Topic 4: Radio systems

Problem 4.1: Noise

A real, noisy resistor at the physical temperature Tphys can be modelled as a noiseless resistor and
a (thermal) noise voltage source vrms in series as shown Fig. 1, where df is infinitesimally small
bandwidth, f is the frequency, h is the Planck’s constant and k is the Boltzmann’s constant.

a) Show that up to the millimetre wave frequencies hf  kTphys in the room temperature.

b) For the Taylor’s polynomial ex ≈ 1 + x holds when x is small. Using the approximation, show
that the formula for the available power Pn from a resistor at the noise bandwidth B is

Pn = kTphys B. (1.1)

c) The thermal noise of a resistor is called white noise. Describe a definition of white noise, and
justify why the noise (1.1) is white.

d) From (1.1), identify two effective methods to reduce the noise level at the wireless receiver. Do
you know where the identified technique is used in practice, e.g., which application and why
it is critical to reduce the noise level?
Topic 3.2: Noise
e) Assume an antenna of 150 K equivalent noise temperature. Explain briefly, what the equivalent
1. Noise
noise temperature of antemperature.
antenna means. Calculate the noise power in dBm for a radio system of
A real, that
60 MHz bandwidth noisyappears
resistor atatthe physical
the outputtemperature Tphys canThe
of the antenna. be modelled
impedance as a of
noiseless resistor and a (therm
the antenna
is 50 Ω. noise voltage source v rms in series (df is frequency differential, f is frequency, h is Planck’s constant, k
Boltzmann’s constant) according to the figure below.

noisy noiseless
resistor resistor +
at Tphys noise source

R
R = 4 Rhfdf
vrms
hf kT phys
e 1

a. Show that up to the millimetre wave frequencies hf << k∙Tphys in the room temperature.
Figure 1: Equivalent circuit model of a noisy resistor consisting of a voltage source and a noiseless resistor.
b. Use the Taylor’s polynomial ex ≈ 1 + x, when x is “small”, and show that the formula for the availa
power Pn from a resistor at the noise bandwidth B is
Pn = k∙Tphys∙B.
The thermal noise of a resistor is white – i.e., independent of frequency.
c. From the formula in part b. we can see that if Tphys or B → 0, also Pn → 0, meaning that efficient metho
how to decrease the noise power are to cool down the component/device or narrow the noise bandwid
On the other hand, when B → ∞, also Pn → ∞ (called “ultraviolet catastrophe”), which cannot happen
practice because not any component can radiate “infinite” power. Explain the reason for the physica
incorrect result given by the formula of part b..
d. For an antenna the equivalent noise temperature is 150 K. Explain briefly, what the equivalent no
temperature of an antenna means. Calculate the noise power at 60-MHz noise bandwidth available fro
the output of the antenna. The impedance of the antenna is 50 Ω.
 output
input
Bn = 10 MHz

Topic 4: Radio 4.systems

Television receiver. [Exam February 2014]
You have the following components in a terrestrial television (DVB-T) reception system.
Problem 4.2: Noise temperature and noise figure
Yagi-Uda antenna (noise temperature 2900 K, directive gain 10 dBi),
A horn antenna and 10-m
a single side-band coaxial cable
receiver (total shown
front-end attenuation 10 dB,
in Fig. physical
2 are used temperature
to receive a280 K)
signal
low-noise amplifier (gain 20 dB, noise temperature 300 K)
in a radio frequency signal at 60 GHz. The first
TV receiver (RFstage of dB,
gain 30 the noise
receiver is a low-noise
temperature 700 K) amplifier (LNA)
connected to the antenna. The LNA forwards signals to a small cable to a mixer etc. as seen in the
a. What is the order of the components when the noise temperature of the whole system is to be minim
figure. The bandwidth ofJustify
the receiver is defined at an intermediate (IF) frequency output by using
your answer with appropriate calculations. Name and explain all the variables you use
a bandpass filter which has negligible
instance, loss.temperature
T1 = noise The signalof received
... by the antenna is Si = 1 nW.
b. Consider other means with which you can try to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the reception.
a) In problem 4.1, the antenna noise temperature was 150 K, while the same is 290 K in Fig. 2.
Describe, what causes the difference of antenna noise temperature TA .
5. SSB receiver.
b) Calculate the equivalent noise temperature
A horn antenna TR offront-end
and a SSB receiver the receiver
shown(defined with
below are respect
used to the
to receive inputin a millimetre-
a signal
experiment at 60 GHz. The first
of the LNA) and the system noise temperature TS . stage of the receiver is an LNA connected to the antenna. The LN
connected with a small cable to a mixer etc. as seen in the figure. The bandwidth of the receiver is defin
IF output by using a bandpass filter which has negligible loss. The signal received by the antenna is 1 nW
c) Calculate the noise figure F of the receiver.
a. Calculate the equivalent noise temperature TR of the receiver (defined in the input of the LNA) an
system noiseratio
d) Calculate the signal-to-noise temperature
(SNR) TatS. the IF output, when the SNR at the LNA input
is 30 dB. b. Calculate the noise figure F of the receiver.
c. Calculate the S/N ratio in the IF output, when the S/N in receiver input after the antenna is 30 dB.
e) Calculate the noise bandwidth Bn of the IF filter, given the other parameters specified above.
d. Calculate the noise bandwidth Bn of the IF filter (when other parameters are as already given above).

Lm = 4 dB
LC = 2 dB
TA = 290 K Fm = 6 dB
Tphys = 300 K

G1 = 10 dB G2= 30 dB Bn
T1 = 100 K F2 = 4 dB

Figure 2: A single side-band receiver frontend.

Topic 4: Radio systems
Problem 4.3: Antenna gains

The gain of an antenna to a given direction (typically in the main lobe) can be defined by measuring
the radiated power density (W/m2 ) in the far-field region. The power density radiated by a horn
antenna is 4.0 mW/m2 in the main lobe at the distance of 2.0 m. The feed power of the antenna is
3.5 mW. The measurement was performed at 7.2 GHz. The aperture size of the horn is 10 × 9 cm2
(width and height) but the aperture efficiency is unknown. Assume that the impedance matching
is “very good”.

a) Explain using your own words, what does the gain (unit dBi) of an antenna mean. Does an
antenna with a higher gain radiate more power (unit W) than another antenna with a smaller
gain (assume the resistive losses are the same).

b) In the above setting, is the power density measured in the far-field region or not? Justify your
answer.

c) Estimate the the gain of the antenna in dBi.

Topic 4: Radio systems
Problem 4.4: Friis formula

a) When there is an isotropic transmit antenna that radiates energy to the entire solid angle, i.e.,
to all the direction in space uniformly, derive the power density [W/m2 ] of the field in vacuum
at a distance R from the antenna; the total power input to the antenna is Pt and assume
perfect matching and radiation efficiency. The antenna has a uniform gain of GTx = 0 dBi.

b) Calculate the total power available at distance R and compare it with the radiated power from
the antenna.

c) At distance R, an antenna with effective aperture Ae receives the field from the transmit
antenna. Express the power output at the receive antenna port Pr using Pt , R and Ae assuming
that the receive antenna does not have matching losses. Do NOT use the receive antenna gain
GRx in this part. The formula you get in this problem is called the Friis formula.

d) What is a maximal gain G of an antenna with effective aperture size Ae ? Use the relationship
to express the power output at the receive antenna port Pr using Pt , R and GRx assuming that
the receive antenna does not have matching losses.

e) Let us think about mobile radio communications exploiting millimeter-wave and Terahertz
waves in fifth-generation (5G) and beyond. They use higher frequencies than what the present
5G and legacy systems typically consider. Researchers have discussed if the use of higher carrier
frequency is advantageous compared to the legacy systems or not. The following is a quite
common understanding among researchers about antenna receiving power of 5G-and-beyond
and legacy systems. Is the understand always correct, according to the results of c) and d)? If
not, mention a case when the understanding is incorrect.

Understanding: According to the Friis’ formula, the millimeter-wave and Terahertz

radios for 5G-and-beyond systems are inferior to lower frequency radios in the legacy
systems because the received power is lower.