Biodiversity:

Patterns of Life
Kanorau Koiora: Ko Ngā Tauira Mataora

BIOSCI 108: LAB Workbook 2024

Name: ………………………………………………
ID: ……………………………………………………
 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

BIOSCI 108 Lecture & Laboratory

Week Week Monday
Schedule
Tuesday
2023 Thursday
Wednesday Friday Laboratory
starts / Field trip
Week one 1 LB 2 LB 3 MT
(ODD) S+9 26
February Introduction Biodiversity Microbiology
&
Taxonomy
Week two 4 MT 5 MT 6 MT LAB ONE
04 March Microbiology +
(EVEN) S+10 Microbiology Microbiology Microbiology
Data analysis
Week three 7 MT 8 MT 9 MT
11 March
(ODD) S+11 Microbiology Microbiology Microbiology
Week four 10 MT 11 MT 12 LB LAB TWO
18 March Topic Test 1
(EVEN) S+12 Microbiology Microbiology Plant
Microbiology +
Diversity Data analysis
Week five 13 LB 14 LB Good Friday
(ODD) S+13 25 March
Plant Plant
Diversity Diversity
Mid semester Easter University
Study Break (29 1 April
March – 12
Monday Holiday
April) 8 April
S+ 14 and 15

Week six
15 April
15 LB 16 LB 17 Ngāti LAB THREE
(EVEN) S+16 Plant Diversity 1
Plant Plant Whātua
Diversity Diversity Orākei FIELD TRIP
WEEKEND
Week seven 18 SPS 19 SPS Anzac Day 20 SPS
(ODD) S+17 22 April
Plant Plant Holiday Plant
Diversity Diversity Diversity
Week eight 21 SPS 22 TKMP 23 TKMP LAB FOUR
(EVEN) S+18 29 April Topic Test 2
Plant Mātai Koiora Mātai Koiora
Plant Diversity 2
Diversity
Week nine 24 CA 25 CA 26 CA
6 May
(ODD) S+19 Animal Animal Animal
Diversity Diversity Diversity
Week ten 27 CA 28 CA 29 BD LAB FIVE
13 May Arthropods
(EVEN) S+20 Animal Animal Animal
Diversity Diversity Diversity
Week eleven 30 BD 31 BD 32 BD Biodiversity
20 May Assignment Due
(ODD) S+21 Animal Animal Animal
Diversity Diversity Diversity
Week twelve 33 BD 34 REVIEW NO LAB SIX
27 May Topic Test 3
(EVEN) S+22 Animal LECTURE
Fish
Diversity

Lectures: Monday 5–6 pm, Tuesday 5–6 pm; Friday 5–6 pm. Building 260 Room 098
Laboratories: B01C (Stream 1): Tue 10 am–1 pm; B02C (Stream 2): Wed 10 am–1 pm; B03C
(Stream 3): Wed 2–5 pm; B04C (Stream 4): Thu 10 am–1 pm; B05C (Stream 5): Thu 10 am–1 pm;
B06C (Stream 6): Thu 2–5 pm; B07C (Stream 7): Thu 2–5 pm; B08C (Stream 8): Fri 10 am – 1 pm
Streams 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 & 8: West Lab, Level 3; 5, 7: Building 106 Room 214, Level 2

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

Laboratory Information

1. GENERAL INFORMATION
• The practical component of this course will provide some examples of the range of microbes, plants and
animals that are discussed in the lectures. We feel quite strongly that hands on is an essential part to
understanding of Biology. Often the laboratories, not only reinforce what is taught in the lectures, but are
used to expand upon your knowledge - they are an integral part of the course.

• Each laboratory stream has a tutor in charge (usually a senior graduate student) wearing a red lab coat,
who will remain with that stream for the duration of the course. There are also three demonstrators
(blue lab coats), who are usually first or second-year MSc or PhD students, helping with the teaching and
marking.

• Please be prompt for the start of each laboratory period. At the start of the laboratory, the tutor gives
detailed instructions about the work you are to perform. Latecomers may not be able to catch up on the
instructions & work or be able to sit the lab assessment.

2. WHAT TO BRING WITH YOU TO THE LABORATORY

• Bring a lab coat, covered shoes (covering your toes) and safety glasses, as these must be worn during
the lab to protect you from stains and chemicals. Lab coats are available from The University Book
Store.
• Bring pencils (HB or B), an eraser, vivid marker, pens, small ruler, etc.
• Don’t forget your lab guide!

3. LABORATORY PROCEDURES
• These laboratories are in constant use, and your co-operation is required for them to run smoothly.

• Before each class you should read the instructions to make sure you know what you are expected to do
and can understand the principles involved and terminology used.

• Attendance is compulsory. Refer to the “Information Pages” for attendance problems.

• Be punctual. Laboratory practicals are planned to occupy three hours, and introductory explanations are
usually required. Practical classes begin five minutes past the hour as lectures do.

• Sign the roll upon entering and bring necessary supplies to every practical. Covered shoes and lab coats
are compulsory. You will be refused admission if not properly attired.

• Take a bench place at the first practical. Keep this place throughout the course.
- take note of your bench number, which is written on the cupboard beside you, this ensures equipment is
set out for you each session.

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

Laboratory Health & Safety:

Please ensure you have completed the on-line health

and safety quiz before your first laboratory. You will
not be able to work in the lab until you have passed
this quiz.

GENERAL RULES

1. Lab coats, gloves, safety glasses, 2. Do not wear your lab coat, safety
and closed-toe shoes must be glasses or gloves outside the
worn laboratory

3. Long hair must be tied back 4. No food, drink, smoking/vaping,

or phone/device use in the lab

5. Wash your hands during and 6. Keep aisles clear, work in a tidy
after laboratory work and careful way that does not
disrupt or endanger others

7. Use chemicals safely 8. Report any accidents or near

misses immediately

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

EMERGENCY PROCEDURES - EVACUATION:

Please familiarise yourself with the floor layout, exits

and stairs for this building to prepare for an
emergency evacuation. In case of a fire or other
emergency, you should know the location of the
nearest exits from the laboratory.

EX
IT If the building alarm sounds continuously, please evacuate the
building:

EX Walk briskly and do not run. Exit down the stairs to the ground floor
IT
and leave the building. Do not use the elevators. All emergency
evacuation routes are indicated by green ceiling signs – follow them
to the exit.

EXIT
Follow the instructions of the building wardens, who will be wearing
yellow vests, or floor wardens, who will be wearing orange vests.

Once outside the building, move to the assembly point, which is the
lawn behind Old Choral Hall and in front of the Albert Wall next to
the General Library.

Stay out of the building while the alarm is sounding and return only
after a building warden tells you that it is safe to go back inside.
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES – INJURY & EMERGENCY SERVICES:

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

First Aid for Minor Injury:

If you sustain a minor injury, please report this
immediately to the staff member or tutor running the
lab. The first aid cabinets contain stocks of basic medical
supplies and the Lab Manager is a certified First Aid
person. Specialist emergency equipment is present in
the lab; eyewash stations for cleansing eyes, and
showers for chemical spills. This equipment is for
immediate use by any person when required. Do not
wait for approval.
First Aid for More Serious Injury:
If you sustain a more serious injury, a staff member will
accompany you to the University Health Service.

If the injury is serious, dial 111 and ask for an

ambulance.

In the case of any accident, the student will be required

to fill out an Accident Form as part of the University’s
accident reporting policy. This form is available from the
Laboratory Technicians.

Emergency Services:
If you need to call emergency services:
• Dial 111 and ask for fire, ambulance, or police.
• Tell them the building name; Building 106, Old
Biology Building.
• Give them the building’s street address; 5
Symonds Street, Central Auckland.
• Explain the nature of the emergency.

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

CLEAN UP AND WASTE DISPOSAL:

You are responsible for keeping your bench and work area tidy. This includes cleaning up
at the end of each laboratory exercise. Each laboratory includes specific instructions for
bench and workstation clean-up. These can be found in your laboratory guide and above
the sink or ask your demonstrator.

flammable explosive biological toxic

Common hazard symbols from the laboratory. Please be familiar with these, as you may see them in the
laboratory and should know what they mean, and how you should treat those items.

DISPOSAL OF HAZARDOUS WASTE. The yellow ‘Medi-safe’ buckets are for

sharps (glass, needles, razor and scalpel blades, etc.). Yellow bags (inside
bins) are for gloves, and other experimental consumables as per the lab
clean up procedures. Do NOT put any laboratory waste in the general
rubbish bins.

Hand washing.
The hand washing rules are not simply for your benefit. The labs are used
by several courses and the bench surfaces can be contaminated with a
variety of biological pathogens and chemicals which can persist even after
routine clean-ups. You must wash your hands after each lab to ensure that
you do not carry pathogens outside the lab.

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

REGULATIONS FOR WORKING WITH GMOs:

The use of Genetically Modified Organisms has approval from

the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) under the
Hazardous Substances and New Organisms (HSNO) Act
1996.
EPA approval has been given on the following conditions:
That all approved GMOs are developed within an MPI
approved Containment Facility complying with MPI/EPA
Standard 154.03.02 Containment Facilities for
Microorganisms.
Work practices specified under Physical Containment Level 1
(PC1) specified in AS/NZS 2243.3:2010 "Safety in
Laboratories Part 3: Microbiology" are followed.

Work practices specifically required for PC1 containment are to be followed

throughout the laboratory sessions:

1. No eating or drinking in the 2. No food or drink to be stored in

laboratory the laboratory

3. Laboratory coats, eye protection 4. Laboratory coats must be

and closed shoes must be worn removed, and hands are to be
during laboratory sessions washed before leaving the
laboratory areas
5. All cultures are to be clearly 6. Work surfaces are to be
labelled, dated and appropriately decontaminated regularly and
stored after spills

7. Spills and accidents must be 8. Laboratory waste is to be

reported immediately to the staff decontaminated before disposal
teaching the laboratory – solid waste to be autoclaved
and liquid waste to be autoclaved
or chemically disinfected

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

9. Special care must be taken to prevent chemical/biological

contamination of reading/writing materials. Do not use mobile phones
or other devices in the laboratory.

EPA/HSNO INFORMATION:
Course Number BIOSCI 108
Laboratory Number(s) Laboratories 1 - 6
Course Coordinator Leah Barnfather
Relevant ERMA approval GM010/UA008
Teaching Laboratory 106-301, 106-307, School of Biological
Sciences Containment Facility

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

Using Microscopes

Dissecting Microscope

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

In the cupboard (next to you), there should be TWO microscopes: a dissecting and a compound.

• IDENTIFY the dissecting microscope first.

IMPORTANT!

Before you take one out of the cupboard, you need to know how to hold a microscope correctly:

• GRASP with ONE HAND the ARM (spine or back) of the instrument
• PLACE your OTHER HAND under the BASE.
• Place it on the bench with the arm at the back.

Please be careful microscopes can be easily damaged if handled incorrectly.

arm
eye pieces (ocular lens)

focus knob

light switch
stand and workspace

light sources

Dissecting microscopes are low magnification (5x to 60x), this allows large, dissected materials to
be observed (3D). They have a large working area so multiple tasks can be performed under the lens
e.g., dissecting, sample sorting and counting!

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

Compound Microscope

ocular lens

arm

stage and slide clip coarse focus knob

fine focus knob
iris diaphragm
stage movement knobs

light switch and intensity

stand and light source

Using the compound microscope:

• Place the compound microscope on the bench. Always lift the microscope by the arm keeping
one hand under the base.

• Plug in the lamp cord and switch it on; rotate the lamp control knob (at the base of the
microscope on the right-hand side) towards you to achieve a comfortable level of illumination
(about ‘3’ on the control knob).

• Adjust the separation of the eyepieces (if you have a binocular microscope). Look down the
microscope, holding your eyes a small distance from the eyepieces (usually about 15 mm). You
should see one clear circular field of view; if you see two, grasp the left- and right-hand sides of
the black rectangular plates, which carry the eyepieces and draw them gently inwards or
outwards until the two images merge.

• Place your slide on the stage of the microscope, gripping it with the spring-loaded finger. The
finger should just bear against one corner of the slide, not ride up over the top. The two knurled
knobs on the left-hand side of the stage (stage control knobs) allow you to move the slide from
side to side, or towards or away from you. Position the slide so that the tissue specimen is above
the hole.

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

• Immediately above the stage is a rotating circular turret on which are mounted three different
objective lens. Check that the smallest (low magnification) of them (marked with a brown band)
is in position above the slide.

• Locate the largest knob on the slide of the microscope; this is the coarse focus knob (the fine
focus knob is concentric with it). Using the coarse focus knob, raise the stage until it goes no
further. Notice that a built-in stop prevents the stage from being raised so far that the
microscope slide hits the low power objective lens. This is not the case when using the high-
power objective lens! Look down the microscope and use the coarse focus knob to lower the
stage until the specimen comes into focus. Use the fine focus to further sharpen the image.

• Adjust the iris diaphragm using the small black plastic assembly below the stage. This carries
two lens apertures and can be rotated using the black plastic lever. Turn the lever until it turns to
the near left-hand corner of the stage (i.e., to 8 o’clock if viewed from above). Adjust the lamp
intensity to a comfortable level. The microscope is now set up for low power examination of
your slide.

Magnification
The magnification of the eyepiece is x10. To obtain the total magnification of the
microscope, multiply the eyepiece magnification (x10) by the objective magnification (x4
for low power). Therefore, the minimum magnification possible is x40 and the maximum
is x400.

Magnification and Resolution

The microscope does two things: it magnifies and it resolves i.e., it lets us distinguish
objects or structures that are separated by spaces too small to be distinguished with the
naked eye. The first lens determines resolution in the system, which is the objective. The
other lens, such as the eyepiece do not resolve, they just enlarge (or magnify).

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

Scientific Drawings
A Scientific Drawing is a way of communicating what you see. The drawings you produce are your
EVIDENCE to show us that you understand what you have seen down the microscope. You should ask
yourself:

• WHAT am I going to draw? Why?

Is it a MAP diagram, or should you show cell details? Drawn unnecessary detail? (There is no
need to draw things that you have not been asked to identify.)

• WHERE should I draw on the page?

• HOW large should it be?

Make it larger if it hasn’t filled about a third of the page: it is probably too small.
Make it smaller if it reaches the edge of the page: you won’t have room for labels.

• UNDERSTAND what you see? (if so you can start drawing)

•
YOUR DRAWING:
a) Draw what YOU see - not what you think what you should see or is in the text.
b) Start with an outline in very light pencil - make sure the pencil is sharp!
c) Sizes should all be based on the original outline (relative sizes).
d) Avoid excess detail - outline structures that you must label only.
e) Use conventions where appropriate e.g., broken lines where a structure continues beyond the
edge of your drawing.

• LABEL carefully (ruled lines, no arrowheads, no crossing, well-spaced).

• PROVIDE:
1. A descriptive title (provides information that cannot be obtained by just looking at the
drawing - e.g., the structure (mandible, leaf etc.), orientation (e.g., underside, dorsal view
etc...), state of specimen (e.g., preserved, fresh, dissected etc...). Include classification
(scientific names underlined). Not “a drawing of…”
2. A scale or magnification at the bottom of the page.
3. Labels to identify structures (use a ruler to make the lines straight)
4. Any notes (e.g., about colour or irregularities like missing structures etc.)

• RESIST:
Don’t shade in or use colour on your drawing, it should be as simple and clear as possible. You
can make notes about colour if it is important (e.g., the leaves have purple edges). NOTES go at
the bottom of the page.

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

Scientific Drawings
EXAMPLES:

A simple map drawing of the cellular layers of a beech leaf. Drawing shows the layers to the same scale as
depicted in the transverse section (T.S.), but without any cellular detail.

This shows some common mistakes (bottom) in student drawings and the tidy and correct (top) drawing. We do
not expect you all to be good a drawing, but neatness goes a long way to enhancing what you have observed
through the microscope.

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

Lab One
Microbiology & Intro
to data analysis

IMPORTANT NOTICE
Please make sure you have read the prelab information on the next page and on Canvas before
you arrive at the lab.

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Prelab Information:

1. Before coming to the lab make sure you have your lab gear, this includes a lab coat, covered
shoes, a hair tie (if you have long hair), as well as a marker pen to write on your microbial
plates, and of course, your lab guide!

2. We will be doing our data handling exercise through a program called Microsoft Excel, which
you can download now onto your laptops, just make sure to bring your laptop on the day. We
also have computers in the laboratory that already have Excel installed, which you are welcome
to use. You can get a free version of Microsoft Excel through the university (check the Canvas
Lab 1 page for a link).

3. Bring along a sample of your soil if you wish to see what’s living with you! Samples must be
collected from either a. flower/vegetable garden, or b. bush/forest patch, as we will be
comparing the microbes found in these two plot types.

Collecting a soil sample:

1. Take a small spoon into your garden, underneath a patch of trees, a local bush
etc., and scrape a small sample and take it home with you.
2. Place in a sealed container/a sealed bag and record the plot type (e.g., my flats
herb garden).
3. Bring it along to the lab!
4. We will provide soil samples in the lab therefore home collection is not
mandatory. Please do not go anywhere you do not feel comfortable when
collecting soil.

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

Today's Lab:

1. Introduction and Lab protocols (20 mins)

• Please sign the roll, pick a seat, and say hello to your lab partner!

2. Microbiology (40 mins)

• Preparation of a diluted soil sample for plating.
• Streak plating of diluted soil sample.

3. Data handling and analysis (100 mins)

• Work through data handling exercises and basic analyses with the support of the lab teaching
team.

4. Assessment: Canvas Quiz (10 minutes)

By the end of this lab, you should be able to:

1. Be competent in preparation of soil samples and plating of a microbial solution.
2. Identify the correct way to handle species richness and abundance data.
3. Confidently calculate means and standard deviations in a spreadsheet.
4. Understand how to calculate biodiversity indices in a spreadsheet.

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

LABORATORY RISK ASSESSMENT – LABORATORY 1, BIOSCI 108

Please take note of the following materials or procedures that

we have identified as a potential risk in this experiment. Risk
minimisation controls are listed. Full safety data sheets (SDS)
for the listed chemicals are available within the CANVAS
Laboratory module/pages.
Note: other risks exist in the laboratory; the list below is not
extensive nor complete.
HAZARD IDENTIFICATION – MATERIALS

Hazardous substance:
Hazard Classification:
Soil microbes Ethanol

Toxic

Acute
Health
Hazard

Chronic
Health
Hazard

Flammable

Oxidising

Corrosive

Other

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

MINIMIZING RISK - MATERIALS

Hazard Materials Risk Controls:

Soil Wear lab coat, gloves, and eye protection to avoid skin and
Microbes eye contact. Do not ingest. Wibe down bench and wash
hands before leaving the lab.

Wear lab coat, gloves, and eye protection to avoid skin and
Ethanol eye contact. Do not ingest. Please read the MSDS available
in the CANVAS Laboratories module/pages.

HAZARD IDENTIFICATION – EQUIPMENT /

PROCEDURES
Hazard Description and risk controls:

Bunsen You will be using a Bunsen burner to sterilise your plate

Burner spreader. Be cautious and hold the spreader at an
appropriate distance from your body when passing the
spreader through the flames.

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

MICROBIOLOGY
Microbes make up a large quantity of the organisms that are found in soils and perform a majority of
roles in the environment, including nitrogen fixing and organic material decomposition. Many plants
would not grow as well without symbiotic soil ectomycorrhizal fungi that also inhabit the rhizosphere
with saprotrophic and pathogenic fungi.
Today you will use a simple technique to detect what types of microorganisms are in soil samples.
These soil samples have been taken from several sites at The University of Auckland (either a. flower
garden, or b. tree patch).
You will be working with your lab partner, please make sure each of you are working with a different
soil sample (one person use garden soil, and the other use tree soil, or your own soil sample).

(a) Soil wash preparation:

• Wear gloves and safety glasses.
• Mark three test tubes and label A, B, and C.
• Make a dilution series from the original sample (see figure 1).
• From the soil sample, add 1 g into a test tube containing 9 mL of buffer solution (tube
A).
• Shake the test tube to mix soil and buffer.
• From this mixture pipette 1 mL, then add this to another tube containing 9mL of buffer
(tube B). Repeat above, taking 1 mL of solution from tube B placing into another tube
containing 9 mL of buffer (tube C).
• Test tube C is the correct solution to plate.
(b) Spread plating agar Petrie dish:
• Write your stream number, bench number, plot type (garden or tree) and name on
your Petrie dish base using a marker pen.
• Sterilise your spreader by dipping in ethanol and setting alight on Bunsen flame.
• Pipette ~0.1 mL of prepared solution onto centre of agar plate.
• Spread sample evenly over plate, carefully rotating Petrie dish from underneath (figure
2). See video:
https://www.micro.iastate.edu/video/microbiology-004-spread-plate-method
• When spreading is complete, place lid over Petrie dish and seal plate with gladwrap =
around the edges and across the plate a couple of times.
• Then place the sealed and named plate onto the incubation tray at the back of the lab.
(c) Clean-up:
• Follow the clean-up instructions on the whiteboards at the back of the lab.
• Wipe benches down.

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

Figure 1. Example of a soil sample dilution and outcome of bacterial colony growth.

Figure 2. Example of the spread plate method. Remember to sterilise the spreader before use.

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

DATA HANDLING AND ANALYSIS

After you have cleaned up your bench space you can get out your own device, or turn on the lab
computer in front of you. Your tutor will tell you why we arrange data in a specific manner, and explain
how to undertake simple descriptive analyses such as calculating the mean and standard deviation, and
how to produce and format a graph in a spreadsheet. We will then provide you with a set of soil
microbial colony data.

Link to class dataset is on the Lab 1 Canvas page called: Spreadsheet for lab 1

You will work through the rest of the lab on this data sheet. There are three different tasks to complete
(summarise, plot, biodiversity index). If you have any queries pop your hand up and ask the Lab Tutor
or a demonstrator for help. You will need to:

• Calculate mean species richness (average) for each sampling location

• Calculate standard deviation of species richness for each sampling location
• Plot a graph showing the mean and standard deviation (SD as error bars) of different groups in
the data. (see next page)
• Correctly format the graph
• Calculate a diversity index for two plates worth of soil microbial data.

Pay attention and make sure you learn how all these processes work as you will need to know how to
calculate these metrics for Lab 2 and for analysing the field trip data.

How to produce a graph showing the differences of a range of abundances

1. Calculate means and standard deviations of the microbial abundance in samples for each site.
The formula are: =average(data) and =stdev(data) – see Fig. 3 below. The data range can either
be typed in using the name of the first cell and the last cell in the column of data separated by a
colon, or after typing =average( into the cell you can use the cursor to highlight the cells then
close the equation with )
2. Using the mean values plot a bar graph (insert > 2D column will insert an empty chart window
into the spreadsheet): one series each for two different sampling locations across Pourewa (right
click on the empty chart window and select ‘Select Data’, then add the series).
3. Add error bars to each chart separately (Chart Design > Add Chart Element > Error Bars > More
Error Bars Options… select Custom and Specify Value. For both positive and negative error bar
values select the value showing in the cell in which you entered the =stdev(data) formula.
Repeat for both series.
4. Using the same pathway as above, find how to add axis labels and write appropriately concise
axis labels for both the x and y-axis.

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

Average microbial species

6

richness 4

0
Forest Flower
Soil sample location

Figure 3. Mean species richness of microbial colonies within soil samples taken from either forest or
flower garden sites. Error bars indicate standard deviation.

This example shows the correct formatting for a graph including removal of gridlines and a figure
caption instead of a title.

CANVAS QUIZ
Complete the canvas quiz, the link is in the Lab 1 Canvas page. The canvas quiz will relate to the lab
activities so make sure you have finished the lab work in the worksheet before attempting this quiz.

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

Lab Two
Microbiology &
Data Analysis

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

Today's Lab:

1. Topic Test 1: Microbiology (20 Minutes)

• Canvas Quiz, 12 questions, open book, 20 mins.
2. Introduction and Microbiology (40 minutes)
• Microbe identification and abundance.
3. Data Analysis (100 minutes)
• Comparison to molecular data.
• Rank abundance curves
• Alpha diversity values using a class dataset
• Analysis of alpha diversity across different sampling locations
• How to: compare values in different groups (statistical analysis)
• How to: data visualisation (graph) and writing results statements
4. Lab 4 Assessment: Canvas Quiz (10 minutes)

By the end of this lab, you should be able to:

1. Be competent at identifying microbial growth.
2. Have some understanding of molecular 16S data.
3. Competency in basic data analysis.
4. Understand how to handle data and format graphs for scientific reports.
5. Have experience writing a results paragraph

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

LABORATORY RISK ASSESSMENT – LABORATORY 2, BIOSCI 108

Please take note of the following materials or procedures that

we have identified as a potential risk in this experiment. Risk
minimisation controls are listed. Full safety data sheets (SDS)
for the listed chemicals are available within the CANVAS
Laboratory module/pages.
Note: other risks exist in the laboratory; the list below is not
extensive nor complete.
HAZARD IDENTIFICATION – MATERIALS

Hazardous substance:
Hazard Classification:
Soil microbes

Toxic

Acute
Health
Hazard

Chronic
Health
Hazard

Flammable

Oxidising

Corrosive

Other

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

MINIMIZING RISK - MATERIALS

Hazard Materials Risk Controls:

Soil Hold the microbial plate with gloves on and return the plate
Microbes to your tray when not using it. Wipe down bench after use
and make sure to wash your hands. Keep the plate sealed.

HAZARD IDENTIFICATION – EQUIPMENT /

PROCEDURES
Hazard Description and risk controls:

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 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

MICROBIOLOGY
• Set up dissecting microscope from cupboard.
• Wear gloves.
• Collect your incubated Petrie dishes from the tray at the back of the lab.
• Remove the sealant from dishes (do not remove lid).
• Place dish onto stage (workspace) of dissecting microscope.

(a) Today we are determining different microbial species based on colony morphology. In your lab pair
use the identification images and descriptions on following page to determine how many species of
microbes you have on your Garden and Forest plates and fill in Table 1.

(b) Look other samples along your bench to see if there is any variation in species or growth.

Table 1. Microbial Colonies; example 1 filled in.

Bench Plate Colony Colony Colony Colony Colony Name Abundance
# Location Colour Form Elevation Margin
1 Forest Cream Irregular Raised Undulate Cream Irregular 12
Raised Undulate

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Terminology
Colour: The overall colour of the colony. It can be different from the above image e.g. pink.
Elevation: The shape of the colony when looking from the side angle.
Form: The overall shape of the colony.
Margin: The shape of the outer part of the colony (a microscope can help to see this).
DATA HANDLING, ANALYSIS, AND VISUALISATION
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Once you have completed your colony table and tidied your benchtop, you are ready to start the data
analysis.

Please download the Excel worksheet from the Lab 2 Canvas Page, and have it open on your device/the
lab computer.

Your tutor will revisit the ideas around rank abundance curves
• You will create a rank abundance graph based on your plate

Your tutor will revisit ideas around diversity values

• You will calculate an alpha diversity value for your plate and add this Sample Location
Diversity tab on the Excel work sheet.

Your tutor will discuss ideas around how to compare multiple diversity values from replicates – i.e., if
we have 20 diversity values from soil microbial communities from samples taken from a sports pitch,
and 20 diversity values from soil microbial communities from samples taken from a vegetable garden –
can we / how do we compare the ranges – can we say whether we think the microbial diversity of these
two sampling locations are different? How do we use statistical analyses to see if there is a
mathematical difference in diversity across these sampling locations?
• Copy the class alpha diversity data from the class google sheet into your spreadsheet.
• Choose two sampling location types and arrange the alpha diversity values in the table provided
• Undertake a t-test (see instructions and Fig. 2 on page 3) – if you are confused discuss this with
your lab mates, demonstrator, or the tutor
• Calculate a mean for each chosen sampling location
• Calculate standard deviation for each chosen sampling location
• Undertake t-tests comparing the species richness and/or diversity across the sampling locations
(see instructions and Fig. 2 below) – if you are confused discuss this with your lab mates,
demonstrator, or the tutor

You need to articulate the differences (if there are any) in the diversity values across your two chosen
sampling locations: there are clear and concise ways of achieving this (see your worksheet). The best
way to concisely present complicated data and statistical analysis is to use graphs and concise
descriptive sentences.
• Plot a graph showing the mean and standard deviation (SD as error bars) of the data (see page 4
and Fig. 3)
• Write a concise sentence describing the mean alpha diversities of the sampling locations, and the
results of the t-test.

Make sure you get feedback on your graph production from the demonstrators / tutor on your results
text – you can use screen share to share your text within your lab group on Zoom.

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You will have to present the outcomes of your Biodiversity Assignment data analysis using graphs and
concise statements, so this is a great opportunity to develop your data handling / analysis /
representation (graphs) skills!

Concisely describe the mean alpha diversities of the 2 sampling locations, and the results of the t-
test:

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How to run a t-test in Excel

The formula for a t-test in Excel is: =T.TEST(data1, data2,1,3)

1. Select a cell on your spreadsheet, and in the bar at the top of the screen type in the above
equation, or you can copy and paste the above equation (see Fig. 2 below).
2. In the bar at the top of the screen, using the cursor, highlight the text “data1” and then select the
data range by clicking, holding down your finger on the mouse key and dragging the cursor to
highlight the range of data for the first site.
3. Repeat step 2 for “data2”
4. The cell that you entered the formula into will now present the p-value – the outcome of the
analysis.

Figure 2. A screenshot of a spreadsheet highlighting how to complete the equation to complete a t-test
comparing the distribution of species numbers across different sample areas.
For those interested, and are curious / know something about statistics: the 1 and 3 at the end of the
formula are telling Excel that we only want to undertake a one-tailed test (as opposed to a… two-tailed
test!), and the 3 tells Excel that the data are heteroscedastic.

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How to produce a graph showing the differences of a range of abundances

5. Calculate means and standard deviations of the microbial abundance in samples for each site.
The formula are: =average(data) and =stdev(data)
6. Using the mean values plot a bar graph (insert > 2D column will insert an empty chart window
into the spreadsheet): one series each for two different sampling locations (right click on the
empty chart window and select ‘Select Data’, then add the series).
7. Add error bars to each chart separately (Chart Design > Add Chart Element > Error Bars > More
Error Bars Options… select Custom and Specify Value. For both positive and negative error bar
values select the value showing in the cell in which you entered the =stdev(data) formula.
Repeat for both series.

Figure 3. A screenshot of an excel spreadsheet showing the equation needed to calculate an average
value to produce a bar chart using means.

CANVAS QUIZ
Complete the canvas quiz, the link is in the Lab 2 Canvas page. The canvas quiz will relate to the lab
activities so make sure you have finished the lab work in the worksheet before attempting this quiz.

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Lab Three
Plant Diversity

IMPORTANT NOTICE
Please make sure you have watched the prelab H5P videos on Canvas before you arrive at the lab.

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Today's Lab:

1. Introduction and Bryophytes (50 mins)

• Use dissecting microscope to differentiate between mosses and liverworts.
2. Pteridophytes (50 mins)
• Locate different morphological features of a fern.
• Use compound microscope to observe sori.
3. Gymnosperms (50 mins)
• Using a dichotomous key to identify a genus of native plant.
4. Fieldtrip Chat (10 mins)
• Learn key information about the upcoming fieldtrip.

5. Lab 3 Assessment: Canvas Quiz (10 minutes)

By the end of this lab, you should be able to:

5. Be competent at differentiating bryophytes.
6. Identify and recognise morphological characters of three plant groups.
7. Confidently use a dichotomous key.
8. Demonstrate proficiency with the dissecting and compound microscopes.

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BRYOPHYTES
Bryophytes include mosses, liverworts and hornworts. They are small, occupy the forest floor and are
mostly located in misty areas. Their dominant life stage is the gametophyte, which the sporophyte is
developed and dependant on. Today you will be learning to differentiate between two types of
bryophytes: mosses and liverworts. While they may seem visually similar from afar, they have
distinctive differences in their morphology.
The punnet in front of you contains four bryophytes, use the glossary and images on the following
pages to help you fill in the bryophyte table.
(a) Observe under a dissecting microscope:
• Get out your dissecting microscope and place your punnet in the workstation.
• Observe the leaf shape and arrangement, check for presence of a midrib on the leaves,
check for any seta and capsules (may not be present)
• You can remove a leaf to help determine if a midrib is present but be careful not to
damage the bryophytes.
• Fill in the name, circle whether the species are mosses or liverworts, and note the
feature that helped you determine this on Table 1.
(b) Swap with another group:
• Swap your punnet with different punnet from another group, (you do not need to identify these
ones), observe the different morphologies’ bryophytes have!

Table 1: Moss or Liverwort

Species: Species:

Moss Liverwort Moss Liverwort

Distinguishing feature: Distinguishing feature:

Species: Species:

Moss Liverwort Moss Liverwort

Distinguishing feature: Distinguishing feature:

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Notes:

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PTERIDOPHYTES
Pteridophytes are also called ferns. The leaves are described as fronds and have spore-producing sori on
the underside of the fronds. The one you should be familiar with is a symbol of New Zealand, the silver
fern or ponga (Cyathea dealbata).
(a) Structures and Life Cycle
• Based on what you have learnt in the lectures and the H5P prelab label the fern structures and
life cycle stages below:

Now that you have completed your diagram its time to observe some real ferns. There are several ferns
around the lab, you tutor will tell you the species.
(b) Fern Comparisons
• Choose two fern species to compare.
• Fill in the box below with the morphological differences between traits of your chosen ferns.

Species Name: Sori Location: Sori Arrangement: Leaf Structure:

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Fern spores are dispersed by the wind, and if they land in suitable conditions they will grow into a small
gametophyte. Let’s have a closer look!
(c) Spore Dispersal
• Get out your compound microscope, you will need both!
• Study a fern specimen at your bench
• Locate the sori and observe what shape it is (dissecting microscope)
• Gently scrape one sorus (singular of sori) on to a microscope slide
• Use the squeezable pipette to add a drop of glycerol on top and cover with a cover slip
• Observe what has happened under the microscope (compound microscope) and fill in the blank
bubble with a drawing of what you see under the microscope (pencil)

Notes:

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GYMNOSPERMS
Gymnosperms are a group of seed-producing plants that include conifers, cycads
and ginkgo. They produce seeds, although the seeds are not encased by an outer
layer (which is called a fruit in angiosperms). The name gymnosperm means 'naked
seed'.

You will be identifying two gymnosperms down to the genus level, using a dichotomous key. A
dichotomous key breaks down identification into two mutually exclusive options at each step, until you
reach the genus/species. Before using they key it helps to understand a little about plant classification.

Classification is the process of organising organisms into groups. Organisms are classified according to
a range of features (characters). These characters will have different traits, e.g., the character: petiole
shape may have these traits: petiole is broad at base and narrow at apex, or petiole is broad along the
entire length. These differences (or similarities) are used to tell which species is which, or to group the
species into genera, etc.

(a) Identifying Gymnosperms

• You and your lab partner will have two gymnosperm species between you, make sure to have a
good look at both.
• Open the dichotomous key on Canvas. To use the key see which option applies to your plant, at
the end of the option it will either lead you to a new question or reveal your plant’s genus.
• Record each step in the box provided and state what genus you have for both plants.

It can seem that there is a lot of jargon involved in classifying plants, so diagrams and glossaries have
been provided on the following pages to help.

Key Steps Genus

In gymnosperms, the dominant life stage is the a leafy sporophyte. The sporophyte produces cones that
contain male and female gametophytes; female cones (seed cone) are a different size than male cones

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(pollen cone) and are located in a different position on the tree. A male cone contains microsporophyll
that produce male gametophytes (pollen) which is later carried by wind to female gametophytes.

(b) Gymnosperm Cones

• Your tutor will put up a slide with images of a female and male cone from the same species.
• Circle below what is true about the differences between male and female cones and label which
is which below.
• Think-Pair-Share: Talk to your lab partner about why gymnosperms have these differences
between female and male cones, then fill in the space below.
Female cones are smaller/larger than male cones and are positioned higher/lower on the tree than
male cones.

Think-Pair-Share: Why is this the case?

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IDENTIFICATION OF PLANTS
The first step in identifying a tree is knowing that there are distinguishing characteristics that separate
one species or group from another. Several of these distinctions will be described in detail below.

Some trees can be found growing on many different types of sites, but most trees grow best on sites that
satisfy their specific needs for moisture, light, soil, and biota (pollinators, etc.). Other distinctions that
can help in identification are shape and colour, which can often make identification possible even at a
great distance. Some trees may change colour at different times through the seasons, while others my
display a distinctive colour or shape to help differentiate them from the next tree.

Branches, twigs, buds, and leaves grow at specific locations on a plant called nodes. Many species
grow in an ALTERNATE pattern with one bud or leave per node (see below). Relatively few species
have leaves or buds that occur in pairs at each node (OPPOSITE). Fewer species still grow with a
WHORLED pattern with three or more structures at a node.

Leaves are often the easiest and most widely used way to identify a plant, as there are many types of
leaf traits that give clues to the identity of a species. For example, leaf complexity offers very good

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clues to the species group. Individual leaves can be classified as either simple or compound (see below).
Simple leaves have a single blade leaf, whereas compound leaves have two or more leaflets.

The direction in which the veins run along the blade (of leaf) also helps to identify the plant species.
Veins of a leaf are described as parallel, palmate, or pinnate (see below).

The shape of the leaf is very important in helping identify a particular plant (next page). The shape of
the leaf tip/apex and base can also identify a particular plant, take note if the leaf apex is pointed
(subulated) or rounded, check if the base is lobbed or entire.

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Leaf margins (or leaf edge) are also key identifier as to the plant species (see below). The leaf margin
can be: smooth (entire); uniformly sharp, finely toothed (serrulate); or maybe indented (lobed). Please
note: that some plants may have leaf variation based on age, where on tree it is growing, so look at a
few to confirm shape.

The lobes of leaf margins can also help with identification (see below).

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Leaf surface (top or underside of leaf) can be pubescent (covered in hairs) or glabrous (lacking hairs –
see below).

Other features of a leaf such as presence of a stipule or lack of a petiole can be key ways to identify
plants (see below).

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Glossary of plant terms (alphabetical):

Alternate leaves = leaves not in spirals, whorls or opposite each other, but rather occurring at various
angles to each other, forming a +/- irregular pattern along the stems.
Axils = the angle where a branch, stem or leaf arises from another.
Bracts = leaf-like structures; usually associated with flowers and fruits.
Branchlets = small branches.
Buds = protective units containing immature shoots, protected by tough scale leaves, from which the
stem and leaves or flowers may develop.
Capsule = a part bryophytes located at the tip of the seta that contains spores (can be toothed)
Cladododes or phylloclades = “leaf-branches” (phyll = leaf, clade = branch); branches that serve the
purpose of leaves, often on plants where the leaves are tiny, modified (e.g., to form spines) or absent.
Compound = leaves where the petiole is attached to two or more leaflets.
Domatia = tiny pits underneath leaves where the midrib meets secondary veins.
Entire = a leaf or frond which is not divided into leaflets or pinnae, or a leaf margin which is not
serrated or toothed in any way.
Epiphyte = leaf margin is deeply split, not forming entirely separate leaflets but more deeply than
toothed, undulate or crenate leaf margins.
Erect = standing upright (not prostrate = growing flat on the ground)
Glabrous = lacking hairs, having a smooth surface.
Lamina = layer. In the case of leaves the leaf ‘blade’, usually a broad, flat surface.
Leaf Base Asymmetrical / Symmetrical = not mirror images / mirror images, refers to leaf base which
is rarely uneven (asymmetrical) where petiole or stem attaches.
Leaflets = the smaller parts of a compound leaf, each leaflet resembles a whole leaf but is attached to
the stem by a shared petiole.
Leaf margin = the edge of lamina (leaf blade).
Bristles = small stiff tufts on leaf margin.
Crenate = leaf margin has round teeth.
Entire = leaf margin is smooth and straight.
Lobed or dissected = leaf margin is deeply split, not forming entirely separate leaflets but more deeply
than toothed, undulate or crenate leaf margins.
Notched / Emarginate = leaf tip or base has a notch at its edge.
Toothed / Serrate / Dentate = leaf margin has sharp teeth. Saw blade-like teeth are serrate, coarse
(large) teeth are dentate.
Undulate = leaf margin is broadly wavy.
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Leaf Tips = the end of the leaf opposite the petiole or point of attachment to the stem.
Membranous = very thin and usually flexible, light passes through easily.
Midrib = the main, largest vein that runs down the centre of the leaf (not present in all leaves).
Opposite leaves = leaves that arise on the stem directly opposite each other.
Palmate leaves (equivalent venation) = compound leaves where leaflets arranged like fingers on a hand
(i.e., they radiate from a central point of attachment to the petiole like a fan).
Petiole = “leaf stalk” the stalk that attaches a leaf blade to the stem, small stem-like projection from the
base of the leaf. Leaves without petioles are described as sessile*
Pinnate leaves (equivalent venation) = compound leaves where leaflets branch from midrib at regular
intervals (i.e., leaflet arrangement gives feather-like appearance).
Pubescent = covered in fine fur-like hairs.
Sessile = leaves without petioles are described as sessile*
Seta = a long stem-like organ that connects the sporangium (within a capsule) to the gametophyte.
Simple = leaves where the petiole is attached to single leaf lamina.
Sori/Sorus = a cluster of sporangia in ferns
Spirally arranged leaves = leaves that encircle the stem in a spiral.
Sporangia = sporangium is a capsule that contains spores in ferns.
Stipules = a usually triangular sheath between the base of two opposite leaf petioles.
Winged = branches or stems that have a membranous wing-like extension(s).

CANVAS QUIZ
Complete the canvas quiz, the link is in the Lab 3 Canvas page. The canvas quiz will relate to the lab
activities so make sure you have finished the lab work in the worksheet before attempting this quiz.

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Lab Four
Flowering Plant Anatomy

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Today's Lab:

1. Topic Test 2: Plant Diversity (20 minutes)

• Canvas Quiz, 12 questions, open book, 20 mins.
2. Introduction and Angiosperms (20 mins)
• Learn about the world of the flowering plants
3. Comparative plant anatomy eudicotyledons vs monocotyledons (120 mins)
• Venation: vein arrangement.
• Stomatal arrangement: a leaf peel.
• Internal structure: cross sections of leaves and stems.
• Flower parts number: flower observation
4. Lab 4 Assessment: Canvas Quiz (10 minutes)

By the end of this lab, you should be able to:

6. Be competent hand sectioning plant material.
7. Interpret the anatomy of plant material.
8. Demonstrate proficiency with the compound microscope.
9. Compare, contrast and discuss with others the differences between monocotyledons and
eudicotyledons.

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LABORATORY RISK ASSESSMENT – LABORATORY 4, BIOSCI 108

Please take note of the following materials or procedures that

we have identified as a potential risk in this experiment. Risk
minimisation controls are listed. Full safety data sheets (SDS)
for the listed chemicals are available within the CANVAS
Laboratory module/pages.
Note: other risks exist in the laboratory; the list below is not
extensive nor complete.
HAZARD IDENTIFICATION – EQUIPMENT /
PROCEDURES
Hazard Description and risk controls:

Razor Two types of razor blades (single and double sided) will be
Blades used to dissect various parts of plants. Take care not to cut
yourself. Your laboratory demonstrator and/or tutor will
demonstrate the safe use of a razer blade.

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Flowering plants (angiosperms) comprise more than 300,000 species with some being very important
crops. They are divided into basal angiosperms (like water lilies), monocotyledons (like orchids, rice,
maize, wheat, grasses etc.) and eudicotyledons (like apples, kiwifruit etc). The name originally comes
from the fact that they have one or two cotyledons (embryonic leaf – see below) in the embryo.
However, it is more complicated than that. Until 1991, angiosperms were only divided into
monocotyledons and dicotyledons. Refinement of the angiosperm phylogeny identified a more basal
group, the basal angiosperms, which also have two cotyledons.

Our overall aim today is to look at structure of plants, have fun doing sections, master the use of the
microscope, observe, compare, and have a go at a map drawing (cross section stem or leaf).

We want you to develop your sectioning skills and discuss with other students in the lab to draw some
conclusions on different structural aspects of the plants studied.

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MATERIALS
On your bench you have the equipment listed below, be careful when handling the razors as they are
quite sharp.
Equipment
• Wooden chopping board.
• Razor blades (1x double-sided and 1x single blade – see next page).
• 2x fine forceps.
• 2 small paint brushes (to transfer sections in water – see next page).
• 2 watch glasses (see next page).
• 10 microscope slides and coverslips see next page).
• Small water bottle
• 1 plastic pipette
• a small bottle of water per pair

Plant material
You will either have a leaf, stem, and flower of a monocotyledon or a eudicotyledon. The next row of
benches will have the other – you will need to swap your complete microscope slides with them, so
make sure not to throw them away.

THE LEAVES
We will be looking at the morphology, venation, stomatal arrangement, and cell shape of your leaf. As
you make your observations, please fill in Table 1.

Leaf morphology, venation, stomatal arrangement – epidermal leaf peel

1. Observe the leaf you have been given, describe the morphology and venation pattern (i.e., use
the same language from Lab 3) on Table 1.
2. Step by step:

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a. Eudicot
• Prepare a microscope slide with a drop of water in the middle
• Cut 3-sides of a small rectangle approximately 5 mm x 5 mm wide through the leaf using
the single-sided razor blade. For the monocot leaf do this alongside the middle vein.
• Lift the cut end of the rectangle like a tab using forceps and use it to pull carefully along
the lower surface of the leaf until you can see the transparent epidermal layer.
• Carefully lay it back down replacing it from where it came from. Cut across the far end of
the peel and remove it onto a drop of water on a slide.
b. Monocot
• Prepare a microscope slide with a drop of water in the middle
• Cut 3-sides of a small rectangle approximately 5 mm x 5 mm alongside the midrib using
the single-sided razor blade.
• Lift the cut end of the rectangle like a tab using forceps and use it to pull carefully along
the lower surface of the leaf until you can see the transparent epidermal layer.
• Tear along the midrib going down the leaf until you have ~ 1 cm of leaf and cut.

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3. Mount and observe cell shape and stomata on your peel.

• Gently place your epidermal peel(s) in the drop of water on the slide.
• Mounting your microscope slide: slowly lower the coverslip onto the drop of water
(using forceps or fingers), starting on a 45 °C angle, and avoid creating bubbles as you
lower it into place (see next page).
• ALWAYS observe your sections at Low Power first (4x objective). You should use the
High Power (up to x40 objective) if you wish to see more detail of individual cell types.
Refer to instructions on how to use a compound microscope, see pages 7–8.
• Look at stomata arrangement and cell shape then fill in Table 1.

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CROSS SECTIONS
You and your lab partner will do one cross section each, of either the leaf or stem. You will then create
a scientific drawing of your cross section. Make sure you swap slides so you can both h ave a good look
at each and complete Table 1.

Correctly circle if diagrams below represent a eudicot or a monocot (you may have to come back to this
after completing Table 1).

Leaf Anatomy - Leaf cross section (lab partner #1)

1. Step by step:
• Take your sample leaf and cut a small piece (2 cm2). Replace the leaf in water.
• While still in the envelope, split the DOUBLE-SIDED razor blade in half. Be VERY
CAREFUL when handling the blades.
• Leave the two halves together and cut one section at a time.
• Use the paintbrush to place on a drop of water on a slide. You can place several sections
in one drop of water.
2. Mount slide (see above instructions) and observe:
• Look first under low power (4x) and identify the various cells. You may also see stomata.
• Look for the typical arrangement of tissues – a single layer of cells on top and bottom
(upper and lower epidermis) and between them the mesophyll cells.
• Change to high power to see cell detail in the range of cell types you have identified.
3. Draw a map diagram of your leaf:
• Label the epidermis (dorsal and ventral), spongy mesophyll, palisade cells (if
distinguishable), and vascular tissue (if visible).

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Stem Organisation - Stem cross section (lab partner #2)

1. Step by step:
• Place the stem onto the chopping board
• Using the SINGLE-SIDED razor blade, Slice cross-sections from the end, as thin as
possible (this may take a little time and patience).
• Cut ~10 + sections. You have to cut many sections, as you will have a range of thickness
and quality.
• Sweep them off the blade with the paintbrush into a watch glass containing water.
• Place a drop of water on a slide, transfer a few sections (the most transparent ones) using
the paintbrush.
2. Mount slide (see above instructions) and observe:
• Interpret your sections. Look for vascular bundles and how they are arranged.
3. Draw a map diagram of your stem:
• Label the epidermis, vascular bundle (xylem and phloem), cortex (if visible), and ground
tissue.

Please leave your sections on the microscope so that your peers can view it!
Look at each other’s sections (swap with different group to see both eudicot/monocot) and describe the
arrangement of vascular tissues in the stem and the cell types present in the leaf on Table 1.

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FLOWER ANATOMY
Describe the flower you have been given. Due to the season, it might not necessarily be from the same
species as your stem/leaf, just the same group. Look at the floral parts arrangement (are they fused),
sepals, petals, stamen (anther + filament) [male], Carpel (stigma, style, ovary) [female]. Answer
questions and fill in table below.

Q. How many multiples of each flower part does your flower have?

Q. Therefore, is it a eudicot or a monocot?

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GROUP DISCUSSION:
Q. Why is ‘ring-barking’ an effective way of killing eudicots, but not monocots?

Table 1. Features of Eudicots vs Monocots

Feature Eudicot Monocot
Leaf Shape

Leaf Venation

Cell Shape

Stomatal Arrangement

Leaf Cell Types (cross section)

Vascular Bundle Arrangement

(cross section)

Flower Parts (in multiples of:)

Tutor/ Demonstrator Signed:

Notes:

CANVAS QUIZ
Complete the canvas quiz, the link is in the Lab 4 Canvas page. The canvas quiz will relate to the lab
activities so make sure you have finished the lab work in the worksheet before attempting this quiz.

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Scientific Drawing: Draw a map diagram (not of the entire leaf or stem) using 4x or 10x objective.
Remember to include: a descriptive title, magnification (objective x eyepiece), notes, ruled label lines
(see pages 6–7).

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Lab Five
Arthropod Diversity
Crabs and Locusts

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Today's Lab:

1. Introduction and Crustations (60 mins)

• Use dissecting microscope and key to identify New Zealand Crab species.
2. Insect Observation and Dissection (60 mins)
• Observe external then dissect and locate internal features of a female or male locust.
3. Internal Structure Drawing (30 mins)
• Draw and label appropriate internal features of a locust.
5. Lab 3 Assessment (20 minutes):
• Complete Lab Assignment Pages and get signed off by tutor/demonstrator.

By the end of this lab, you should be able to:

10. Compare and contrast form and function within the Phylum Arthropoda.
11. Confidently observe external features and use a key to identify New Zealand Crabs.
12. Locate and identify the internal anatomy of a locust.
13. Demonstrate competence in creating a scientific drawing.

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LABORATORY RISK ASSESSMENT – LABORATORY 5, BIOSCI 108

Please take note of the following materials or procedures that

we have identified as a potential risk in this experiment. Risk
minimisation controls are listed. Full safety data sheets (SDS)
for the listed chemicals are available within the CANVAS
Laboratory module/pages.
Note: other risks exist in the laboratory; the list below is not
extensive nor complete.
HAZARD IDENTIFICATION – EQUIPMENT /
PROCEDURES
Hazard Description and risk controls:

Scissors Sharp dissecting scissors will be used to dissect a locust.

Take care not to cut yourself. Your laboratory demonstrator
and/or tutor will demonstrate the safe use of these
scissors.

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Members of the Phylum Arthropoda (arthros, joint; podos, foot) are amongst the most numerous and
successful of all animals, and representatives of the Phylum exhibit adaptations necessary for life in
water, land or in the air. They show bilateral symmetry with metameric segmentation. This they share
with the worms and, like some of the worms, they have paired, segmental appendages, but only in the
arthropods is the limb jointed and supported by a firm, usually chitinous exoskeleton, or cuticle. The
body appendages are elaborated to perform a variety of functions and at least one pair function as jaws.
The exoskeleton surrounds the body, providing support and protection and associated with it, is a well-
developed musculature. Growth is by a series of moults (ecdyses).
Familiar examples of the Arthropoda include the spiders, mites and ticks (Class Arachnida), crayfish,
crabs and shrimps (Subphylum Crustacea), centipedes (Class Chilopoda), millipedes (ClassDiplopoda)
and the insects (Class Hexapoda, or Insecta).

THE CRABS – MARINE ARTHROPODS

Four different species from two families!

Across the lab there are preserved specimens of four different species of crab from two different
families. Starting with the crab in front of you, identify the crab to species level, when you have
completed your crab fill in Table 1, then go and collect a different specimen from the tray on the side of
the room (as indicated by the teaching team).

DO NOT OPEN THE SAMPLE POTS CONTAINING CRABS

Using the following online key: https://www.whatsmycrab.co.nz/ identify the different species. If the
key provides you with multiple options as to what species this might be, click on the information icon in
the bottom left-hand corner of the matching crabs – this will open an iNaturalist page with information
on these species. You will also need the NIWA guide to crabs.

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Species 1 and 2 are very similar, and only one of them is in the key. When you have identified the
crab species you think it, use the comparisons in Figure 1 below to figure out which of the two species
you think it

Figure 3. Comparisons of the key features of species 1 and 2. Only the

species epithets are visible – the genus has been hidden. Note Orbits =
eye/eye stalks. Carapace = we are looking at the dorsal shell. Legs can
either be walking or swimming legs.

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Table 1. Crab Identification – Lab Assignment Page

Species Number Species Name (find using key)

4
Tutor/Demonstrator Signed:

Notes:

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A LOCUST – TERRESTRIAL ARTHROPOD

Locusta migratoria (the migratory locust or kapa-kapa).

There is only one genus in this species making it monotypic!

This laboratory deals with a representative of one of the most successful of all the animal
groups,the Hexapoda, (or Insecta).

Insects are arthropods the adult body of which is divided into three sections, or tagmata: a
head, thorax and an abdomen. The head bears one pair of antennae, mouthparts (one of
which is a pair of mandibles) and compound eyes. There are three segments to the thorax,
each of which carries a pair of legs, the second two usually each with a pair of wings. The
abdomen lacks true appendages but contains genital structures to aid in copulation and egg-
laying. Respiration is by way of a complex network of tracheal tubes, opening to the
outside through spiracles. During development most insects fall into one of two groups:
either where the young stages gradually take on the adult form (hemimetabolous
metamorphosis) e.g., the locust, or where they are very different from the adult, undergoing
a significant dramatic changewithin the pupa (holometabolous metamorphosis).

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(a) External Anatomy Observations

The species of locust provided is the migratory locust, or kapa-kapa, found at low levels in
the North Island and as far south as mid-Canterbury. Only the solitary phase occurs in New
Zealand, but in other countries a second, gregarious phase may occur, which leads to swarms
and subsequent devasting effects on the vegetation in their path.
External Anatomy: You have each been provided with a specimen for individual study. Tick
off the features on the following figures as you identify them on your specimen.

Identify the HEAD and look for:

1. single pair of antennae
2. a pair of large compound eyes
3. three ocelli (simple eyes)
4. three pairs of mouthparts

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Identify the THORAX and look for:

1. The three thorax segments: prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax
2. A pair of jointed limbs (legs) attached to each segment
3. The last pair of limbs, notice they are larger and modified for leaping
4. A pair of wings on both the mesothorax and the metathorax (stretch out the wings and
notice the difference between the two pairs The anterior pair are protective, and called
tegmina, the posterior pair more membranous. Both pairs of wings are used in flight.)
5. Look for the spiracles on the first two thoracic segments (for gas exchange)
6. Locate the tympanum by the hind legs (this is the auditory membrane/ear)

Identify the ABDOMEN and look for:

1. 11 abdominal segments (although not all are visible, the posterior rones being
telescoped inside and used for egg-laying, or copulation)
2. The abdominal spiracles (The openings of the tracheal system with which the insect
carries out gaseous exchange. The anterior ones are usually used for inspiration, the
posterior for expiration, but the locust can alter the direction of air flow.)

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Identify the SEX of your locust and look for:

1. Overall size (females are larger than males in general)
2. The last segment of the abdomen
3. Females have an ovipositor: tip of abdomen jagged
4. Males: tip of abdomen smooth and rounded

The ventral plates of abdominal segments 8 and 9 are modified in the female to form an
ovipositor which is used to deposit the eggs. The fertilised eggs are surrounded by a frothy
material produced by secretions of the female accessory glands; this hardens to form an
egg pod which is buried by the female into the ground.
In the male these same plates form a copulatory device to clasp the female and transfer the
sperm.
The young locusts emerge as larvae, similar to the adult form but without wings. Around four
moults are required to reach the adult stage, the wing buds growing larger at each moult.

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Now that you have observed the external features of your locust, the tutor will put up a slide
of a locust with numbers labelled 1-6. Fill in the table below with the parts that correspond to
the numbers and a short description of that parts function (this will be discussed in the tutor
chat or this workbook.

Table 2. Locust Features - Lab Assignment Page

Part Number Part Name Part Function
1

Tutor/Demonstrator Signed:

Notes:

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(b) Internal Anatomy Dissection

How to dissect:
1. Hold the locust up the right way.
2. Cut off the wings at their bases.
3. Cut up each side of the abdomen and thorax, just above the row of spiracles.
4. Join these two lateral cuts across the top, (dorsally), about one segment back from
the hind end of the ani-mal.
5. Pin the specimen down carefully in the wax dish, placing a few pins through the
sides of the cuticle, below the lateral cut.
6. Carefully remove the dorsal strip of exoskeleton, starting at the posterior end, up to
just behind the head.
7. As you gentlypull off the strip with your forceps, tease down the internal contents
with your blunt seeker.
8. Complete the pinning out and cover your dissection with water.

These figures have been taken from https://www.wikihow.life/Dissect-a-Locust for more visual
instructions visit the site.

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Internal Anatomy

A. Circulatory system
If you have been careful the heart will still be intact; it lies just beneath the
integumentand appears as a dark line running the length of the abdomen. If it is
not immediately obvious you may have removed, it with the dorsal integument.
Check the inside of this strip.
There are no other distinct blood vessels; blood in the insect is contained in blood
spacesin contrast to the closed vascular system you observed in the earthworm.

B. Respiratory system
The tracheal system appears as a network of silvery tubes leading from the
spiracles,branching throughout the body. Air moves from the spiracles through the
tracheae
to the tracheoles which are fine branches in direct contact with the cells. The
tracheal system is often surrounded by fat bodies which now can be carefully
removed with bluntforceps.

C. Reproductive system
N.B. Although you will only dissect a male or a female locust, make sure that you
examine adissection of the opposite sex.
The male - The testes are yellow, fused together and lie on top of the alimentary
canal.This is all you can see of the system at present, the rest is beneath the
alimentary canal. Pin the testes to one side and move on to this latter system. You
can return to thereproductive system later.
The female - two ovaries fill the major portion of the abdomen when mature, and lie
on top of the alimentary canal.
This is all you can see of the system at present, the rest lies underneath the
alimentary canal. Pin the ovaries to the side and complete this latter system before
returning to the reproductive parts.
The oviducts convey the eggs to the vagina, a duct formed by the junction of the
two oviducts, which discharges the eggs through the opening of the egg guide to
the outside.The eggs are fertilised by sperm which have been previously stored in
the spermatheca, dorsal to the vagina and connected to it by a sperm duct. The
female digs a hole in the ground with the ovipositor and deposits the eggs at a
depth of 3cm or more. Accessory glands are seen as extensions of the lateral
oviducts.
D. Alimentary canal.
Clear away the large amount of wing muscle from the thorax and any further fat
bodies orparts of the tracheal system in the abdomen to expose the alimentary
canal (gut).

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In the thorax the sac-like crop and the thick-walled gizzard fill most of the cavity.
At the junction of the gizzard and the midgut (mesenteron) are six mid-gut (or
mesenteric) caeca, each with a large anterior and a small posterior horn. These
produce digestive enzymes. A constriction which indicates a sphincter muscle,
marks the junction ofthe mid gut and the ileum of the hind gut. A further
constriction, within a loop, marks thedivision between ileum and colon and the
rectum may be recognised externally by six bands of longitudinal muscle fibres.
The anus opens beneath the epiproct.
At the junction of the midgut and the ileum arise numerous browns, thread-like
malpighian tubules which are concerned with nitrogenous excretion. They arise
from one pointand project both forwards and backwards in the body cavity.
Now remove the dorsal head plates to find the oesophagus.

Carefully cut through the oesophagus and the rectum and gently remove the gut,
taking care not to tear the reproductive system. Locate the salivary glands in the
ventral floor of
the thorax,
looking like
clusters of
grapes. Some
evidence of the
ganglia of the
NERVOUS
SYSTEM may
also be seen in
this area.

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SCIENTIFIC DRAWING – LOCUST INTERNAL FEATURES

In the box on the next page, draw an outline of your locust body cavity and the alimentary
canal including at least SIX features of the alimentary canal (midgut caeca, malpighian
tubules etc.). Also include in your drawing a label pointing to the location of the reproductive
system and state in your title if your locust is a female or male.
Your drawing is marked; therefore, it should have all the features of a scientific drawing.
This includes a proper title, clear lines (no shading or sketching), labels ruled in neat lines,
and a scale. Please draw in pencil.
Example of a scientific drawing:

Dorsal dissection of the postcranial nervous system of a male Locusta

migratoria. Heart, fat bodies, dorsal and ventral diaphragms, and gut have
been removed.

Scale 3:1

120 Richard Fox of Lander University

Figure adapted from unpublished work by Professor
 BIOSCI 108. Biodiversity: Patterns of Life

SCIENTIFIC DRAWING - Lab Assignment Page

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Lab Six
Fish Anatomy

PREPARATORY READING: Campbell 11th edn Chapter 34, pp 738–750 or Campbell 10th
edn Chapter 34, pp 732–743

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LABORATORY RISK ASSESSMENT – LABORATORY 6, BIOSCI 108

Please take note of the following materials or procedures that

we have identified as a potential risk in this experiment. Risk
minimisation controls are listed. Full safety data sheets (SDS)
for the listed chemicals are available within the CANVAS
Laboratory module/pages.
Note: other risks exist in the laboratory; the list below is not
extensive nor complete.
HAZARD IDENTIFICATION – EQUIPMENT /
PROCEDURES
Hazard Description and risk controls:

Scissors Sharp dissecting scissors will be used to dissect a fish. Take

care not to cut yourself. Your laboratory demonstrator
and/or tutor will demonstrate the safe use of these
scissors.

Knife Fish knifes will be available in the labs to help with your fish
dissection. care not to cut yourself. Your laboratory
demonstrator and/or tutor will demonstrate the safe use of
the knife.

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Today's Lab:

1. Topic Test 3: Animal Structure and Function (20 mins)

• Please sign the roll.
2. Introduction and External Fish Observation + Dissection (40 mins)
• External structures and features observations
• Drawing of external features
3. Internal Fish Observation + Dissection (80 mins)
• Internal organs and tissues observations through dissection.
• Internal structure: drawing of cross section of caudal region.
4. Complete Assessment (20 mins)
• Complete Lab Assignment Pages get signed off by tutor.
5. Clean up (10 mins)
• Animal waste to be placed in appropriate disposal bags.
• Follow the clean-up instructions on whiteboard at back of lab.

By the end of this lab, you should be able to:

14. Be competent drawing external features and cross-sections of an animal.
15. Dissect and explore the internal structures of a teleost.
16. Demonstrate proficiency in identifying key features of the alimentary canal and
circulatory systems.

The fish used in today’s dissection were sourced from an Auckland fish market. Once you
have dissected the fish in the labs their carcases are given to researchers at the University or
fishermen to use. We aim to reuse as much of the fish as possible, meaning nothing is wasted.

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Variety of species is provided!

Fish are a diverse group of organisms, more diverse than any other group of vertebrates living
today. There are over 28,000 species of bony fish, which is more than the rest of the
vertebrates put together! Although bony fish have similarities that group them into the same
class (Osteichthyes), they are extremely diverse in terms of shape, size and habitat.

In today’s laboratory, we are going to look at a very small section of fish diversity. In the lab
we have a range of fish species (subject to what we can source on the day). You have been
provided an entire fish specimen; we will start by observing the external features. Feel free to
pick up and examine your fish – there are gloves available if you want them.

FISH EXTERNAL FEATURES

The first part of the assessment for today’s lab is to work on Table 1 and fill in information
about the biology and habitat of the fish. You will need to complete the table for the fish
specimen that has been given to you and 2 more species from around the room to include in
the table. This should take you around 20 minutes to complete. The tutor will give you some
background information about the fish to help you fill the table, you can also use the internet
to do some research! https://docs.niwa.co.nz/library/public/NZAEBR-208.pdf is a useful guide
to check out.

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Table 1. Fish Biology and Habitat - Lab Assignment Page

Fish # 1 2 3
Species Name

Common &
Māori Name

Habitat (habitat
type and depth)

Diet (What they

eat and diet
classification e.g.
detritivore)

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Draw a small fish

outline to indicate
the habitat of your
fish within the
ocean
stratification
zones

Tutor/Demonstrator
Signed:

External Anatomy Observations - now take a closer look at your fish and find the following
features:

Head
On the head, locate the eyes with their immovable eyelids, located laterally near the top of the
head so they cannot be simultaneously focused on a single object, the mouth with its rows of
teeth, and the nostrils (external nares) each divided by a flap of skin to separate incoming and
outgoing currents of water.

Q. Study the teeth, can you gain an impression as to what your fish may eat? Bear this in mind
when you actually look at the construction of the stomach and possibly even its contents.

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Shape
Water has much more resistance to movement than air does, so it takes more energy to move
through water. To combat this, some fish are streamlined to reduce drag and move easily
through water, particularly predatory 'ambush' species. Calculation of the drag ratio
(length/height) allows insights into the streamlining of a fish species with the ideal ratio being
4.5 : 1 (Tuna are 4.7 : 1). Measure the drag ratio of your fish and record it here.

Drag Ratio:

Fins
Fish have a varying number of fins including the tail. They consist of a fan of bone-like
spines with a thin skin stretched between them. The fins are embedded in the fish’s muscle,
not linked to other bones, as limbs are in people. This gives them a great deal of flexibility
and manoeuvrability. Each fin has a different function. The caudal fin (or tail), is the largest
and most powerful. It pushes from side to side to provide forward thrust. The dorsal and anal
fins act like a keel on a ship. They keep the fish upright and control directional movement.
The pectoral and pelvic fins are for steering, balance and moving the fish vertically in the
water.
Scales
Scales are small, hard plates, that overlap to form a flexible armour plating which protects the
fish from predators and bruising. The way scales are arranged in rows or patterns is different
for each species. Remove a scale with a pair of forceps and observe under a dissecting
microscope.

Fish have the same number of scales all their lives. As the fish grows, the scales grow and
form lines, like the rings in a tree. For some species, biologists can tell the age of a fish and
how many years it spent in fresh and saltwater from the groups of lines on its scales. If lost,
another scale will grow to replace it, but it will not have the growth lines in the centre thus
this method needs to be validated.

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The vent
The vent is an opening on the underside of the fish and is often called the anus. However, this
is not strictly correct as whilst solid wastes are indeed eliminated here, gametes and urine are
also released from here. Bear this in mind when you dissect open your fish and be
particularly careful to not damage the internal structures within.

Figure 1. Key external features of a Salmo salar (Atlantic salmon) in lateral view.

Figure 2. Simple salmon drawing.

On the next page complete a scientific drawing of your fish (use figure 1. as a guide) –
remember to keep your drawing simple (figure 2.). On your drawing label: Fins (pectoral,
pelvic, dorsal, caudal, anal); lateral line; operculum; mouth; nares; vent; caudal peduncle.

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SCIENTIFIC DRAWING - Lab Assignment Page

Tutor/Demonstrator Signed:

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FISH INTERNAL FEATURES

In this section of the lab, you will systematically explore the internal features of your fish.
TAKE CARE as part of your assessment requires you to carefully and expertly dissect out and
display the following organs: heart; spleen; liver; complete gill; stomach; pyloric caeca. See
figure three to get an idea of organ positions.

Spleen

Pyloric caeca

Figure 3. The external and internal structures and organs of a salmonid fish.

A. Mouth cavity, pharynx, and respiratory system.

• Cut away the operculum from the left side, exposing the gill-bearing bars or arches.
• Lift each one up with forceps.
• Cut away 1 (one) gill arch, place in water, and examine with dissecting microscope.
Note the double row of gill filaments borne on the outer side of the arch. They are
covered with epithelium and contain capillaries from the branchial arteries. Within
these filaments, gas exchange takes place. Gill rakers on the inner surface of each gill
arch strain out food organisms and offer some protection to the filaments from food
passing through the pharynx.
• Open the mouth and cut through the angle of the left jaw, continuing the cut through
the middle of the gill arches, thus opening up the mouth cavity and pharynx. In the
mouth, note the teeth (shape and arrangement). Would they be more effective in
chewing or in holding? Behind the teeth at the tip of each jaw is a transverse
membrane or oral valve, which prevents the outflow of water during respiration. An
inflexible tongue is supported by the hyoid bone. Explore the spacious pharynx,
noting the size and arrangement of the gill slits. Are there gill pouches and external
pharyngeal slits as in the cephalochordates? Make sure you are able to trace the path
of the respiratory water.

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The mechanics of water movement involves a pumping action in which the gill arches push
out laterally and the opercula press against the body; this enlarges the branchial cavity, at the
same time closing its exit, so that water flows into the mouth and pharynx. Then by closing
the flap-like oral valves, opening the gill covers, and contracting the gill arches, water is
forced out over the gill filaments.

B. Abdominal cavity.
• Starting near the anus (vent) and being careful not to injure the internal organs, cut
anteriorly on the mid-ventral line to a region anterior to the pelvic fins.
• Now on the animal’s left body wall make a transverse cut, extending dorsally from
the anal region; make another cut dorsally between the pectoral and pelvic fins.
• Remove the left body wall by cutting between these two incisions.
• On the right side, make similar transverse cuts so that the right wall can be laid back,
but do not remove it. You have now exposed the abdominal cavity. This, together
with the pericardial cavity, which contains the heart, makes up the coelomic cavity.
Note the shiny lining of peritoneum.
In view should be the now most anterior organ, the liver (dark red in life).
• Locate the elongate stomach, the intestine, usually surrounded by yellow fat, and the
gonads in the posterior part of the cavity. The air bladder lies dorsal to these organs
and is thin-walled.
• Do not injure its walls or any of the blood vessels lying among the viscera.

C. Digestive system.
You have examined the mouth and pharynx.
• Run your probe into the opening of the oesophagus at the posterior end of the
pharynx.
• Now lift up the liver and trace the oesophagus from the pharynx to the large cardiac
portion of the stomach. The narrow pyloric portion from the left side of the cardiac
pouch bears three pyloric ceca, which are probably secretory or absorptive in
function. Between the pyloric stomach and the duodenum (the first portion of the
intestine) is the pyloric valve, which guards the entrance of the intestine.
• Examine the lining of the stomach. By what means is the secretive mucous membrane
lining increased in surface area? Cut open and examine the pyloric valve.
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Follow the intestine to the anus.

• Note the supply of blood vessels in the mesentery attached to the stomach and
intestine. Why are there so many?
• Cut away a piece of the intestinal wall, wash it, and examine with a dissecting
microscope. What type of muscle would you expect to find in it? What holds the
visceral organs in place? Does peritoneum cover the organs?

In the anterior part of the body cavity is the large lobed liver.
• See if you can find the gallbladder under the right lobe. What is its function? Is it a
gland?
• Trace the common bile duct from the gallbladder to the duodenum, which it enters
near the base of pyloric ceca. From your text, find out where bile is secreted. What
does it contribute toward the digestion of food in the intestine?

D. Air bladder (swim bladder).

This long shiny, thin-walled sac fills most of the body cavity dorsal to the visceral organs. In
some fish it connects with the alimentary canal.
• Puncture a slit in it and observe its internal structure. In its anterior ventral wall look
for the red body, a network of capillaries, which produce the gases (CO2, N, O2)
found in the bladder. The air bladder is a hydro-static organ that adjusts the specific
gravity of the fish to varying depths of water, some fish have more than one.

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E. Excretory system.
It may be necessary to remove the air bladder to find the slender dark kidneys, which lie
close against the dorsal wall between the air bladder and the vertebrae. On the median border
of each kidney is a tubular ureter (urinary duct), this carries waste fluids away. The two
ureters unite posteriorly into a common duct that empties into a small urinary bladder. The
urinary bladder lies between the gonad and the swim bladder, expelling waste through the
urogenital opening to the outside.

F. Heart and circulation.

• With scissors extend the mid-ventral incision to the jaw; then cut diagonally to the
right gill chamber. This exposes the pericardial cavity and the heart. The
pericardium lining the pericardial cavity is a mesodermal epithelium similar to the
peritoneum of the abdominal cavity. This cavity is separated from the abdominal
cavity by a “false diaphragm” that is not homologous to the diaphragm of mammals.

The heart has two chambers – a thin-walled atrium and a muscular ventricle. Blood
collected from the venous system enters the sinus venosus, a thin-walled sac adjoining the
atrium posteriorly. Blood flows from this into the atrium and from there to the ventricle,
which lies ventral to it and is the most prominent part of the heart. The ventricle pumps into a
short swollen bulbus arteriosus, which is really the first part of the ventral aorta. Valves
between the various compartments prevent backflow of blood.

Circulatory system surrounding the heart: From the bulbus arteriosus the blood flows
into the short ventral aorta, which extends forward, branching under the base of the tongue
four pairs of afferent branchial arteries to the gill capillaries of the branchial arches for
oxygenation. From the gill capillaries, the oxygenated blood is collected by efferent
branchial arteries, and then empties into the dorsal aorta above.
• Examine the gill arches for the afferent and efferent arteries. All blood that returns to
the heart must pass through the sinus venosus.
G. Muscular system.
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• Remove the skin from the right side of the caudal peduncle, exposing the muscles
underneath. Note the zigzag bands of segmental muscles or myotomes, separated
from each other by connective tissue septa. How are these muscles used in
swimming? The primitive metamerism of vertebrates can be observed in these
muscles.

Use the assignment sheet provided to place the correct organs/structural elements in the circles:
• liver
• spleen
• complete gill
• stomach,
• pyloric caeca
• heart (be sure to leave a portion of the ventral aorta still attached).

On the fish heart identify the following structures:

• atrium
• bulbus arteriosus
• ventricle
• ventral aorta

Notes:

APPENDIX: Visual definition of terms

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The images in this glossary are provided to assist you with completing the comparative table
in the assessment. You will need to use all figures.

Figure 1. Common mouth/body/tail shapes of fish. Artwork by Nim Lee and Sarah Bruner.

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Figure 2. Fish teeth and body shapes associated with methods of obtaining food and swimming.

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