, therefore electric
field at Q = 0.
The field Q at may be regarded as made up of two parts-
As the point Q lies on opposite side of P but still very close to it. The force F1 due to charge on the small area
ds will be equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.( ∴ - F1 )
Since Q lies very near to P the force due to rest of charge surface will be same and in same direction as at P.
( ∴ + F2 )
∴ −𝑭𝟏 + 𝑭𝟐 = 𝟎 ---------- (3)
∴ 𝑭𝟏 = 𝑭𝟐
Thus, equation 2 becomes,
𝝈 𝝈
2𝐹1 = 𝒐𝒓 2𝐹2 =
Ԑ𝟎 Ԑ𝟎
𝝈
𝐹1 = 𝑭𝟐 =
𝟐Ԑ𝟎
 𝝈
The charge on area ds is 𝜎. 𝑑𝑠 and a unit charge on it experiences an outward force 𝑭 = Ԑ due to charge on
𝟎

the rest of surface

𝝈 𝑑𝑠
∴ Outward force on area 𝑑𝑠 = σ ∙ ds. ( ) = 𝜎 2.
𝟐Ԑ𝟎 𝟐Ԑ𝟎
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝝈𝟐
𝐎𝐮𝐭𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 = =
𝒅𝒔 𝟐Ԑ𝟎

Substituting the value of 𝜎 (𝐸. 𝜀0 ) in the above equation, we get

𝐸 2 . 𝜀02
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
2𝜀0
𝟏
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = . 𝜺 . 𝑬𝟐
𝟐 𝟎
When the conductor lies in a media of relative permittivity 𝜀𝑟
𝟏
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝜺𝟎. 𝜺𝒓 𝑬𝟐
𝟐
Question: Obtain an expression for electrostatic pressure on the surface of a charged conductor.
Or obtain an expression Mechanical force per unit area on the surface of a charged conductor.
Energy density in an electrostatic field:
When a conductor is charged, during the process of charging, work
has to be done to bring the charge on the surface of conductor. This
work done is stored in the form of electrostatic energy. Electrostatic
energy per unit volume is called energy density.
Consider a charged conductor of surface charge density 𝜎 in a
medium.
(Permittivity of the medium, Ԑ = Ԑ𝟎 Ԑ𝒓 . When conductor lies in a
media of relative permittivity Ԑ𝒓 = 𝟏 (In Air). Ԑ = Ԑ𝟎 =
permittivity of free space.)
Consider small area ds of the conductor. We know that,
1
The mechanical force per unit area of a charged conductor = . Ԑ𝟎 𝐸 2
2
𝟏
∴ Mechanical force acting in a region of area ds, 𝐹 = Ԑ𝟎 𝐸 2 𝑑𝑠
𝟐

Assume that the element ds is displaced through a distance dl under the action of mechanical force acting on area
ds.
𝟏 𝟏
During the displacement, the work done: 𝑊 = Ԑ𝟎 𝐸 2 𝑑𝑠. 𝑑𝑙 = Ԑ𝟎 𝐸 2 𝑑𝑣
𝟐 𝟐

𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑠. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑙.

This work done is stored in the electric field in form of electrostatic energy (𝑑𝑢) and it is given by:
𝟏
Electrostatic energy 𝑑𝑢 = 𝟐 Ԑ𝟎 𝐸 2 𝑑𝑣

∴ 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝒅𝒖 𝟏
= Ԑ 𝐸2
𝒅𝒗 𝟐 𝟎
This is the expression for energy density when the charged conductor is placed in air
𝟏
∴ 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒅 = Ԑ𝟎 𝑬𝟐
𝟐
Unit of energy density in electric field = Jm-3

Question: Obtain an expression for the energy stored per unit volume (energy density) in an electric field.
Scalar and Vector fields
Scalar Quantity: A physical quantity which has only magnitude but no direction is called scalar quantity.
Examples: Distance, Speed, Area, Mass, Volume, Density etc.
Vector Quantity: A physical quantity which has both magnitude and direction is called a vector quantity.
Examples: Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Magnetic and Electric intensity etc
Field: A certain region of space associated with physical property is referred as field.
Scalar point function: A scalar quantity 𝜙 can be represented as 𝜙 = 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in a region of space is called
scalar point function and it is continuous over that region.
Vector field function: A vector quantity 𝐴 can be represented as 𝐴 = 𝐴(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in a region of space is called
a vector point function and it is continuous over that region.
Scalar Field: A region of space in which a scalar quantity 𝜙 = 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is defined at every point in the
region is called scalar field. 𝜙 = 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is called a scalar point function and it is continuous over the region
of the field.
Example of scalar field:
1. In a region near charged particles every point may be associated with a scalar quantity called the
electric potential V. a scalar potential field is represented as 𝑉 = 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).
2. In a solid of certain volume one can define the density 𝜌 = 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) at every point in it. Hence it is
scalar density field or scalar mass field.
3. Temperature field, 𝜃 = 𝜃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) over a certain region.
Vector field: A region of space in which vector quantity 𝐴 = 𝐴(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is defined at every point in the region
is called a vector field.
𝐴 = 𝐴(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a vector point function which is continuous over the region of the field.
Examples:
1. A region around charged particle may be called an electric vector field. This field is associated with a
vector 𝐸⃗ called electric field vector and is represented as 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
 2. A region around the earth is gravitation vector field which is represented as ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐺 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐺 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
3. A certain volume inside flowing river is a velocity vector field. Every point in the region can be
associated with a certain value of velocity of water at that point.
Level surface: in any scalar field, surfaces corresponding to equal value of the scalar field are called as level
surfaces. Hence scalar point function 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a single value in level surface.
Example: Isothermal surfaces (equal temperature), Equidensity surfaces and equi potential surfaces.
Two level surfaces cannot cut each other as they cannot have common value.
⃗⃗ ): It is a vector operator which denotes the change of physical quantities along (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
Del operator (𝛁
direction.
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗ = 𝑖̂
∇ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ , where 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂, 𝑘̂ are unit vector along (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) directions. , , represents the change
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

if physical quantity along (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) axis.

⃗ = 𝑖̂∇𝑥 + 𝑗̂∇𝑦 + 𝑘̂ ∇𝑧 , where ∇𝑥 = 𝜕 , ∇𝑦 = 𝜕 , ∇𝑧 = 𝜕
∇ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Gradient of a Scalar:
⃗ ) can be operated with scalar function ϕ and it is called as gradient of scalar (∇
Del operator (∇ ⃗ ϕ). It is a vector
quantity. In a scalar field ϕ = ϕ(, 𝑦, 𝑧) the value of ϕ varies continuously from point to point in three
dimensional space determined by
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
⃗∇ϕ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Significance: The gradient of scalar ⃗∇ϕ at any point in the field represents the maximum rate of change at
that point both in magnitude and direction. That is the magnitude of ⃗∇ϕ gives the value of gradient of ϕ at a
⃗ ϕ is along the direction in which the rate of change is maximum.
point and direction of ∇
⃗ operator is operated in a vector point function 𝐴 = 𝐴(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) we can have two products
When ∇
1. ⃗∇. 𝐴 is called “ divergence of vector”. This product is scalar quantity.
2. ⃗∇ × 𝐴 is called “curl of vector” and it is a vector quantity.
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
Divergence of a vector: When the vector operator dell, ⃗∇= 𝑖̂ 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑗̂ 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑘̂ 𝜕𝑧, operates on a vector function

𝐴 = 𝐴(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) with dot product then it is called as divergence of vector. It is a scalar quantity and is denoted
as follows
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗∇. 𝐴 = (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ) . (𝑖̂ 𝐴𝑥 + 𝑗̂ 𝐴𝑦 + 𝑘̂ 𝐴𝑧 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
⃗∇. 𝐴 = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Significance of divergence: The divergence of vector at a point represents the net outward flux of vector in
an infinitesimally small volume around the point.
Example 1. Let 𝐸⃗ be the electric field at a point ‘p’ then divergence of 𝐸⃗ at a point ‘p’ represents the total
outward flux per unit volume at the point.
Example 2. Let us consider the velocity 𝑣 of a flowing fluid at a point. Then 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑣 at a point inside the fluid
is the rate at which the fluid is flowing away from the point per unit volume.
A positive value of 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑣 means that either the fluid is expanding or the point is a source of fluid.
A negative value of 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑣 means the reverse that is either the fluid is contracting of the point is the sink of
fluid.
Example 3. The divergence of current density J at a point gives the amount of charge flowing out per second
per unit volume from a small surface surrounding the point.
Example 4. In a fluid 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑣 = 0, means the fluid entering and leaving the element is same. That is no change
in the density of fluid or in other words the fluid is incompressible. If the flux entering
and leaving an element are equal means the fluxes have not been generated within this
element. That is there are no sources or sinks in the field.
⃗ = 0, means that the lines of induction due to magnetic field are continuous, they do not
Example 5. 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐵
source or sink. This gives an important conclusion that an isolated magnetic pole does not exist.
Curl of a Vector: When del operator is operated on a vector point function with cross product then the product
is called curl of a vector.
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗ × 𝐴 = (𝑖̂
∇ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ) × (𝑖̂ 𝐴𝑥 + 𝑗̂ 𝐴𝑦 + 𝑘̂ 𝐴𝑧 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ ̂
𝑘
| | 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴
⃗∇ × 𝐴 = 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 = 𝑖̂ ( 𝑧 − 𝑦 ) − 𝑗̂ ( 𝑧 − 𝑥 ) − 𝑘̂ ( 𝑦 − 𝑥 )
|𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧| 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
Significance of curl of vector: curl of vector represents the rotational effect around the point.
Example: The whirl around a point in flowing river can be represented as curl of vector.
First order derivatives with 𝛁 operators:
⃗ 𝜙 ⟹ 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜙
1. ∇
⃗ . 𝐴 ⟹ Divergence of a Vector (scalar).
2. ∇
3. ⃗∇ × 𝐴 ⟹ Curl of a Vector (vector).
Second order derivatives with 𝛁 operators:
1. ⃗∇. (∇
⃗ 𝜙) = ∇2 𝜙 ⟹ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜙 (𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑).

2. ⃗∇ × (∇
⃗ 𝜙) ⟹ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜙 = 0.

⃗ (∇
3. ∇ ⃗ . 𝐴) ⟹ 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑.
 ⃗ . (∇
4. ∇ ⃗ × 𝐴) = 0 ⟹ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.

⃗ × (∇
5. ∇ ⃗ × 𝐴) = ∇
⃗ (∇
⃗ . 𝐴) − ∇2 𝐴 ⟹ Curl of Curl of a Vector.

The Laplacian operator:

𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
∇2 = 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2. The Laplacian operator is given by ∇2 and it is a scalar operator.

⃗ × (∇
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝝓 = 𝟎: [∇ ⃗ 𝜙) = 0]
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
⃗ × (∇
∇ ⃗ 𝜙) = (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ) × (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ ̂
𝑘
|𝜕 𝜕 𝜕|
𝜕 𝜕𝜙 𝜕 𝜕𝜙 𝜕 𝜕𝜙 𝜕 𝜕𝜙 𝜕 𝜕𝜙 𝜕 𝜕𝜙
⃗ × (∇
∇ ⃗ 𝜙) = ̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 = 𝑖̂ (𝜕𝑦 ( 𝜕𝑧 ) − 𝜕𝑧 ( 𝜕𝑦 )) − 𝑗̂ (𝜕𝑥 ( 𝜕𝑧 ) − 𝜕𝑧 ( 𝜕𝑥 )) − 𝑘 (𝜕𝑥 ( 𝜕𝑦 ) − 𝜕𝑦 ( 𝜕𝑥 )) = 0
| |
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
⃗ . (∇
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝑫𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝑽𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = 𝟎: [∇ ⃗ × 𝐴) = 0]
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗ . (∇
∇ ⃗ × 𝐴) = (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ) . [(𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ) × (𝑖̂ 𝐴𝑥 + 𝑗̂ 𝐴𝑦 + 𝑘̂ 𝐴𝑧 )]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ ̂
𝑘
| | 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴
⃗ × 𝐴 = 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 = 𝑖̂ ( 𝑧 − 𝑦 ) − 𝑗̂ ( 𝑧 − 𝑥 ) − 𝑘̂ ( 𝑦 − 𝑥 )
∇
|𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧| 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑥

⃗∇. (∇
⃗ × 𝐴) = (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ) . [𝑖̂ ( − ) − 𝑗̂ ( − ) − 𝑘̂ ( − )]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕 𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕 𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑥

⃗ . (∇
∇ ⃗ × 𝐴) = [( − )] − [( − )] + [( − )]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝝏𝟐 𝑨𝒛 𝝏𝟐 𝑨𝒚 𝝏𝟐 𝑨𝒛 𝝏𝟐 𝑨𝒙 𝝏𝟐 𝑨𝒚 𝝏𝟐 𝑨𝒙
⃗∇. (∇
⃗ × 𝐴) = − − + + − =0
𝝏𝒙. 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙. 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒚. 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚. 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛. 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒛. 𝝏𝒚

∴ ⃗∇. (∇
⃗ × 𝐴) = 0
Gauss Divergence Theorem: It states “If a closed surface ‘S’ encloses a volume ‘V’ in a vector field 𝐴, then
the surface integral of the normal component of 𝐴 over the entire surface S is equal to the volume integral of
divergence 𝐴 over the volume V enclosed by the surface S”.

∬ 𝐴. ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ . 𝐴) 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑠 = ∭(∇
𝑆 𝑉

Explanation and Proof:

Suppose a surface S encloses a volume V in a vector field
𝐴. Let the volume V be divided into a large number of small
elements of volume ∆𝑉1 , ∆𝑉2 , ∆𝑉3 , … … … . , ∆𝑉𝑖 these volume
elements are enclosed by surface areas ∆𝑆1 , ∆𝑆2 , ∆𝑆3 , … … … . , ∆𝑆𝑖
respectively. Let us take, outward flux of a vector field to a closed
surface as positive and the inward flux as negative.
Consider the two neighbouring volume elements which are marked as 1 and 2. The outflow from 1
across the common surface is inflow for 2. These two cancel with each other. Hence outflow of all inner
surface cancel with each other and total outflow from all the elementary volumes will be equal to the total
outward flux from the whole volume V bounded by the closed surface S. Hence we can write

∬ 𝐴. ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ . 𝐴) 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑠 = ∭(∇
𝑆 𝑉

Proof:

∬ 𝐴. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = ∑ ∬ 𝐴. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 … … … … (1)
𝑆 ∆𝑆

The value of 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴 in a small element like ∆𝑉𝑖 having a surface area ∆𝑆𝑖 is given by
1
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴 = lim ⃗⃗⃗⃗ … … … … (2)
∬ 𝐴. 𝑑𝑠
∆𝑉𝑖 →0 ∆𝑉𝑖
∆𝑆

Or

∬ 𝐴. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = (𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴)𝑑𝑉𝑖
∆𝑆

Applying summation on both sides, we have

∑ ∬ 𝐴. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = ∑(𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴)𝑑𝑉𝑖 … … … … … (3)
∆𝑆

But

∑(𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴)𝑑𝑉𝑖 = ∭(𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴)𝑑𝑉𝑖 … … … … (4)

𝑉
Hence by combining equations 3 and 4, we have

⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∭(𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴)𝑑𝑉𝑖

∑ ∬ 𝐴. 𝑑𝑠
∆𝑆 𝑉

∬ 𝐴. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = ∭(𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴)𝑑𝑉𝑖 , Hence the proof
𝑆 𝑉

Gauss divergence theorem helps to convert surface integral into volume integral.
Stoke’s Theorem:
The line integral of vector field 𝐴 around any closed surface C is equal to the surface integral of curl 𝐴 over
a surface S bounded by curve C.

⃗⃗⃗ = ∬(∇
∮ 𝐴 . 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ × 𝐴). 𝑑𝑠
𝑙 𝑆

Suppose a smooth closed curve l encloses a vector area S in a vector 𝐴. Let the
area s be divided into large number of small area ∆𝑆1 , ∆𝑆2 , ∆𝑆3 , … … … . , ∆𝑆𝑖
having perimeter ∆𝑙1 , ∆𝑙2 , ∆𝑙3 , … … … . , ∆𝑙𝑖 respectively. The line integral of the
vector 𝐴 around each of the small parts ∆𝑙1 , ∆𝑙2 , ∆𝑙3 , … … … . , ∆𝑙𝑖 will be same
sense. Therefore the line integral along the common boundary of the two small
area like ∆𝑆1 , ∆𝑆2 will cancel each other as they are in opposite direction but
equal in magnitude. Hence the sum of all the line integral will be equal to line
integral around l, the boundary enclosing the whole area S. Here when we consider the small area which are
adjacent to each other, all parts of the line integral will cancel out except along the outer boundary l. thus, the
line integral around the closed curve l is equal to sum of line integral around the parts, ∆𝑙1 , ∆𝑙2 , ∆𝑙3 , … … … . , ∆𝑙𝑖
or we can write,

∮ 𝐴 . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = ∑ ∮ 𝐴. ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = ∬(𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐴). 𝑑𝑠
𝑙 ∆𝑙 𝑆