See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/341312272

A Review of Blockchain Technology in Education

Conference Paper · May 2020

CITATIONS READS
4 3,215

2 authors, including:

Jyotsna Oswal
Jagan Institute of Management Studies
11 PUBLICATIONS 8 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Jyotsna Oswal on 12 May 2020.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

JAC : A JOURNAL OF COMPOSITION THEORY ISSN : 0731-6755

A Review of Blockchain Technology in Education

Jasmeet Kaur1 Jyotsna2
1
Research Scholar, Jagan Institute of Management Studies, Sector-5, Rohini, Delhi-110085;
Email: [email protected]
2
Assistant Professor, Jagan Institute of Management Studies, Sector-5, Rohini, Delhi-110085;
Email: [email protected]

Abstract: Technology and innovations are tremendously taking place of manual work,
globally numerous practices are attempted for delivering the best services in the education
sector. One such technology is Blockchain, which is revolutionizing every sector such as
finance, HR, Supply chain management, internet advertising, etc. Numerous organizations
working in different industries are developing blockchain-based platforms but its applications
in the education sector are still at the nascent stage. This paper aims at exploring the work by
different researchers, features of BCT, potential applications of blockchain technology in
education and exploring the use cases through the review of the literature. The analysis of the
contributions of different authors offers insights into the educational sector to develop an
efficient infrastructure that could help to reap benefits out of Blockchain Technology (BCT).
Keywords: Blockchain, Education, Learning through innovation, Distributed Ledger
technology.

INTRODUCTION
Technology and Education can together bring a revolutionary change to the existing
education system according to which various educators, educational institutions and
companies use to impart knowledge. To support the vision of maintaining trust, efficiency,
and transparency in the education sector, Blockchain can allow individuals to share and
exchange data into a blockchain-based framework. In this regard, institutions nowadays focus
on how the data is secure and the improvements to be made using BCT technology. It
altogether uses several computer technologies, including distributed data storage which can
serve as a new round in the system of public administration, point-to-point transmission,
consensus mechanisms, and encryption algorithms (Satoshi Nakamoto, 2008). BCT is the
underlying technology of that Bitcoin that has widespread optimism regarding the application
of blockchain in the education and organisations in India are largely focused to introduce it in
almost every functional area because of its major features such as transparency, immutability
and security(Underwood,2016). Bitcoin
As application of blockchain in education is in its initial stages, number of IT based
organisations aims at providing the solutions to Education industry. According to whitepaper,
IBM’s work in education and blockchain to transform education by solving problems and
bringing the stakeholders on a single BCT platform. Very few educational institutions have
started implementing blockchain technology by outsourcing the services from IT based
companies. These institutions using the BCT framework for validating and issuing academic
certificates. With this, the role of intermediaries such as educational institutions as
certification agents will be minimal. The influence of technologies such as Artificial
Intelligence, Machine learning, the Internet of things (IoT), Blockchain are bringing interest

Volume XIII, Issue IV, APRIL 2020 Page No: 392

JAC : A JOURNAL OF COMPOSITION THEORY ISSN : 0731-6755

of research companies to leverage these technologies and prepare the individual with the
knowledge required to be successful in the IT revolution. IBM’s efforts to build a blockchain-
based platform for education will lead to solve the big problems and transform the whole
scenario. (IBM,2019). Therefore, before the application of such a disruptive technology of
Bitcoin a careful analysis of the advantages, disadvantages, assumption of risks & close view
of insights etc are required.
Although the literature is vast in blockchain technology applications in different areas, this
paper aims at reviewing the literature in the field of education. The literature is investigated
through qualitative approach. The paper aims at exploring the application of BCT in
education, use cases where it is deployed, and organisations that are working to provide the
BCT based solutions to educational institutes. The paper is structured as follows: Section 2
discusses the methodology adopted for reviewing the literature Section 3 introduces the
literature review consisting of BCT infrastructure, features and the related studies by various
researchers. Section 4 discusses the application of BCT in education. Section 5 explored the
use cases of BCT in educational institutions , Section 6 concludes the paper.
Methodology
The protocol followed is to search the relevant work by authors in the field of Blockchain and
education. Presently, all the electronic databases such as Google Scholar, ProQuest, Jstor, are
the key source for accessing the published literature. Most of the studies reviewed are
qualitative. As the research of Blockchain in education is a relatively less explored area,
literature in this field is limited.
Literature review
What is Blockchain and how it works?
Cryptocurrency and its underlying blockchain technology have taken innovations to the next
level. Blockchain Technology (BCT), a fundamental based on which Bitcoin works, is
distributed ledger which stores economic transactions to a permanent chain secured with
algorithms and can be seen by the parties in the transaction. Blockchain relies on
cryptographic techniques and new methods for consensus to capture and secure the data. An
ever-growing chain of ledger entries links the entire historical data in such a way as to
prevent tampering with or rewriting historical records. By providing a ledger that nobody
administers, a blockchain could provide numerous educational services without using any
intermediary, like an educational institution.
The utilization of Blockchain technology was initially applicable to the financial sector in a
way that, virtually anything of value can be tracked or transacted in real-time. When someone
requests a transaction, the requested transaction is recorded in a distributed ledger including
information of all transactions which are shared and is visible to all nodes, making the system
decentralized (than centralized transactions involving a third party). After the transaction is
stored in the ledger, it then gets transmitted to a P2P network consisting of computers
(nodes). This network of nodes provides access to synchronized copies of information that
are constantly being replicated, which makes the network protected and resistant to intrusions
even though all entries can be viewed by anyone participating in the Blockchain. The
network of nodes also validates the transaction and the user’s status using known algorithms.
Once the transaction is verified, it gets combined with other transactions thus creating a new
block of data for the existing ledger, that maintains a continuously-growing list of blocks
(forming a network). Each block contains a time-stamp and a link to the previous block (the

Volume XIII, Issue IV, APRIL 2020 Page No: 393

JAC : A JOURNAL OF COMPOSITION THEORY ISSN : 0731-6755

data in the block is encrypted and immutable). A new block is permanently added to the
existing blockchain and the transaction is completed.
While Bitcoin has been the most discussed for utilization of the Blockchain innovation to
date, new applications, for example, Smart Contracts have tried to exploit the more abstract
nature of the platform. During recent years, the banking industry across the globe is closely
observing the developments in the Blockchain Technology (BCT). It initiates a process to
grab the total market opportunities in the financial sector.
According to an article, the application of blockchain in education is still in the embryonic
phase, a study of the Joint research center, European commission provided several
recommendations after the series of researches conducted in European universities. The
article highlighted the positive aspect of the immutability of records in the chain of blocks,
where they remain once shared, which describes the potential applications in terms of the
ability to deliver the digital courses and the certificates, even if an educational institution or
whole education system stops working as in case of Syria. For instance, this application can
significantly reduce the physical documentation while applying for courses in college and
reduce the inconvenience as institutions can easily verify the credentials of students by just
entering the blockchain as with a single click.
Numerous researchers have been working to study the infrastructure of education based on
blockchain. The contribution of these researchers is in different functional areas of education.
Swan (2015); Gatteschi et al. (2018) found that the advancement of BCT applications could
be defined in three stages: Blockchain 1.0, Blockchain 2.0 and 3.0. Blockchain 1.0 was
deployed for cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, Litecoin, Ripple, etc and for enabling the digital
payment system. Then, blockchain 2.0 includes the extensive use of blockchain into smart
contracts. Blockchain 3.0 was proposed for application in other sectors such as health,
science, education, and government projects.
Grech et al. (2017) in a report of JRC, introduced various fundamental principles of BCT and
explained how blockchain technology will disrupt the institutional regulations and empower
various learners. After analysing the current state of deployment of BCT, eight scenarios
were proposed for the implementation of this technology in the education context. With the
changing trends in the research field, various researchers reviewed literature as Bartolomé et
al. (2017) critically reviewed the Blockchain technology to determine the opportunities and
risks it poses to the education field. On the similar lines, Alammary et al. (2019) discussed
the various blockchain-based applications by reviewing the literature to understand the
applications that have been developed so far and the possible benefits that BCT can bring to
the education sector. The author reviewed 31 articles and found that blockchain scalability is
the challenge that is being discussed in most of the articles. Similarly, he also focused on
cost-related problems in developing a blockchain platform for an educational institution
requires IT infrastructure, trust as an organization resists to share data on a BCT network,
weakening of traditional school credential system, and immaturity of the technology are
perennial challenges as it is in the nascent stage and people requires to understand the
complex settings. After the deeper discussions, this paper provided insights to various
educational institutions to independently build a BCT network for the organizations.
Similarly, Chen et al. (2018) explored the blockchain technology and its potential utilization
in the education sector. The author systematically reviewed the contributions of different
authors and mentioned how the existing problems of the educational sector can be solved
with BCT.

Volume XIII, Issue IV, APRIL 2020 Page No: 394

JAC : A JOURNAL OF COMPOSITION THEORY ISSN : 0731-6755

A practical application to build an architecture for an educational institution by Duan et al.

(2017) proposed a BCT framework of learning outcomes in education. The framework was
developed by considering the graduation requirement index of a university in China, with
professional certification and applied automated evaluation tools for analysis. All the
information related course-learning outcome values such as grades, course names, etc are all
recorded in the block. The transformation from evaluation of student's achievement to the
post-job skills evaluation results was completed, and the differences of student skill
evaluation results were sent to the curriculum, which ensures the persistent improvement of
the curriculum. Similarly, according to Domingue et al. (2015), the 'blockchain' is the core
technology for the Bitcoin digital payment system. It leads to accelerate the development of
related innovations: the blockchain itself as a disseminated record of digital transactions, the
dispersed consensus strategy to find whether another block is authentic, automated smart
agreements, and the information structure related to each block. The author proposed an
immutable shared record of intellectual effort and related reputational reward, given the
blockchain. The paper aimed at initial trials of building the private blockchain or recording
the educational credentials. Another researcher, Han et al. (2018) developed a novel
blockchain-based framework for creating a platform where students can store can administer
their official records and can also share the records over the blockchain network. This paper
provided a solution by incorporating the advanced features of Blockchain which facilitate
education providers to issue digital student certificates that are proof of completion of
professional qualification. In addition to this, he also discussed various other functional areas
of the education system where this framework could be used. Bandara et al. (2018) also
studied a novel Blockchain-based architecture of converting the centralized model into a
secure decentralized network in which the validation took place among the universities,
educators, students, etc through different blocks. Zhong et al. (2018) addressed the use of it in
the field of E-learning systems. The author developed a conceptual framework for E-learning
systems to address the issues of incomplete user interactivity and system interoperability.
Also, a system evaluation was conducted based on an ISO quality model to validate the
relevance of the proposed model.
Bdiwi et al. (2017,2018) mentioned in the paper that with the advent in technologies such as
the Internet of Things and Blockchain, the security and privacy are two major perennial
challenges in Ubiquitous Learning Environment (ULE). The author investigated the
architecture of ULE based on Blockchain technology so that educational services can be
delivered through this platform. In addition to this, the author demonstrated the trial
experimental results to determine the effectiveness of this decentralized architecture.
Similarly, Mikroyannidis et al. (2018) explored the implementation of Smart Blockchain
Badges that can uplift the career of data science learners. Under this kind of BCT framework,
the personalized job recommendations were offered based on the learning achievements. This
contributed to narrowing the skills gap by bridging the gap between data science education
and industry.
Sharples et al. (2016) proposed work by developing an immutable distributed record of
intellectual effort and related reputational rewards. On the similar lines Arenas, et al. (2018)
discussed the application of permissioned blockchain in education by discussing use cases,
specifically for verification of academic credentials. The solution can provide a platform to
various interested education stakeholders and relevant third parties to access data of
candidates and thus verify the academic credentials in Decentralised ledger named “Credence
Ledger”. Also, Srivastava et al. (2018) presented a decentralized approach for transferring
credits in educational systems. In this system, credits can be transferred easily from one
university to another and the number of credits can be viewed by market players. This

Volume XIII, Issue IV, APRIL 2020 Page No: 395

JAC : A JOURNAL OF COMPOSITION THEORY ISSN : 0731-6755

approach will connect various universities on a single homogeneous network without barriers
of demographics and language. Blockchain platform provides transparency and reliability of
the data stored in a decentralized ledger.
Palma et al. (2018) proposed a transparent and reliable model based on the Blockchain
platform in the Brazilian educational system. Within this framework developed for higher
education institutions, the students can register and get their academic records in the chain of
blocks (records) by applying the Brazilian Public Key infrastructure for managing the identity
of various students. Thus, it enables to issue degree certificates through the verification of
historical information in the decentralized ledger and allowing the transactions using smart
contracts.
Lizcano et al. (2019) in his study addressed the problem of an increasingly dispersed,
accessible to all and ubiquitous higher education. The method proposed can assist different
training institutions to provide skills and knowledge required for professional profiles offered
by employers in different sectors. Another characteristic of the underlying technology of
cryptocurrencies is transparency and Non-tampering of the stored database. Liu et al. (2018)
made use of these features to develop a blockchain Hyperledger framework to achieve the
information symmetry in the Education-Industry cooperative.
Features of Blockchain Technology
Almost all the industries will reap tremendous benefits from innovations in the IT industry.
Several educational institutions are adopting BCT to reduce physical documentation and
lower cost which in turn leads to bringing operational efficiencies. The magnitude of
blockchain is so enhanced that it can create an entire educational stack in upcoming years.
Blockchain can simply make things easier by connecting all the participating nodes in a
transaction to a single database. It is referred to as decentralization, which means that
information is not shared only to a central server but distributed over the networks. BCT
works on the process of disseminating information through nodes and consensus during
transactions. Blockchain Platform allows storing information is automatically shared, a
tampered-proof database that is based on cryptography. The major advantages of BCT are the
integration of data processing, uniformity, and security into an algorithmically enforced
protocol. Blockchain improves the speed of processing of transactions as it lowers the time of
decision making across the organizations with the least human intervention. All the members
of the education ecosystem – educators, educational institutions, students shall effectively
become the participating nodes in the BCT network. BCT also brings in a high level of
redundancy in the network, as the copy of the ledger is available with all the nodes in the
network.
Applications of Blockchain in Education
Some of the applications of this technology in the virtual educational system areas:
Certificate management: In the past, most of the educational institutions keeps records in
paper-based form or save it in exclusive databases structured to be accessed by the
institutions' staff only. Mostly these institutions have their specialized systems to store the
complete credentials of the students. To provide hassle-free information of student's records
at all the levels, that is, student, institution and employers, organizations have been working
upon to develop a certificate management system based on blockchain. This leads to the
automation of processes of issuing a paper-based certificate and sending the request for
certificate verification over the different nodes of blockchain. As paper-based credential

Volume XIII, Issue IV, APRIL 2020 Page No: 396

JAC : A JOURNAL OF COMPOSITION THEORY ISSN : 0731-6755

issuance involves time and prone to error and frauds, this automation will lead to complete
work in real-time and the data is stored in an immutable infrastructure. For students its simple
lifelong storage of credentials with the ability to control ownership. On the other hand,
employers may reduce the requirement of third party verification and minimum risk of fake
certification claims.
Identity verification: It is another problem for almost all educational institutions as it
requires manual intervention thus leading to data-tampering. A blockchain network stores the
information of the student identity rather than saving the student identity document. By this,
students and the candidates who are looking for a job can find themselves online while
maintaining the security and control over the personal data.
Within the bigger institutions, where students regularly require to interact with different
departments and required to show their identity each time. In such cases, each department of
the institution either collects the student data for their use or the institution uses a single sign-
in, where one copy of the student's identity is shared over the different departments within the
institution. In these two situations, this will lead to the sharing of student information to
numerous people and data is not secured. With blockchain, only selected parties will have
access to student's information who is responsible to verify the identity of the student. Thus
institutions are no longer required to maintain the complex systems and just keep the network
secure over which the initial verification is processed. The chances of any breach are minimal
with the application of blockchain.
Protection of Intellectual property: Professors, researchers working in different
organizations requires to publish their work and present it at different platforms.
Traditionally, it was very difficult to know whether a similar study has been underway by any
other author. It leads to disadvantages as one’s work might be pirated and makes it difficult to
keep track of such unethical behavior.
Blockchain could enable educators to publish research content at an open-source, as well as
keep the track of reuse without putting any restraint on the published content. Such a platform
would give opportunities in the form of rewards based on actual work and the reuse of
teaching materials, which is similar to how they are rewarded for more number of citations to
their research papers. For more advanced implementation, smart contracts can be an example
of this application, in which rewards can be distributed to authors of published material based
on the number of citations.
Micro-credentialing: Student's credentials can be stored for lifelong as the whole blockchain
network can never be collapsed. It provides a database where student's certificates and
information can be stored as they further continue their professional qualifications. The
ownership of the educational data is with the student and can be accessed by the permission
of the student if anyone who requires to verify it. It allows the personal data to remain intact
to the learner. This also implies students could have self-updating CVs that can be further
verified by employers.

Use Cases for Blockchain in Education

This section discusses the use cases of various educational institutions where blockchain
technology was applied:

Volume XIII, Issue IV, APRIL 2020 Page No: 397

JAC : A JOURNAL OF COMPOSITION THEORY ISSN : 0731-6755

Open University, UK
The Open University is one of the most popular university engaged in several research
projects on the Blockchain. This university is particularly interested in:
To enhance the standards for badging to research Micro-accreditation and E-portfolios.BT
can be used for collaboration networks among various universities with an objective to
facilitate a network that can lead Blockchain projects in education. It also focused that not
only end-user should be considered but also the research in blockchain should be re-purposed
for students and other stakeholders. Also, (Domingue,2017) this promising technology acts as
the origin of learners' empowerment as a possibility to re-engineer the traditional education
system. Also, as Blockchain enforces the data protection and privacy through end to end
encryption, OU is currently only using student data sets to attempt to improve value for
money for its paying students
University of Nicosia
The University of Nicosia (UNIC) took the early mover advantage in its commitment to
leveraging the blockchain in education. UNIC is the first university to:
Enabled the use of Bitcoin for tuition for any degree course at the university.
Started a university-level course on cryptocurrency, delivered as a MOOC called
‘Introduction to Digital Currencies’
offered an accredited academic degree course, that is, a Master of Science in Digital
Currency which was delivered online in English.
Issued academic certificates onto the Bitcoin blockchain platform, using its in-house
software platform.
MIT
The MIT Media Lab began utilizing Blockcerts for disbursing digital certificates to groups of
people in its extensive network. All the while, MIT has become an advocate for recipients
having more authority over the certificates they acquire, and without depending on third-
party intermediaries such as universities and employers to save the records, verify and
validate often at an extra expense. Blockchain innovation and strong cryptography have been
used to develop the Blockcerts open platform for digital certificates. In 2017, MIT utilized
Learning Machine (LM) Certificates, a business solution created over Blockcerts, to provide
diplomas to students at the MIT Media Lab (Media Arts and Sciences) and the Sloan School
of Business. This is the first example of issuance of such certificates, using LM technology
and the only example of recipient owned diplomas. (Schmidt, 2015; MIT Media Lab, 2016).
Maltese Educational Institutions
Maltese educational institutions believed that the strategic deployment of decentralized
technology (BCT) signals the Government’s commitment to give learners and workers with
maximum ownership and stored database of their official credentials of learning achievement.
● The primary objective of this initiative is self-sovereignty - to lever on the affordances
of the Blockchain to empower Maltese people to store their credentials in a digital
ledger, as fully contributing, skilled members of the 21st-century people which is
increasingly mobile, international, and self-developing (as lifelong learners).
● Another, a secondary objective is to stick with ongoing initiatives to globalize and
cross-reference credentials received from Maltese institutions with EU frameworks.

Volume XIII, Issue IV, APRIL 2020 Page No: 398

JAC : A JOURNAL OF COMPOSITION THEORY ISSN : 0731-6755

CONCLUSION
Blockchain is the technology that has applications in numerous fields and specifically in the
field of education it is still unexplored as the technology is relatively new. The review
included the various research papers, white papers and articles searched in electronic
databases using different keywords. Most of the papers discussed the applications, features,
and practical infrastructure of BCT application in the education sector. Primarily, most papers
focused on how BCT can be deployed to issue academic credentials by educational
institutions and similarly the data (certificates) stored in the decentralized ledger can be
shared with various employers for professional profiles. Also, the BCT platform can be used
for E-learning systems, can lower the cost and builds trust and transparency in education.
Major organizations are working to provide customized solutions (BCT architecture) at all
levels to the educational institutions. Institutions must consider all the challenges associated
with BCT technology before implementing it.
REFERENCES
[1] Chen, G., Xu, B., Lu, M., & Chen, N.-S. (2018). Exploring blockchain technology
and its potential applications for education. Smart Learning Environments,
5(1). doi:10.1186/s40561-017-0050-x
[2] Bartolomé, Antonio & Torlà, Carles & Castañeda, Linda & Adell, Jordi. (2017).
Blockchain In Education: Introduction and Critical Review of the State of the Art. 61.
10.21556/edutec.2017.61.
[3] B. Duan, Y. Zhong and D. Liu, "Education Application of Blockchain Technology:
Learning Outcome and Meta-Diploma," 2017 IEEE 23rd International Conference on
Parallel and Distributed Systems (ICPADS), Shenzhen, 2017, pp. 814-817. doi:
10.1109/ICPADS.2017.00114
[4] Han, M.; Li, Z.; He, J.S.; Wu, D.; Xie, Y.; Baba, A. A Novel Blockchain-based
Education Records Verification Solution. In Proceedings of the 19th Annual SIG
Conference on Information Technology Education, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA, 3–6
October 2018; pp. 178–183.
[5] Sharples, M., & Domingue, J. (2016). The Blockchain and Kudos: A Distributed
System for Educational Record, Reputation and Reward. Lecture Notes in Computer
Science, 490–496. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-45153-4_48
[6] Gatteschi, V., Lamberti, F., Demartini, C., Pranteda, C., & Santamaría, V.
(2018). Blockchain and Smart Contracts for Insurance: Is the Technology Mature
Enough? Future Internet, 10(2), 20. doi:10.3390/fi10020020
[7] Bandara, I.B.; Ioras, F.; Arraiza, M.P. The emerging trend of blockchain for
validating degree apprenticeship certification in cybersecurity education. In
Proceedings of the 12th Annual International Technology, Education and
Development Conference, Valencia, Spain, 5–7 March 2018; pp. 7677–7683.
[8] Zhong, J.; Xie, H.; Zou, D.; Chui, D.K. A Blockchain Model for Word-Learning
Systems. In Proceedings of the 2018 5th International Conference on Behavioral,
Economic, and Socio-Cultural Computing (BESC), Kaohsiung, Taiwan, 12–14
November 2018; pp. 130–131.
[9] Bdiwi, R., Runz, C.D., Faïz, S., & Chérif, A.A. (2018). A Blockchain Based
Decentralized Platform for Ubiquitous Learning Environment. 2018 IEEE 18th
International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT), 90-92.
[10] Bdiwi, R., Runz, C.D., Faïz, S., & Chérif, A.A. (2017). Towards a New
Ubiquitous Learning Environment Based on Blockchain Technology. 2017 IEEE 17th
International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT), 101-102.

Volume XIII, Issue IV, APRIL 2020 Page No: 399

JAC : A JOURNAL OF COMPOSITION THEORY ISSN : 0731-6755

[11] Mikroyannidis, J. Domingue, M. Bachler and K. Quick, "Smart Blockchain

Badges for Data Science Education," 2018 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference
(FIE), San Jose, CA, USA, 2018, pp. 1-5. doi: 10.1109/FIE.2018.8659012
[12] R. Arenas and P. Fernandez, "CredenceLedger: A Permissioned Blockchain
for Verifiable Academic Credentials," 2018 IEEE International Conference on
Engineering, Technology and Innovation (ICE/ITMC), Stuttgart, 2018, pp. 1-6.

[13] Srivastava, A., Bhattacharya, P., Singh, A., Mathur, A., Prakash, O., &
Pradhan, R. (2018). A Distributed Credit Transfer Educational Framework based on
Blockchain. 2018 Second International Conference on Advances in Computing,
Control and Communication Technology (IAC3T). doi:10.1109/iac3t.2018.8674023

[14] Palma, L. M., Vigil, M. A. G., Pereira, F. L., & Martina, J. E.

(2019). Blockchain and smart contracts for higher education registry in Brazil.
International Journal of Network Management, e2061. doi:10.1002/nem.2061

[15] Lizcano, D., Lara, J. A., White, B., & Aljawarneh, S. (2019). Blockchain-
based approach to create a model of trust in open and ubiquitous higher education.
Journal of Computing in Higher Education. doi:10.1007/s12528-019-09209-y

[16] Nakamoto, S. Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System. 2008.

[17] Underwood, S. (2016). Blockchain beyond Bitcoin. Communications of the

ACM. 59. 15-17. 10.1145/2994581.
[18] Grech, A. and Camilleri, A. F. (2017) Blockchain in Education. Inamorato dos
Santos, A. (ed.) EUR 28778 EN; doi:10.2760/60649
[19] Jain, A. (2020). [online] Cognizant.com. Available at:
https://www.cognizant.com/whitepapers/blockchain-goes-to-school-codex3775.pdf
[20] M Swan, Blockchain: Blueprint for a New Economy, 1st edn. (O’Reilly
Media, Sebastopol, CA, 2015)
[21] Tapscott, D., & Kaplan, A. (2019). BLOCKCHAIN REVOLUTION IN
EDUCATION AND LIFELONG LEARNING.
https://www.ibm.com/downloads/cas/93DDVAKE

Volume XIII, Issue IV, APRIL 2020 Page No: 400

View publication stats