Compressors - Hassan ElBanhawi
Compressors - Hassan ElBanhawi
The compression of gases and vapors in the process industry is very important. Compressors are used in a variety of applications. In a
modern plastics facility, compressors are used to transfer granular powders and small plastic pellets from place to place. In natural gas plan
compressors are used to establish feed gas process pressures. Compressors also provide clean, dry air for instruments and control device
In a refinery or chemical plant, compressors are used to compress gases such as light hydrocarbons, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, a
chlorine. These gases are sent to headers, from which they are distributed to a variety of applications.
Key Terms
Aftercooler—a heat-exchange device designed to remove excess heat from the discharge side of a multistage compressor.
Compression ratio—the ratio of discharge pressure (psia) to suction pressure (psia). Multistage compressors use a compression ratio in t
3 to 4 range, with the same approximate compressionratio in each stage.
Double-acting compressor—a reciprocating compressor that compresses gas on both sides of the piston.
Intercooler—a heat exchange device designed to cool compressed gas between the stages of a multistage compressor.
Enthalpy— is a measurement of energy in a thermodynamic system. It is the thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat content o
system. It is equal to the internal energy of the system plus the product of pressure and volume.
Entropy— a measure of the unavailable energy in a closed thermodynamic system that is also usually considered to be a measure of the
system's disorder, that is a property of the system's state, and that varies directly with any reversible change in heat in the system and
inversely with the temperature of the system; broadly : the degree of disorder or uncertainty in a system.
Classification
There are three basic designs for compressors: dynamic, positive displacement, and thermal. Dynamic compressors include centrifugal (rad
flow) and axial (straight-line) flow compressors. Both types operate by changing the velocity of gas and converting energy to pressure.
Positive displacement compressors include rotary and reciprocating compressors. they operate by trapping a specific amount of gas and
forcing it into a smaller volume. Dynamic compressors accelerate airflow by drawing air in axially and spinning it outward (centrifugal
compressors) or in a straight line (axial flow compressors). Positive displacement compressors compress gas into a smaller volume and
discharge it at higher pressures. Thermal compressors use ejectors to direct high-velocity gas or steam into the process stream, entraining
the gas, and then converting the velocity into pressure in a diffuser assembly.
1. Centrifugal Compressors
gas enters a centrifugal compressor at the suction inlet and is accelerated radially by moving impellers. Centrifugal compressors have one
moving element, the driveshaft and impeller. In a centrifugal compressor, the impeller discharges into a circular, narrow chamber called
the diffuser. This narrow opening completely surrounds the impellers. As back-pressure builds in the impeller, gas velocity is accelerated
through the diffuser assembly and into a circular volute. As high-velocity gas moves through the diffuser and into the volute, kinetic energy i
converted into pressure as gas speed slows in the ever-widening volute before exiting the discharge port.
Because compressor performance is linked to the compressibility of the gas it is moving, centrifugal compressors are more sensitive to
density and fluid characteristics than are reciprocating compressors.
Centrifugal compressors can be single-stage or multistage. Single-stage compressors compress the gas once, whereas multistage
compressors deliver the discharge of one stage to the suction of another stage. Single-stage centrifugal compressors are designed for high
gas flow rates and low discharge pressures; multistage compressors are designed for high gas flow rates and high discharge pressures.
2. Axial compressors
Axial compressors are the compressor of choice for jobs where the highest flows and pressures are required. Unlike centrifugal compresso
axial compressors do not use centrifugal force to increase gas velocity. An axial flow compressor is composed of a rotor that has rows of
fanlike blades. Airflow is moved axially along the shaft. Rotating blades attached to a shaft push gases over stationary blades called stators
The stators are mounted on or attached to the casing. As the rotating blades increase the gas velocity, the stator blades slow it down. As th
gas slows, kinetic energy is released in the form of pressure. Gas velocity increases as it moves from stage to stage until it reaches the
discharge scroll. Multistage axial compressors can generate very high flow rates and discharge pressures.
The stator blades in an axial compressor can be fixed, individually adjustable, or continually variable. Individually adjustable stator blades c
be adjusted from outside the casing. Continually variable blades are adjusted by a drive ring linked to a driveshaft that is automatically
actuated by a power cylinder.
In contrast to a centrifugal compressor, axial compressors accelerate and compress gas in a horizontal, straight-through motion, without the
turbulent changes in direction characterized by centrifugal compressors.
Flow enters the device and is moved axially toward the discharge port. The majority of compression takes place very close to the compress
outlet. The moving elements of the rotary screw compressor do not touch each other or the inner wall. A set of timing gears allows the powe
rotor to turn the alternate rotor. Because of this design, the rotating elements do not require lubrication, making them a perfect choice for dr
gas service. Because of the small tolerances that exist between the moving elements, some internal slip occurs during operation.
4. Lobe Compressors
Lobe compressors are characterized by the two kidney bean–shaped impellers used to trap and transfer gases. The close clearances
between the casing and impellers are maintained by a set of timing gears. During operation, the two impellers move in opposite directions o
parallelmounted shafts as the lobes sweep across the suction port. The parallel shafts are composed of a driveshaft and an idler shaft. The
driveshaft forces the idler shaft to turn through the gears. The gears and bearings are located on the outside of the compressor. Compresse
gases are released to the discharge line.
The internal lobes on a rotary lobe compressor are designed not to touch. A few thousandths of an inch clearing exists between the casing
and lobes. The design clearances on the internal lobes of a lobe compressor allow some slip. The slip is aggravated at high discharge
pressure when low-density gases are being pushed. Process slip is constant only when system pressure is constant.
Lobe compressors are designed to have constant-volume discharge pressures and constant-speed drivers. Lobe compressors do not use
discharge or suction valves because they are not designed to operate at a specific pressure. Discharge pressures are determined by the
system’s process pressure.
Lobe compressors can be used in wet and dry gas service. The rotation of the lobes may be up or down; that is, the discharge port can be a
the top or at the bottom of the unit. In dry service, the upward rotation is preferred. In wet service, the downward rotation is recommended s
any condensed liquids can escape. Lobe compressors can be used as compressors or vacuum pumps.
A very unusual compressor design is the liquid ring compressor. It combines the centrifugal action of the liquid with a positive displacement
rotary action. A liquid ring compressor has one moving transfer element and a casing that is filled with makeup water or seal liquid. As the
rotor turns, the fluid is centrifugally forced to the outer wall of the elliptical casing. An air pocket is formed in the center of the casing. As the
liquid ring compressor rotates, a small percentage of the liquid escapes out the discharge port. Makeup water or seal liquid is admitted into
the compressor during operation. The liquid medium helps cool the compressed gases. The off-center position of the rotor creates an offset
the air pocket. Located on the rotor are suction and discharge ports. The inlet ports are much larger than the discharge ports. As the vanes
turn, gases are compressed in the volute-shaped air pocket.
7. Scroll Compressors
A scroll compressor has two interleaved spiral vanes designed to compress fluids into ever decreasing volumes. Scroll compressors run
quietly and smoothly at lower volumes, trapping fluid between the scrolls. In most cases, one scroll is fixed and one orbits eccentrically
without rotating.
Their distinctive back-and-forth motion characterizes reciprocating compressors. During operation, reciprocating compressors perform best
with clean gases. Entrained water, dirt, and impurities will cause excessive wear on the piston and cylinder. Reciprocating compressors are
selected when low flow rates and high discharge pressures are required.
There are several advantages of using a reciprocating piston compressor. They have a flexible pressure range and overall capacity, low
power cost, and high efficiency rating. They can handle density and gas composition changes, and small volumes and can deliver high
pressures.
Reciprocating piston compressors work by trapping and compressing specific amounts of gas between a piston and the cylinder wall. The
back-andforth motion incorporated by a reciprocating compressor pulls gas in on the suction or intake stroke and discharges it on the other
Spring-loaded suction and discharge valves work automatically as the piston moves up and down in the cylinder chamber. Reciprocating
piston compressor design varies from model to model. These variations usually occur in the total number of cylinders and in the arrangeme
of the suction and discharge lines. Most piston compressors have one to four cylinders. Each cylinder has its own piston, rings, and automa
valves. Common crankshafts can be shared with multiple connecting rods. The same cylinder can be equipped with multiple suction and
discharge valves in double-acting compressors.
9. Diaphragm Compressors
Diaphragm compressors utilize a hydraulically pulsed diaphragm that moves or flexes to positively displace gases. This type of compressor
closely related to a reciprocating compressor. This type of compressor is a combination of several systems; a gas compression system and
hydraulic system. Gas compression occurs when a flexible metal diaphragm or membrane hydraulically flexes. In this type of an operation
only the membrane and the compression chamber come into contact with the gas. For this reason the diaphragm compressor is ideal for
applications that involve explosive and toxic gases. Membranes are designed to be durable and tough and able to withstand high
temperatures and a variety of conditions. Diaphragm compressors can generate very high pressures and are used to compress hydrogen,
hydrogen chloride, carbon monoxide, compressed natural gas. Diaphragm compressors come in one, two, three, or more stages. Each stag
requires the use of one diaphragm.
10. Ejectors
An ejector works by converting the pressure energy of a motive fluid into kinetic energy (velocity) as it flows through a relatively small
converging — diverging nozzle. The increased velocity of the motive fluid causes a corresponding reduction in pressure creating suction in
the mixing chamber, into which the process fluid is drawn. The process fluid mixes with and becomes entrained in the motive fluid stream. T
mixed fluid then passes through the converging — diverging diffuser, where the velocity is converted back into pressure energy. The resulta
discharge pressure is higher than the suction pressure of the ejector.
Historically, ejectors have been primarily used to generate vacuum. Ejectors can be staged in series to achieve deep vacuum levels. They c
use many different types of motive fluid. Air and steam are the most common. To avoid contamination and other problems, it is important to
choose a motive fluid compatible with the process fluid. Ejectors are one of the few compressor types that are relatively immune to liquid
carryover in the suction gas.
An ejector is not as efficient as most types of mechanical compressors but has the advantage of simplicity and no moving parts. This helps
make ejectors very reliable with minimal maintenance costs.
Basics
For a compression process, the enthalpy change is the best way of evaluating the work of compression. Years ago the capability of easily
generating P-H diagrams for natural gases did not exist. The result was that many ways of estimating the enthalpy change were developed
They were used as a crutch and not because they were the best way to evaluate compression horsepower requirements.
Today the engineer does have available, in many cases, the capability to generate that part of the P-H diagram required for compression
purposes. This is done using equations of state on a computer. This still would be the best way to evaluate the compression horsepower. Th
other equations are used only if access to a good equation of state is not available.
There are two ways in which the thermodynamic calculations for compression can be carried out — by assuming:
1. isentropic reversible path — a process during which there is no heat added to or removed from the system and the entropy remains
constant.
2. polytropic reversible path — a process in which changes in gas characteristics during compression are considered.
The amount of work required is dependent upon the polytropic curve involved and increases with increasing values of n. The path requiring
the least amount of input work is n = 1, which is equivalent to isothermal compression, a process during which there is no change in
temperature. For isentropic compression, n = k = ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to that at constant volume.
If a P-H diagram is available (as for propane refrigeration systems), the work of compression would always be evaluated by the enthalpy
change of the gas in going from suction to discharge conditions.
It is usually impractical to build sufficient heat-transfer equipment into the design of most compressors to carry away the bulk of the heat of
compression. Most machines tend to operate along a polytropic path which approaches the isentropic. Most compressor calculations are
therefore based on an efficiency applied to account for true behavior.
System
A compressor is part of a much larger system. The system’s resistance to flow typically dictates compressor performance. Minor problems a
occasionally experienced with compressor systems. These troubles are usually the result of dirt, adjustment problems, liquid in the system,
inexperience in operating the system. Two conditions associated with centrifugal compressors are surge (pumping) and stone-wall (choke
flow).
"Surge": at some point on the compressor’s operating curve there exists a condition of minimum flow/maximum head where the developed
head is insufficient to overcome the system resistance. This is the surge point. When the compressor reaches this point, the gas in the
discharge piping back-flows into the compressor. Without discharge flow, discharge pressure drops until it is within the compressor’s
capability, only to repeat the cycle. The repeated pressure oscillations at the surge point should be avoided since it can be detrimental to th
compressor. Surging can cause the compressor to overheat to the point the maximum allowable temperature of the unit is exceeded. Also,
surging can cause damage to the thrust bearing due to the rotor shifting back and forth from the active to the inactive side.
"Stonewall" or choked flow: occurs when sonic velocity is reached at any point in the compressor. When this point is reached for a given g
the flow through the compressor cannot be increased further without internal modifications.
Multi-Stage Compression
The simplest compressor designs feature a single cylinder/chamber arrangement. While straightforward, this setup is limited in its efficiency
and capacity for delivering high volumes of pressurized gas. That’s where multi-stage compressors come in. By increasing the number of
stages, these machines work more effectively. Multi-stage compressors feature a series of stages. Between each compression stage, the
compressed gas passes through a heat exchanger, where it is cooled. Cooling the gas reduces the amount of work necessary to compress
further. In a two-stage compressor, gas is then forced into an additional chamber where it is pressurized to the required extent. In a three-
stage compressor, an additional cycle of compression and cooling occurs before this.
P&ID Symbols
Resources
Excel Tool : Turbocalcs - J.D Estill.
References
1-ENGINEERING DATA BOOK by Gas Processors Suppliers Association
2-Process Technology - Equipment and Systems by Charles E. Thomas