7.

Committees and Junior Boards

8. Coaching

Apprenticeship programs
People seeking to enter the skilled trades to become, for example, plumbers, electricians, and
Ironworkers are often required to undergo apprenticeship training before they are accepted to
journeyman status.
Typically this apprenticeship period is from two to five years. During this period, the trainee
is paid less than a qualified worker.
These programs put the trainee under the guidance of a master worker.

Job instruction training (JIT)

JIT consists of four basic steps;

1. preparing the trainees by telling them about the job and overcoming their uncertainties;
2. presenting the instruction, clearly giving essential information;
3. having the trainees try out the job to demonstrate their understanding; and
4. On their own, placing the workers into the job with a designated resource person is ready to
provide the required assistance.

Planned Progression
It is a technique that gives employees a clear idea of their path of development. They know
where they stand and where they are going.
They must know the requirements for advancement and the means of achieving it.

Job Rotation
It involves periodically moving people from one job to another.
The purpose of job rotation is to broaden the knowledge of managers or potential managers.
It also increases their experiences. Trainees learn about the different enterprise functions by
rotating into different positions.
They may rotate through;
8 On-The-Job Training Methods For The Employees (Internal Training (1) non-supervisory work,
Methods) (2) observation assignments,
These methods are generally applied in the workplace while employees are working. (3) various managerial training positions, and
(4) middle-level assistant positions
This form helps develop the occupational skills necessary to manage an organization and
fully understand its products and services and how they are designed and carried out. Such movement prevents stagnation.

Following are 8 on-the-job methods. Other reasons for rotating people include compensating for a labor shortage, safety, and
preventing fatigue.
1. Apprenticeship programs
2. Job instruction training (JIT) Creation of Assistant – Positions
3. Planned Progression Assistant-to positions are frequently created to broaden the viewpoints of trainees by
4. Job Rotation allowing them to work closely with experienced managers who can give special attention to
5. Creation of Assistant – Positions the development needs of trainees.
6. Temporary Promotions
Managers can provide selected assignments to test the judgment of trainees. 3. It is systematically organized,
4. Efficiently created programs may add a lot of value.
This approach can be efficient when superiors are also qualified trainers who can guide and
develop trainees until they are ready to assume full responsibilities as managers. Disadvantages of Off-the-Job Training
It is claimed that off-the-job training faces the following limitations:
Temporary Promotions
Individuals are frequently appointed acting managers when, for example, the permanent 1. It is not directly in the context of the job,
manager is on vacation, is ill, is making an extended business trip, or even when a vacant 2. It is often formal,
position is available. 3. It may not be based on experience,
4. It is expensive,
When the acting manager makes decisions and assumes full responsibility, the experience can
5. Trainees may not be much motivated,
be valuable. In this way, managerial people can be trained well. 6. It is artificial.
Committees and Junior Boards
Methods of Off-the-Job Training are;
These give trainees opportunities to interact with experienced managers.
The trainees become acquainted with various issues that concern the whole organization. 1. Lectures
They learn about the relationships among different departments and the problems created by 2. Straight lecture
the interaction of these organizational units. 3. Discussion method
4. Demonstrations
Trainees may submit reports and proposals to the committee or the board and demonstrate 5. Lectures, Discussions, and Demonstrations: An Analysis
their analytical and conceptual abilities. 6. Seminars and conferences
7. Reading, television, and video instructions
Coaching 8. Business simulation
On-the-job training is a never-ending process. 9. Cases presentation
10. Equipment simulators
An excellent example of on-the-job training is athletic coaching. To be effective, which is the 11. Business games
responsibility of every line manager, must be done in a climate of confidence and trust 12. Experimental exercise
between the superior and the trainees. 13. Role-playing
14. Behavior modeling
Patience and wisdom are required of superiors who must delegate authority and recognize 15. Computer modeling
and praise for jobs well done. 16. Vestibule training
17. Sensitivity Training (T-groups)
Effective coaching will develop the strengths and potentials of subordinates and help them 18. Computer-based training
overcome their weakness.
Coaching requires time, but if done well, it will save time and money and will prevent costly However, there are also many off-the-job techniques for training and developing employees
mistakes by subordinates; thus, in the long run, it will benefit all – the superior, the and managers, such as:
subordinates, and the enterprise.
Lectures
18 Off-The-Job Training (External Training Methods) The lecture is one of the oldest forms of training, second to the demonstration. In the early
Off-the-job training is sometimes necessary to get people away from the work environment to days, knowledge was transferred through demonstrations.
where the frustrations and buzz of work are eliminated. The lecture may be printed or oral. It is best used to understand a topic or influence attitudes
Training is generally given through lectures, discussions, case studies, and demonstrations. through education or training about a topic.
This enables the trainee to study theoretical information or be exposed to new and innovative The lecture is merely telling someone about something. There are variations in the lecture
ideas. format.
Advantages of Off-the-Job Training
Straight lecture
Off-the-job training has the following advantages :
It is an extensive presentation of information that the trainee attempts to absorb. The lecture
1. It does not disrupt normal operations. is typically thought of as a person (trainer) speaking to a group about a topic.
2. Trainers are usually experienced enough to train,
It is a short version of a lecture. It has the same features as the lecture but usually lasts less Trainee questions or answers to questions shape the content of what is covered. The group
than twenty minutes if done orally. dynamics help to shape the process used by the trainer in presenting the information.
During a straight lecture, the trainee does little except listen, observe and perhaps take notes. As the objectives for knowledge acquisition increase, the amount of two-way interaction
It is useful when many people must be given a specified information set. required for learning must also increase.
Trainees will forget information provided orally. The oral lecture should not contain too many A disadvantage is that it decreases the trainer’s control over what is learned and increases the
learning points unless the printed text accompanies the lecture. Short lectures are usually time required for learning.
better.
The lecture is the most useful when trainees lack declarative knowledge or show attitudes that
Longer lectures can be effective if the length is due to examples and clarifying explanations. conflict with the training objectives.
A major concern about the straight lecture method is the inability to identify and correct
misunderstandings. The printed or video lecture is more effective because they can be studied in more depth and
retained to refresh learning over time.
Discussion method
The discussion method is more effective than the straight lecture for learning higher-order
The discussion method uses a lecture to provide trainees with information supported,
knowledge, such as concepts, principles, and altitude changes.
reinforced, and expanded through interactions between the trainees and trainers.
If the training objective is skill improvement, the demonstration may be appropriate.
Knowledge is communicated from the trainer to the trainees. It provides a two-way flow of
communication. Quick feedback is ensured. However, training objectives often include knowledge and skill development; knowledge is a
prerequisite for the skill. The demonstration is also effective for complex tasks.
A better understanding is possible. Questioning can be done by both the trainer and the
trainees. The discussion method is more effective than the straight lecture at producing attitude
changes. Because attitudes consist of a person’s beliefs and feelings about an object or event,
Demonstrations they can be modified by new learning.
A demonstration is a visual display of how to do something or how something works. To be
effective, a demonstration should, at a minimum, be accompanied by a lecture and preferably The discussion can change employee attitudes by providing new insights, facts, and
by a discussion. understanding.

Demonstrations; Lectures, discussions, and demonstrations are good at capturing the trainee’s attention, at
least in the short run. They show some strength in retention, especially in discussion and
1. Break the tasks to be performed into smaller and easily learned parts; demonstrations.
2. Sequentially organize the parts of the tasks;
3. Complete each of the following steps for each part of the task; Seminars and conferences
4. Tell the trainees what the trainer will be doing so they understand what he will be showing Conference programs may be used in internal or external training.
them;
5. It serves to focus the trainee’s attention on the critical aspects of the task; During conference programs, managers or potential managers are exposed to the ideas of
6. Demonstrate the task, and describe what trainees are doing while the trainer is doing it; speakers who are experts in their fields.
7. After demonstrating each part of the task, the trainer explains why it should be performed.
A careful selection of topics and speakers will increase the effectiveness of this training
device.
The following steps will increase the value of the demonstration:
Conferences can be made more successful by including discussions. Two-way
● Ask the trainee to talk through the task before actually doing it; communications allow participants to ask for clarification of topics that are particularly
● Give the trainee opportunity to do the task and describe what he or she is doing; relevant to them.
● Provide feedback, both positive and negative;
● Let the learner practice. Reading, television, and video instructions
Another approach to training and development is the planned reading of relevant and current
Lectures, Discussions, and Demonstrations: An Analysis management literature. This is essentially self-development.
Lectures, discussions, and demonstrations provide a high degree of trainer control over the
training process and content. A manager may be aided by the training department, which offers a reading list of valuable
books. This learning experience can be enhanced by discussing articles and books with other
However, as the training becomes more interactive, control shifts more to the trainees. managers and superiors.
Management and other topics are featured in television programs. Moreover, videotapes on Trainees are provided with information describing a situation and are asked to decide what to
various subjects are available in university or company classrooms. do. The system then provides feedback about the impact of their decisions, and they are asked
to make other decisions.
Business simulation
Any training activity that explicitly places the trainee in an artificial environment that closely This process continues until some predetermined set of the organization exists or a specified
mirrors actual working conditions can be considered a simulation. number of trials are completed.,

Training games and simulations are designed to reproduce or simulate processes, events, and For example, suppose the focus is on the financial state of a company. In that case, the game
circumstances in the trainee’s job. might end when the company reaches a specified profitability level or when the company
must declare bankruptcy.
Trainees can experience these events in a controlled setting to develop their skills or discover
concepts that will improve their performance. Simulation activities include case exercises, Business games involve an element of competition, either against other players or against the
game itself.
equipment simulators, experiential exercises, complex computer modeling, role play, and
vestibule training. Some of the purposes for which businesses games have been developed and used are listed
below;
Cases presentation
Case studies attempt to simulate decision-making situations that trainees might find on the ● Strengthen executive and upper management skills,
job. The trainee presents a written history, key elements, and a real or imaginary organization ● Improve decision-making skills at all levels,
or subunit problem. A series of questions usually appears at the end of the case. ● Demonstrate principles and concepts,
● Integrate separate components of training into an integrated whole,
Typically, trainees are given time to digest the information individually. If time permits, they ● Develop leadership skills,
can also collect relevant information and integrate it into their solutions. ● Explore and solve complex problems in a safe, simulated setting.
● Improve the application of total quality principles and develop skills in using quality tools.
Once individuals arrive at their solutions, they may meet in small groups to discuss the
different diagnoses, alternatives, and solutions. Experimental exercise
Then the trainees meet with the trainer, who facilitates and directs further discussions. The Experimental exercises are usually short, structured learning experiences where individuals
trainer should convey that no single solution is right or wrong, but many solutions are learn by doing.
possible. For example, an experimental exercise could create a conflict situation where employees
The learning objective is to get trainees to apply known concepts and principles and discover have to experience a conflict personally and work out its resolution.
new ones. After completing the exercise, the trainer typically discusses what happened and introduces
Equipment simulators the theoretical concepts to help explain the members’ behavior during the exercise.
Equipment simulators are mechanical devices that require the trainee to use the same Role-playing
procedures, movements, or decision processes they would use with equipment back on the Role-playing is a training technique in which trainees act out roles or parts in a realistic
job. management situation.
Simulators train airline pilots, air traffic controllers, taxi drivers, etc. The aim is to develop trainees’ skills in leadership and delegating. It is an enactment or
Simulators must be designed to replicate, as closely as possible, the physical aspects of the simulation of a scenario in which each participant is given a part to act out.
equipment operating environment trainees will find on their job site. Trainees are provided with a description of the context-usually a topic area, a general
Business games description of the situation, their roles, and the problem they face. Role plays may be
structured and spontaneous.
Business Games are simulations that attempt to represent the way industry, company, and a
subunit of a company function. They are based on relationships, rules, and principles derived (i) Structured role
from theory or research. Structured role-plays give trainees more detail about the situation and more detailed
descriptions of each character’s attitudes, needs, opinions, etc.
However, they can also reflect the operations of a given department in a specific company.
This type of role-playing is used primarily to develop interpersonal skills such as
communication, conflict resolution, and group decision-making.
(II) Spontaneous role This is done by introspection, self-criticism, and genuine arguments, and through free and
Spontaneous role plays are loosely constructed interactions in which one participant plays frank discussion, one knows how others feel about him and his behavior.
himself while the others play people with whom the first trainee interacted in the past.
It provides a mirror in which one can see his mental makeup, attitude, and behavior towards
This type of role-playing focuses on attitudes, develops insight into one’s behavior, and others. This will give the best method of motivation for self-development. The objective of
impacts others rather than developing specific skills. this training includes:

Behavior modeling ● Better insight into one’s behavior and the way one appears to others;
Behavior modeling uses the tendency for people to observe others learn how to do something ● A better understanding of group processes;
new. This technique is most frequently used in combination with some other techniques. ● Members learn more about themselves, especially their weakness and emotional stability;
● Development of skills in diagnosing and intervening in group processes;
The modeled behavior is typically videotaped and then watched by the trainees. ● Find a better method and means of behavior for effective interpersonal relationships without
power over others.
The behavior modeling process can be summarized as follows:
A T-group is a small discussion group without any leader. The focus is on feeling and mutual
● Define the key skill deficiencies; respect. The trainer raises a question and encourages open discussion, which is unstructured.
● Provide a brief overview of relevant theories;
● Specify key learning points or critical behaviors to watch for; Here group members interact and then receive feedback on their behaviors from the trainer
● Use an expert to model the appropriate behaviors; and the group members, who express their opinions freely and openly. The feedback may be
● Encourage trainees to practice the appropriate behaviors in structured role-playing; positive andorgative.
● Provide opportunities for the trainer and Other trainees to give reinforcement of appropriate
imitation of the model’s behavior; An example may make it clear.
● Ensure the trainee’s supervisor reinforces appropriate demonstration of behavior on the job.’
“Mr. Rahim, I do not get a good feeling when you approach the topic the way you just did.
Computer modeling Could we talk about it”?
Complex computer modeling simulates the work environment by programming a computer to Rahim may accept this comment and resolve to change his behavior. But he may also feel
imitate some of the realities of the job. It is widely used by airlines in the training of pilots. hurt and withdraw from the group.
The computer simulates the number of critical job dimensions. It allows learning to occur The T-group process may;
without the risk or high costs incurred if mistakes were made in a real-life-flying situation.
● Leading to personal anxieties and frustrations.
An error during a simulation allows one to learn through one’s mistakes. A similar error ● Leading to a mental breakdown.
under real-life conditions might cost several lives and the loss of a multimillion-dollar ● It may make managers hypersensitive, making them unable to make a hard decision for fear
aircraft. of hurting another.
Vestibule training
But if properly managed, it can result in collaborative and supportive behavior. The following
In vestibule training, employees learn their jobs with the requirement they will be using, but guidelines can help reduce potential harm and increase effectiveness:
the training is conducted away from the workplace.
● Participants in the T-group should be voluntary;
While expensive, vestibule training allows employees to get a full feel for tasks without
● They should be screened, and those who could be harmful should be expelled from this
real-world pressures. It minimized transferring learning to the job since vestibule training
experience.;
uses the same equipment the trainee will use on the job.
● Trainers should be carefully evaluated and their competence established;
Sensitivity Training (T-groups) ● Before committing to sensitivity training, potential participants should be informed about
the goals and the process.
Sensitivity training, also called T-group, is a technique for management development.
It is concerned with the real problems existing within the group itself. It is not an imagined Computer-based training
problem living outside the organization. It is not a program of teaching skills or improving Many companies are implementing computer-based training as an alternative to classroom
participants’ understanding. training to accomplish the goal. Some of the reasons for this shift are demonstrated in the
following beliefs many companies hold about CBT:
In this program, an attempt is made to change the attitude and behavior of people in the
group. It is used in building team efforts. ● Reduces trainee learning time,
● Reduces the cost of training, Definitions of Career Planning
● Provides instructional consistency,
● Affords privacy of learning, Career planning is an ongoing process through which an individual sets career goals and
● Allows the trainee to master learning, identifies the means to achieve them. The process by which individuals plan their life’s work
● In a safe method for learning hazardous tasks, is referred to as career planning.
● Increases access to training.
"Career planning is a process of systematically matching career goals and individual
capabilities with opportunities for their fulfilment."(Schermerhorn: 2002)

"Career Planning is a deliberate process of becoming aware of self, opportunities,

constraints, choices, and consequences; identifying career-related goals; and "career pathing"
or programming work, education, and related developmental experiences to provide the
direction, timing, and sequence of steps to attain a specific career goal." {McMahon and
Merman: 1987)

Nature of Career Planning

The following are the salient features of career planning:

▪ A Process: Career planning is a process of developing human resources rather

than an event.
▪ Upward movement: It involve upward movement in the organisational
hierarchy, or special assignments, project work which require abilities to handle
recurring problems, human relations issued and so on.
▪ Mutuality of Interest: The individual's interest is served as his needs and
aspirations are met to a great extent and the organisation's interest is served as each of
its human resources is provided an opportunity to develop and contribute to the
organisational goals and objectives to the optimum of its ability and confidence.
▪ Dynamic: Career planning is dynamic in nature due to an ever changing
environment.

Objectives of Career Planning

Career Planning seeks to meet the following objectives:

▪ To provide and maintain appropriate manpower resources in the organisation by

offering careers, not jobs.
▪ To provide environment for the effectiveness, efficiency and growth of its
employees and motivating them to contribute effectively towards achieving the
objectives of the organisation.
▪ To map out careers of various categories of employees suitable to their ability,
and their willingness to be 'trained and developed for higher positions.
▪ To have a stable workforce by reducing absenteeism and employee turnover.
 ▪ To cater to the immediate and future human resources need of the organisation 1. Exploration Stage: This is the stage where an individual builds expectations about
his career. Some of them are realistic and some are not. But the fact is that these
on a timely basis.
could be a result of the individual's ambitions.
▪ To increase the utilisation of managerial reserves within organisation. 2. Establishment Stage: This could be at the stage where the individual gets his first
job, gets accepted by his peers, learns in this job, and also gains the first tangible
Steps in Career Planning Process evidence of success or failure. The establishment/advancement stage tends to occur
between ages 25 and 44. In this stage, the individual has made his or her career
Step 1: choice and is concerned with achievement, performance, and advancement. This
stage is marked by high employee productivity and career growth, as the individual
Self-Assessment The first and foremost step in career planning is to know and assess is motivated to succeed in the organization and in his or her chosen occupation.
yourself. You need to collect information about yourself while deciding about a particular Opportunities for job challenge and use of special competencies are desired in this
career option. You must analyse your interests, abilities, aptitudes, desired lifestyle, and stage. The employee strives for creativity and innovation through new job
personal traits and then study the relationship between the career opted for and self. assignments. Employees also need a certain degree of autonomy in this stage so
that they can experience feelings of individual achievement and personal success.
3. Mid-Career Stage: The individual's performance levels either continue to improve,
Step 2:
or levels, or even deteriorates.
4. Late Career: This is regarded as a pleasant phase, where one is allowed to relax and
Goal Setting Set your goals according to your academic qualification, work experience,
play the role of an elderly statesman in the organization.
priorities and expectations in life. Once your goal is identified, then you determine the
5. Decline: The stage, where the individual is heading towards retirement.
feasible ways and objectives how to realize it.

Step 3: What Is Career Counselling?

Career counselling is a systematic process that helps an individual understands
Academic/Career Options Narrow your general occupational direction to a particular one by one’s self, as well as the world of work, to choose the right career. It is the process
an informatory decision making process. Analyse the career option by keeping in mind your of helping students and professionals to analyse their strengths, interests, abilities
present educational qualification and what more academic degrees you need to acquire for it. and skills. The right career choice is often an intersection of a student’s interests
and abilities, and industry trends.
Step 4:

Plan of Action Recognize those industries and particular companies where you want to get
into. Make the plan a detailed one so that you can determine for how many years you are Importance of Career Counselling
going to work in a company in order to achieve maximum success, and then switch to
The importance of career counselling is across all age groups. Along with helping to chart a
another. Decide where you would like to see yourself after five years and in which position.
future career path, career counselling may also help to manage several other related issues,
such as low motivation and lack of confidence. Career counsellors offer unbiased advice, and
Step 5: may help tackle the impasse between parents and children on which career to choose. Career
counselling also helps make the transition from one chosen career field to another, easy and
Catch Hold of Opportunities Opportunity comes but once. So, whenever you get any non-stressful.
opportunity to prove yourself and get into your desired career, try to convert it in every way
for suiting your purpose. Remember, a successful professional is also quite opportunistic in
his moves, examining every opening to turn to his favour.

Different phases in the career of an employee:

Most working people go through career stages and it has been found that individual’s needs
and expectations change as the individual moves through these stages.