Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

******MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 : It is located in pelvis region. It consists of scrotum, testes, epididymis, vasa differentia, Ejaculatory ducts, and
Urethra, penis and male accessory glands.

o SCROTUM: it is a pouch formed of skin containing two separate sacs. Each sac encloses one testis.
 Scrotum helps in maintaining 2-2.5°C lesser than our normal body temperature which is ideal for the
process of spermatogenesis inside the testis.
 TESTES: These are primary sex organs in males.

 Each testes is about 4-5 cm long and 2-3 cm wide & It is covered by three protective layer namely

 outer protective layer called tunica vaginalis

 Middle fibrous capsular layer called tunica albuginea.
 Inner vascular layer called Tunica vasculosa.
 Tunica vasculosa shows projections and divide the testis into number of compartments.
 Each testis has 200- 250 compartments called testicular lobules.
 Each lobule has 1-3 highly coiled seminiferous tubules.
****Seminiferous tubules are lined by two types of cells, the male germ cells (spermatogonia)
and Sertoli cells.
 Sertoli cells/Sustentacular are the large elongated cells present in the germinal layer of
the testes.
 Functions of Sertoli cells
 1) They support and provide nourishment to the spermatids and sperms
2) Sertoli cells secrete androgen binding protein (ABP) that concentrates testosterone
inside the seminiferous tubules for spermiogenesis.
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

 3) Sertoli cells secrete a protein hormone called as Inhibin, which suppresses FSH
synthesis.
 ****** Section of seminiferous tubule (only diagram imp)

 Leydig’ cells (Interstitial cells)

o These are the cells present in between the seminiferous tubule.
o Leydig cells secrete Testicular hormone called Testosterone(Androgen)
 Ducts of male reproductive system
 Rete testis-it is a network of tubules located in the hilum of testis &it helps in concentration of sperms.
 Vasa efferentia –it is a fine ciliated ductile arising from rete testes. It Connects rete testis to the
epididymis.
 Epididymis-it is a mass of closely coiled tubules
 Functions of epididymis.
 It carries sperm from vasa efferentia to vas deference.
 Epididymis store sperms
 sperms mature and acquire motility in epididymis
 Vasa deferens/male genital duct - it is a less coiled tube emerging from caudal epididymis and enters
into the abdominal cavity along with the spermatic cord through inguinal canal.
 Vasa deferens loops over the urinary bladder where it receives a duct from the seminal vesicle and
opens into urethra as a common duct called Ejaculatory duct.

 Ejaculatory duct: - it is a paired duct arising from vas deference and connected to Urethra. The main
function is to control the flow of sperm cells and semen into the urethra.
 Urethra- it originates from urinary bladder and extends through the penis as a common urogenital duct
and finally opens to external through urethral meatus (The external opening of urethra is called urethral
meatus).
 Penis- is the male external genitalia & also the copulatory organ
 It functions as a passage for both urine and semen.
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

 Penis is made up of three cylindrical mass of erectile tissue namely two dorsal corpora cavernosa and
single ventral corpus spongiosum.
 These erectile tissues help in erection during sexual intercourse to facilitate insemination.
 The enlarged end of penis is called glans penis and is covered by loose fold of skin called foreskin or
prepuce.

 ******Glands associated with male reproductive system:

 Seminal vesicles, a prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands secretions of these glands
constitute the seminal plasma which is rich in fructose calcium and certain enzymes.
(a) Seminal vesicle
 Paired glands present behind the urinary bladder and attached to ampulla region of the
ejaculatory duct.
 Seminal vesicles produce seminal fluid (pH 7.3 to 7.5), it constitutes about 60-70% of the
semen.
 Seminal fluid contains fructose (source of energy for sperms) citrate, and prostaglandins.
(b) Prostate gland
 It is a single pear shaped gland situated around the first part of the urethra
 Functions of prostate gland
 It is involved in production of.
 It secretes an alkaline prostatic fluid containing citrate and mucus helps to neutralize
acidic urine in urethra.
 prostatic fluid constitutes about 20% of the semen
 Prostatic secretion contains albumin and proteolytic enzyme fibrolysin.
 Prostatic fluid prevents the coagulation of semen. It increases the fluidity of semen and
helps in sperm movement.
(c) Cowper’s gland (Bulbo-urethral gland)
 A pair of rounded glands present on either side of urethra , beneath the urinary bladder
 Functions of Bulbo-urethral gland
 They produce an alkaline viscous fluid which acts as a lubricant for the glans penis.
 It secretes bicarbonate (HCo3¯ ions) which neutralizes acidic urine in urethra and also in
external orifice of vagina.

*******Female Reproductive System

 Female reproductive system is located in the pelvic region.
 It consists of pair ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina and the external genitalia.
 Ovary is the primary sex organ in females.
 It is located on either side of lower abdomen.
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

 Ovary produces ova and secretes the female sex hormones, oestrogens and progesterone.
 The female accessory duct system consists of two fallopian tubes, a uterus, and a vagina.
 Fallopian tubes: it is along ciliated tubule measuring 10-12 cm in length and is divided

into following parts:

a) Infundibulum (oviducal funnel): it is a funnel shaped part closer to the ovary. The edges of
infundibulum poses finger like projections called fimbriae, which helps in collection of
ovum after ovulation.
b) Ampulla: it is a wider part of the oviduct arising from infundibulum and join with
isthmus. It is the region where fertilization takes place.
c) Isthmus: it is the last part of the oviduct.it has narrow lumen and it joins the uterus.
 Uterus
 Uterus is a single broad inverted pear shaped organ present just below the urinary
bladder in the pelvic region.
 It is attached to the pelvic wall by ligaments.
 It measures about 4 cm width, 5 cm length and 2.5 cm thickness.
 Uterus is also called womb in which development of foetus takes place.
******Uterus is covered by three protective layers namely
o Perimetrium: it is an outermost thin membranous structure it is also called serosa.
o Myometrium: it is middle layer composed of bundles of smooth muscles .it helps in child
birth through muscle contraction.
o Endometrium: it is the Inner glandular layer, it shows cyclic changes during menstrual
cycle also it is the layer to which implantation takes place.
 Fundus-Anterior part of the uterus part to which fallopian tube is attached.
 Cervix: It is the lower part of the uterus present just above the vagina.
 It helps in allowing sperms into the uterus during sexual intercourse and also helps in
parturition of baby.
Note: Cervical canal along with vagina is called birth canal
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

 Vagina:
 Vagina is the opening of female reproductive system. It is covered by thin membrane
called hymen. Hymen is usually ruptured during sexual intercourse.
 Vagina is about 8-10 cm long tube starting from cervix and extending up to external
genitalia.
 The female external genitalia is called Vulva. And it includes Mons pubis, labia majora,
labia minora, hymen and clitoris.
 Mons pubis: it is a cushion of fatty tissue covered by hair.
 Labia majora- These are two folds of tissues extend from mons pubis and surrounds
urethral opening and vaginal opening. It is homologous to scrotum of male reproductive
system.
 Labia minora- These are two smaller folds of tissues. Labia minora merge anteriorly and
cover the clitoris.
 Clitoris- It is a small fingerlike erectile structure present above the urethral opening at
the upper junction of two labia minora .It is homologous to glans penis of male
reproductive system.
 The space enclosed by two labia minora is called Vestibule. It has urethral opening for
passing urine and vaginal orifice (opening) for menstrual flow and birth of child.
 Vagina is devoid of glands. But in the vestibule there are accessory genital glands called
vestibular glands such as
 Glands associated with female reproductive system (NEET)
1) Lesser vestibular glands (Para urethral/skene’s glands): they are numerous minute glands
present on either side of urethral orifice. They secrete mucus and are homologous to male
prostate gland.
2) Grater vestibular glands/Bartholin’s gland: these are paired gland present on either side of
the vaginal orifice.

 T/S of OVARY
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

 The human ovary is ovoid in shape, it measures about2-4 cm in length, 1.5 cm breadth,
and 1 cm thick.
 It is situated near the kidney and remains attached the abdominal wall by ligaments.
 Ovary is covered by an inner layer of cuboidal epithelium called germinal epithelium, and
an outer tunica albuginea.
 ovary is attached to the uterus by Ovarian ligament
 The broad ligament is attached to the ovary by a double layer fold of peritoneum called
mesovarium
 Each ovary is covered by thin epithelium enclosing the ovarian stroma.
 The stroma is divided into two zones an outer cortex and inner vascularized medulla.
 Cortex is the outer part, it has many large and small, spherical or oval, sac-like masses of
cells called ovarian follicles which are at various stages of development and maturation.
 Ovary has many primary follicle, but large number of primary follicles degenerate during
the phase from birth to puberty therefore at puberty only 60.000-80.000 primary follicles
are left in each ovary.
Note: Ovary has maximum follicles during foetal stage
******STRUCTURE OF MAMMARY GLAND (imp) :

 They are paired structures (breasts) containing glandular tissue and variable amount of
fat.
 A functional mammary gland is characteristic of all female mammals.
 They are modified sweat glands, they remain under developed until puberty but at puberty
they begin to develop under the influence of estrogen and progesterone.
 Mammary gland has a projection called Nipple and is surrounded by a circular pigmented
area called areola
 The Glandular tissue of each breast is divided into 15-20 mammary lobes containing
clusters of cells called alveoli.
 The cells of alveoli secrete milk, which is stored in the lumen of alveoli.
 The alveoli open into mammary tubules.
 Mammary tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary duct.
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

 Several mammary ducts join to form a wider mammary ampulla or lactiferous sinus where
some milk is stored before entering the lactiferous duct.
 The lactiferous ducts carry milk from the lobes to the Exterior through which milk is
sucked out.
 GAMETOGENESIS
 It is the process of formation of haploid gametes from diploid gamete mother cells (germ
cells) by meiosis.
 Gametogenesis takes place in gonads
 There are 2 types of gametogenesis.(i) Spermatogenesis and (ii) Oogenesis
 *******SPERMATOGENESIS.
 The process of formation of haploid sperms from diploid germ cells is called
spermatogenesis.

 Spermatogenesis occurs inside the seminiferous tubules of testes by meiosis

 Steps in spermatogenesis
(a) Multiplication phase: - It is the first phase in which diploid germ cells undergo continuous
mitotic division and produce large number of diploid cells. Called spermatogonea.
(b) Growth phase: - It is the second phase in which spermatogonia increases in volume and
converte into diploid primary spermatocyte without multiplication.
(c) Maturation phase: - It is the third phase, in this phase primary spermatocyte undergoes
meiosis-I producing 2 equal sized haploid cells called secondary spermatocyte.
 Each secondary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis-II and produce 4 immature non-motile
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

cells called spermatids.

(ii) Spermatogenesis/Spermateleiosis.
 The process of conversion of non-motile, immature spermatids into motile mature sperms
is called spermatogenesis or spermateleiosis.
 The release of completely developed sperms from the seminiferous tubules is called
spermiation.
 Hormonal control of spermatogenesis:
o Spermatogenesis begins at the age of puberty due to increase in the production of GnRH
(gonadotropin releasing hormone) from hypothalamus of brain.
 GnRh stimulates the anterior lobe of pituitary gland
to secrete two gonadotropins LH (luteinizing
hormone) and FSH (follicle stimulating hormone).
 LH stimulates Leydig cells of testis to secrete
androgens (testosterone) required for
spermatogenesis.
 FSH stimulates Sertoli cells to secrete ABP
(androgen binding protein) and Inhibin.
 FSH acts directly on spermatogonia to stimulate
sperm production.
 ABP helps in concentration of testosterone in the
seminiferous tubules.
 Inhibin supresses FSH synthesis, when the
concentration of testosterone increases, inhibin
supresses the release of GnRH from hypothalamus.
 *******STRUCTURE OF MATURE HUMAN SPERM(SPERMATOZOA):
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

 It is a small, tad pole like, motile, haploid male gamete produced in the testis by
spermatogenesis.
 The human sperm measures about 45-55 microns in length.
 Structurally, the sperm is divisible into head, neck, middle piece and tail.
 Head is a small knob like structure present in the anterior end of sperm it encloses male
pro-nucleus.
 Acrosome is a small cap like structure present at the tip of the head.
 Acrosome is derived from Golgi complex
 It secretes a strong proteolytic enzyme called hyaluronidase and acrosine
 It helps in the penetration of sperm into the egg during fertilization.
 Neck is the smallest region present between head and middle piece. Neck encloses two
centrioles. A) Proximal centriole towards the nucleus.
 Proximal centriole initiates cleavage in zygote.
 b) Distal centriole is present towards the tail distal centriole forms axial filament of tail.
 Middle piece consists of spirally coiled mitochondria (Nebenkern) ,it supplies energy for
the movement of sperm .hence middle piece is considered as “engine room of sperm

 Tail: it is the last part of the sperm. It is several times longer than the head. and helps in
the locomotion of the sperm.
 Note: human male ejaculates about 200-300 million sperms during coitus
 For effective fertilization, at least 60% sperms must have normal shape and size
 At least 40% of them must show vigorous motility
 ******OOGENESIS
 The process of formation of haploid egg from diploid germ cells by meiosis is called
oogenesis (Or )
 Formation of ova from diploid germ cell by meiosis that takes place in ovary is called
oogenesis.
 Steps in oogenesis
i) Multiplication phase: -
 It is the first phase in this the diploid primordial germ cell present in ovary undergo
continuous mitotic division and produce large number of diploid cells called oogonea.
(Oogonea are produced before birth in foetus.)
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

 New oogonea are nor produce after birth. At the time

of birth ovary contains millions of oogonea.
ii) Growth phase: - it is the longest phase occurring
from birth to puberty
 During this phase one of the oogonea increase in size
due to increase in volume of nucleus and cytoplasm.
And is called primary oocyte.
 At the time of puberty ovary contains 40, 000 to
80,000 primary oocytes.
iii) Maturation phase: - During this phase the primary
oocyte divides by meiosis-I to form two unequal
sized cells the larger secondary oocyte and smaller
first polar body.
 Following the entry of sperm the secondary oocyte
undergoes second meiotic division forming a larger
haploid cell called ootid and the smaller second
polar body.

Ootid grows into a functional ovum while the three
polar bodies gradually degenerate.
 Hormonal control of oogenesis
 Oogenesis occurs under the influence of hormone GnRH secreted by the hypothalamus
 GnRH stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete LH and FSH.
 FSH stimulates the growth of ovarian follicle and also development of egg within the
follicle.
 LH induces the rupture of Graaffian follicle and release of secondary oocyte.
 FSH also stimulates corpus luteum to secrete progesterone,
 High level of progesterone inhibits the release of GnRH
which in turn inhibits FSH and LH.
Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

*Formation of sperm *Formation of ova

*It takes place in testis *It takes place in ovary

*Growth phase is very *Growth phase is very

short long

*Accumulation of yolk *Accumulation of yolk

does not takes place takes place during
during growth phase growth phase
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

*After meiosis-I two *After meiosis-II two

equal sized cells are unequal sized cells are
formed formed

*Four sperms are *Only one ova produced

produced

*polar bodies are not *polar bodies are formed

formed

 Structure of a mature Graaffian follicle

 The mature mammalian ovarian follicle is called Graaffian follicle.
 A single Graaffian follicle is matured in one
of the ovary during menstrual cycle.
 It is usually spherical in shape covered by
an outer layer called theca externa and
inner cellular layer called theca interna.
 Entire Graaffian follicle is covered by
membrane called membrana granulose is
made up of number of follicular cells.
 Graaffian follicle encloses a cavity called
antrum. It is filled with a fluid called liquor folliculi.
 The egg is attached to the wall of the Graaffian follicle by a mass of cells called cumulus
oophorous/discus proliferous/germ hill.

 Structure of ovum:
 Ovum is large spherical non- motile haploid female gamete it encloses cytoplasm called
ooplasm.
 Ooplasm contains female haploid nucleus called germinal vesicle/female pronucleus
 Human ovum is alecithal (free of yolk).it measures
about 700-1000 microns in diameter.
 Egg is surrounded by plasma membrane (oolemma)
 Beneath the plasma membrane are the cortical
granules.
 The egg is surrounded by a Non-cellular transparent
layer called zona pellucida.
 Between zona pellucida and egg membrane there is
space called vitelline space and it contains two polar
bodies (polocytes).
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

 Zonapellucida is covered by a cellular layer called corona radiata. (It is a secondary egg
membrane).
 Note: Typically egg has an animal pole and a vegetal pole. Animal pole is represented by
the polocyte. Vegetal pole is opposite to animal pole.

*****Menstrual cycle (give importance for the steps)

 The preparation and detachment of endometrium in a non-pregnant women that takes
place for every 28 days is called menstrual cycle
(Or)

 Menstrual cycle is the cyclic change occurring in the reproductive tract of primate females
(monkey, apes, and humans).
 In human female, menstruation occurs at an average intervals of 28/29 days.

 Menstrual cycle takes place in 4 phases

(a) Pre-ovulatory phase
(b) Ovulatory phase
(c) Post ovulatory phase
(d) Menstrual phase

a) Pre-ovulatory phase/Proliferative phase/follicular phase/estrogen phase

* It takes place from 5th day to 13th day.
* During this phase pituitary gland secretes FSH.
* FSH stimulates maturation of ovarian follicle.
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

* Ovarian follicles produces a hormone called estrogen.

*Estrogen brings about thickening of endometrium (decidua).
* Ovarian follicle is converted into matured follicle called Graaffian follicle

(b) Ovulatory phase

* It takes place on 14th day in menstrual cycle.
* The estrogen in blood rises to a peak near the middle of the menstrual cycle (14Th day)
*it gives positive feedback and stimulates secretion of LH from pituitary.
* LH brings about ovulation (release of oocyte from Graaffian follicle into fallopian tube is
called ovulation).
**The rapid secretion of LH in the middle of menstrual cycle leading to ovulation is called
LH SURGE.

(c) Post ovulatory phase/Secretory phase/Luteal phase/progesterone phase

* It takes place from 15th to 28th day in menstrual cycle.
* During this phase the empty Graaffian follicle forms corpus luteum.
* Corpus luteum secretes a hormone called progesterone.
* Progesterone brings about further thickening of endometrium and inhabits the
production FSH and LH from pituitary gland.
* In absence of fertilization corpus luteum degenerates into corpus albicans.
* Degeneration of corpus luteum and absence of estrogen and progesterone causes rupture
and detachment of endometrium along with associated blood vessel leading to bleeding
this is called menses

(d) Menstrual phase

* It takes place from 1st day to 5th day in menstrual cycle.
* During this phase the detached endometrium (desidua), blood and unfertilized egg come
out of female reproductive system this is called menstrual flow.
***NOTE
 First menstrual cycle that takes place at the age of 11 or 12 years is called Menarche.
 The last menstrual cycle and stoppage of menstrual that takes place at the age of 45 years
is called Menopause.
 FERTILISATION AND IMPLANTATION: (steps in fertilisation)
 Fertilisation: it is the process of fusion of male and female gametes to form a diploid
zygote.
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

 Events in fertilisation /Steps in- fertilisation

 Insemination. It is the release of semen containing millions of sperms into the vagina of
female by male copulatory organ penis.
 From the vagina the sperms move towards the cervix, uterus and finally into the
ampullary- isthmic junction of fallopian tube where fertilization take place.
 Fertilization can occur only when sperm and egg are transported simultaneously. This is
the reason why not all copulations leads to fertilization and pregnancy.

 Capacitation of sperms: the sperms released into the female genital tract are made
capable of fertilizing the egg by the secretions of female genital tract this is called
capacitation.
 Acrosome reaction: capacitated sperms release sperm lysins like hyaluronidase and
zonalysin to dissolve egg membranes like corona radiate and zona pellucida.
 Cortical reaction: Binding of sperm to the secondary oocyte induces depolarization of the
oocyte plasma membrane.
 Cortical granules present beneath the plasma membrane release their content between
the plasma membrane and zona pellucida causing hardening of zona pellucida.
Depolarization of egg plasma-membrane and thickening of zona pellucida helps to
prevent polyspermy. and ensures monospermy.
 Sperm entry: at the point of contact with the sperm secondary oocyte forms a projection
called fertilization cone that helps in receiving the sperm head
 The proximal centriole of the sperm divides and forms the mitotic spindle apparatus
 Sperm entry into the cytoplasm of secondary oocyte. Stimulates the secondary oocyte to
complete the suspended second meiotic division this produce one haploid mature ovum
and a second polar body.
 Amphimixis: it is the process of fusion of male pro-nucleus with the female pro-nucleus
 Note : Egg secretes a chemical glycoprotein called Fertilizin
 Sperm has a protein substance called antifertilizin on its surface. This Fertilizin and
antifertilizin reaction helps in recognising sperm and eggs the same species.

 Embryonic development. After fertilization the zygote undergoes series of mitotic

divisions and is called cleavage, forming many daughter cells called blastomeres,
 At 8-16 celled stage the blastomeres look like a mulberry and is called morula.
 Gradually the morula starts moving towards the uterus and gets transforms into
blastocyst.
 Blastocyst: it is a single layered embryonic stage consists of an outer layer of cells called
Trophoblast /trophoectoderm and inner cell mass called Embryoblast. 7 with inner cell
mass are called cells of Rauber.
Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

 Blastocyst encloses a cavity called blastocoel which represents the future coelom
 ***Implantation: it is the process of attachment of blastocyst to the endometrium of
uterus. During implantation the blastocyst completely gets buried in the endometrium,
trophoblast forms villi for nourishment and the inner cell mass differentiate into embryo.
 Gastrulation-It is the process of conversion of single layered blastocyst into three layered
gastrula.
 The three germinal layers such as ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm are formed during
gastrulation. Gastrula encloses a cavity called gastrocoel or archenteron. This gastrocoel
develops into alimentary canal
 PREGNENCY and EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT:
 After implantation, finger like projections appear on the trophoblast and are called
chorionic villi which are surrounded by the uterine tissue and maternal blood.
 The chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other and jointly
forms placenta.
 Placenta is the structural and functional organic connection between developing
embryo (foetus) and the mother.
(or)
 Placenta is an organic connection between the foetus and uterine wall of mother.

*******Functions of placenta:
 1. It facilitate the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo.
 2) It helps in the removal of carbon dioxide and excretory/waste materials produced by
the embryo through umbilical cord.
 ****3)Placenta functions as an endocrine tissue and produces several hormones like
human chorionic gonadotropin(hCG), Human Placental lactogen (hPL), oestrogens,
progesterone, Human chorionic Somato-mammotropin(hCS)etc.,
Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

 4) Placenta acts as a storage tissue by storing glycogen, fats etc.

 5) It acts as a barrier and allows only essential substances into foetal blood.
 .*****Note:
1) Hormones such as HCG, hPL and relaxin are produced in women only during pregnanc
2) During pregnancy the levels of hormones like estrogen, progestogens, cortisol,
prolactin, thyroxin, etc., are increased several folds in the maternal blood.

 ****Embryonic development: immediately after implantation the embryo starts

developing germ layers namely an outer ectoderm, middle mesoderm and inner
endoderm
 In humans, after one month of pregnancy, the embryo’s heart is formed. The first sign
of growing foetus may be noticed by listening to the heart sound carefully through the
stethoscope.
 By the end of second month of pregnancy, the foetus develops limbs and digits.
 By the end of 12 weeks (first trimester) most of the major organ systems are formed.
For example, the limbs and external genital organs are well developed.
 The first movements of the foetus and appearance of hair on the head are usually
observed during the fifth month.
 By the end of 24 weeks (2 trimester) the body is covered with fine hair, eye lids
separate, and eyelashes are formed
 By the end of nine months of pregnancy, the foetus is fully developed and is ready for
delivery.
 Note: for NEET/CET
 Ectodermal derivatives: enamel of teeth, entire nervous system, conjunctiva, lens,
cornea, retina, pituitary and pineal gland, epidermis of skin, tympanum, etc.
Mesodermal derivatives: muscular tissue, connective tissue, dermis of skin, heart, all
blood vessels, dentine of teeth, kidney, urinary bladder, reproductive system.
Endodermal derivatives: all digestive glands, thyroid, parathyroid, and thymus, middle
ear and Eustachian tube .trachea , bronchi, lungs, and urinary bladder.
 Parturition and Lactation: The average duration of human pregnancy is about 9 months
which is called the gestation period (elephants have longest gestation period of
22months).
 Vigorous contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy causes expulsion/delivery of
the foetus. This process of delivery of foetus (child birth) is called Parturition.
 The process of Parturition is induced by a complex neuroendocrine mechanism.
******The signals for parturition originate from the fully developed foetus and the
placenta which induces mild uterine contractions is called foetal ejection reflex.
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

 Foetal ejection reflex triggers release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary.
 Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscle and causes stronger uterine contractions, which in
turn stimulates further secretion of oxytocin.
 The stimulatory reflex between the uterine contraction and oxytocin secretion
continues resulting in stronger and stronger contractions.
 The hormone relaxin released by the placenta and ovary increases the flexibility of the
pubic symphysis and helps to dilate the uterine cervix during labour. This leads to
expulsion of the baby out of the uterus through the birth canal.
****Soon after the infant is delivered, the placenta, umbilical cord and foetal
membranes are expelled out and is called after birth
 LACTATION: it is the process of production of milk from mammary glands.
 The mammary glands of the female undergo differentiation during pregnancy and
starts producing milk towards the end of pregnancy this helps the mother in feeding
the new-born.
******The yellow coloured milk produced during the first few days of lactation is called
colostrum. It contains several antibodies which is absolutely essential to develop
resistance against common disease in the new born babies.
 Breast feeding during initial period of infant growth is recommended by doctors for
bringing up a healthy baby.
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Reproductive health (give importance for abbreviations)

 According to WHO reproductive health is physical, emotional, social and behavioural
wellbeing of a person in all aspects of reproduction.
 Problems of reproductive health:
1) Over population
2) Early marriage
3) Health of mother and child
***4) Maternal mortality rate (MMR) and infant mortality rate (IMR)
5) Lack of knowledge about reproductive health may leads to transmission of STDs.
 India was the first country in the world to initiate action plans and programmes at
national level to attain total reproductive health as a social goal.
***These programmes called ‘family planning’ were initiated in 1951.
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

 Improved programmes covering wider reproduction-related areas are currently in

operation under the popular name ‘Reproductive and Child Health Care (RCH)
programmes.
 ***Strategies to overcome reproductive health problems (Major tasks taken up by RCH)
1). Creating awareness among the people about reproduction related aspects. Through
audio visual or print media by government and non-government organisation.
2) Sex education in schools provides information about myths and misconceptions about
sex related aspects.
3) Providing proper information about reproductive organs, adolescence and related
changes, safe and hygienic practices, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and AIDS.
4) Educating people, especially fertile couples and those in marriageable age groups, about
the available birth control options, care of pregnant mothers and, post-natal care of mother
and child.
5) Putting statutory ban on amniocentesis for sex-determination and discouraging female
foeticide.
6) Encouraging research on reproduction related areas like development of safer
contraceptive ex: Saheli a new oral contraceptive for females was developed by the
scientists at central Drug Research Institute (CDRI) Lucknow.
7) Family planning programme
8) prevention of sex abuse and sex related crimes
 Population explosion and birth control: the scientific study of human population is called
demography.
 The world population which was about 2 billion in 1900 rocked to about 6 billion by 2000.
 Same situation was observed even in India i.e. 350 million at the time of independence
crossed 1 billion in May 2000.
>Reasons for high population growth rate
1) Decline in death rate mainly maternal mortality rate (MMR) and infant mortality rate
(IMR)
2) Increase in number of people in reproductive age
3) Better public health care and greater medical attention.
4) Control of certain epidemic diseases like plague, small pox etc.
5) Protection from natural calamities
6) Better availability of food due to advancement in agriculture and improvement of
storage and transport facilities.
7) Opposition of family planning programmes by certain religions.
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

 Effects of over population:

1) It leads family problems 2) it leads to poverty 3) shortage of food 4) hygienic problems
5) Unemployment 6) housing problems 7) pollution 8) problem of educating the ever
growing population.
 Measures to control over population:
1) Education: creating awareness about problems population explosion and to motivate
peoples to have small families.
2) Raising of marriageable age from the current 18 years for female and 21 years for male.
3) Giving Incentives like free education, promotion in services for the persons having small
family’s (one child).
4) Adopting family planning methods to maintain small family.

******Birth control: it is the method of preventing unwanted pregnancies and birth of

child by using contraceptives.
Contraceptives. Methods or devices used to prevent conception are called contraceptives
 ****Characteristics of an ideal contraceptive:
1)it is user friendly
2) Easily available and reversible
3) With no side effects
4) Should not interfere with the sexual drive, desire and sexual act

*******Methods of birth control (all Methods are importanat)

1-Temporary methods
a) NATURAL METHODS: These methods work on the principle of avoiding chances of
meeting of ovum and sperm.
1. Periodic abstinence (Rhythm Method/calendar method.): this involves avoiding
intercourse during danger period. I.e. during the fertile period from day 10 to 17 of the
menstrual cycle.
.2. Withdrawal method or coitus interrupts: in this method the male partner should
withdraw his penis from the vagina before ejaculation to avoid insemination.
3. Lactational Amenorrhoea (LAM): it is the absence of menstruation and ovulation during
the period of intense lactation following parturition. However this method is effective only
up to a maximum six months.
b)BARRIER METHODS:: These methods prevent the meeting of sperm and ovum
physically
Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

Ex:1) Condoms: these are thin rubber/latex sheath that are used to cover the penis in
males just before coitus so that the ejaculated semen would not enter into the female
reproductive tract and fertilization does not takes place. Ex; Nirodh it is a popular brand
of condom for the male.
* Femidoms: these are female condoms inserted into the vagina before intercourse.
Note: i) Use of condoms has increased in recent years due to its additional benefit of
protecting the user from STDs and AIDS.
ii) Both the male and female condoms are disposable, can be self-inserted and they gives
privacy to the user.
2) Diaphragms, cervical caps and vaults: these are made of rubber and are inserted into
the female reproductive tract to cover the cervix during coitus. They prevent conception by
blocking the entry of sperms through the cervix. They are reusable. Spermicidal creams,
jellies and foams are usually used along with these barriers to increase their contraceptive
efficiency.
C) Intra Uterine Devices (IUDs). These plastic devices inserted in to the uterus through
vagina by doctors or expert nurses to prevent conception.
> Intra uterine devices are of three types
1) Non-medicated IUDs: these increase phagocytosis of sperms within the uterus ex;
lippes loop
2) Copper releasing IUDs: These IUDs release Cu ions that suppress sperm motility and
fertilising capacity of sperms.Ex; CuT, Cu7, Multiload 375 etc.
3) The hormone releasing IUDs: these release hormones and make the uterus unsuitable
for implantation and also they make the cervix hostile to the sperms. Hormone releasing
IUD’s are ideal contraceptives for the females who want to delay pregnancy /or space
children. Ex; progestasert, LNG-20
D) Oral contraceptives :( birth control pills):
 These pills contain hormones like estrogen and progesterone, taken together in the same
pill or in separate pills sequentially.
 Hormonal pills prevent ovulation and implantation by inhibiting the secretion of
pituitary hormones like FSH and LH.
 Oral pills provide a very effective means of birth control, with a failure rate of just 3%
 . Pills have to be taken daily for a period of 21 days starting preferably within the first
five days of menstrual cycle. After a gap of 7 days it should to be repeated in the same
pattern till the female desires to prevent conception.
 Pills are very effective with lesser side effects hence are well accepted by the females. Ex;
Mala-D, Mala-N,
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

>Saheli- it is non-steroidal oral contraceptive (mini pill) for the females

* It contains a non-steroidal preparation called centchroman.
* It is a once a week pill with very few side effects and high contraceptive value.
 It was developed by the scientists at central Drug Research Institute (CDRI) in Luck now.
e) IMPLANTS: it is a new form of birth control using synthetic progesterone.
 They acts similar to oral contraceptive by preventing ovulation and thickening of cervical
mucousa EX; Norplant.
 Norplant consists of six small, match stick sized plastic cylinders containing progestin.
Norplant’s are inserted directly under the skin of the upper arm (sub cutaneous) above
the elbow in a relatively simple surgical procedure.
 Once implanted, Norplant is effective for five years. Studies have shown that the
effectiveness of Norplant is about 99.7 percent. However majority of women using
Norplant experience irregular menstrual bleeding
.f) Injective Contraceptive: EX; Depo-Provera is an injectable form of “birth control pill
hormones” that prevent ovulation.
 One injection lasts for about three months and is convenient and relatively safe.
 note: Administration of progestogens or progestogen estrogen combinations or IUDs
within 72 hours after coitus have been found to be very effective as emergency
contraceptives these could be used to avoid possible pregnancy due to rape or casual
unprotected intercourse. Ex: morning after pills like i-pill, pill-72, & unwanted 72.
(g)TERMINATION or PERMANENT METHODS OF BIRTH CONTROL.
>Surgical Intervention/ sterilization methods: these are completely effective and
permanent, means of birth control involving the surgical removal of a portion of the tube
through which gametes are delivered to the reproductive organs. The failure rate of such
surgical approaches is almost zero percent. The common surgical methods are.
a) Vasectomy: it is a sterilization method of birth control in males.
 In this method small portion of the vasa deference is removed or tied up through by
making small incision on the scrotum
 This prevents passage of sperms into the male organ permanently.
b)Tubectomy; it is a sterilization method of birth control in females.
 In this method small portion of the fallopian tube is removed or tied up through a small
incision in the abdomen or through vagina.
 Surgical intervention blocks gamete transport and thereby prevents conception.
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

******Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP): Intentional or voluntary termination

of pregnancy before full term is called medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) or induced
abortion.
 MTP has a significant role in decreasing the population though it is not meant for that
purpose.
 Whether to accept/legalise MTP is being debated upon in many countries due to
emotional, ethical, religious and social issues involved with it.
 Government of India legalised MTP in1971 with some strict conditions to avoid its
misuse. Such restrictions are mainly to check indiscriminate and illegal female
foeticides which is reported to be high in India.
 MTP’s are considered relatively safe during the first trimester, i.e., up to 12 weeks of
pregnancy. Second trimester abortions are much more risky.
 Uses of MTP
1) MTP is meant for getting rid of unwanted pregnancies either due to casual unprotected
intercourse or failure of contraceptive used.
2) MTP is also essential when continuation of pregnancy is fatal either to the mother or
the foetus or both.
> Disadvantages/misuses of MTP
 Since Majority of the MTP’s are performed illegally by unqualified quacks it could be
fatal.
 Another dangerous trend is the misuse of amniocentesis to determine the sex of the
unborn child. If the foetus is found to be female, it is followed by MTP-this is totally
against what is legal.

********Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) (give more importance for

causative agent and disease caused)
1)Diseases or infections which are transmitted through sexual intercourse with infected
persons are called sexually transmitted diseases or venereal diseases (VD) or Reproductive
tract infections (RTI)
 BACTERIAL DISEASES
 Disease: Chlamydia:
CAUSATIVE AGENT: chlamydia trachomatis

 In males, it causes urethritis. Symptoms of urethritis include a thick discharge, burning

sensation during urination, frequent and painful urination.
 In females, the most common site of infection is the cervix, resulting in cervicitis and
production of a thick mucus and pus discharge.
Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

 Disease: GONORRHOEA
Causative organism: Neisseria gonorrhoea.
Mode of transmission: Discharge from infected mucus membranes during sexual contact or
during passage of a new-born through the birth canal.
Males usually suffer from inflammation of the urethra with pus and painful urination. In
females, infections typically occur in the vagina, often with a discharge of pus.
 Disease: SYPHILIS

 Causative organism: Treponema pallidum.

 It is transmitted through sexual contact or exchange of blood or from infected mother to
foetus through the placenta.
 The disease progresses through several stages.
 In the primary stage, it causes painless open sore, called chancre, at the point of contact.
 The chancre heals within 1-5 weeks.
 In the second stage i.e. From 6 to 24 weeks symptoms such as a skin rash fever and joints
and muscles pain appear.
 in the next stage “which is symptomless called the latent stage, which last up to 20
years, the bacteria may invade body organs. When signs of organ degeneration appear,
the disease is said to be in tertiary stage.
 VIRAL DISEASES:

 Disease : Genital herpes

Causative organism: herpes simplex virus (HSV-2)
It causes genital infections, such as painful blisters on the prepuce, glans penis, and on the
vulva or sometimes high up in the vagina in females.

 Disease Genital Warts

Caused by : Human papilloma virus (HPV).
 Patients with a history of genital warts may be at increased risk of cervical, vaginal,
anal, vulval, and penile cancers.
Note: a) Trichomoniasis-----Trichomonas vaginalis.

******Complications of sexually transmitted diseases

 Pelvic inflammatory diseases (PID),
 Abortions,
 still birth (birth of a dead foetus),
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

 Ectopic pregnancies (implantations of the fertilized ovum outside the uterine cavity)
 Infertility or even cancer of the reproductive tract.
Methods to prevent STD’s
i) Avoid sex with unknown partner/ multiple partners
ii) Using condoms during intercourse.
iii) If a person is detected of STD one should get complete treatment
****INFERTILITY: The inability to conceive or produce children even after two years of
unprotected sexual cohabitation is called infertility’.
 There are many reasons for infertility. Which may be physical, congenital, diseases,
drugs, immunological or even psychological?
 Causes of infertility in males
 Cryptorchidism---testis are unable descend into the scrotum.
 Alcoholism.
 Azoospermia---absence of sperms in semen.
 Oligospermia: it is a condition of having “low sperm count.”
 Ejaculatory duct obstruction (EDO) is a blockage in a man’s ejaculatory ducts may be
caused by an injury or infection, or it may be a congenital issue which has been present
since birth.
 Varicocele: Some men develop enlarged varicose veins in the scrotum. This can affect the
reproductive function in several ways, any of which may impact sperm production,
quality, and transport.
 Poor sperm motility or morphology: Sometimes a man is producing a good quantity of
sperm, but there are issues with how the sperm are shaped (morphology) or how they
move (motility) these problems can mean that the sperm has a hard time reaching or
penetrating the egg.
 Previous vasectomy: This is a straightforward cause of infertility, where a man who
underwent a vasectomy at an earlier point in his life now wishes to conceive.
 Premature ejaculation: If a man consistently ejaculates before vaginal penetration (which
can be caused by prostate health issues, mental health issues, and certain medications.
 Erectile dysfunction/impotence: Consistent trouble achieving or maintaining an erection
(often due to medical issues) can make conceiving naturally extremely difficult or even
impossible.
 Causes of infertility in females.
 Chapter – 3:Human reproduction and Reproductive health Notes BY:Shantharaj

* (PID) Pelvic Inflammatory Disease: is one of the most serious consequences of some
bacterial
Infections including gonorrhea or chlamydia
 Polyps in the uterus.
 Endometriosis or fibroids.
 Scar tissue or adhesions.
 Chronic medical illness.
 Previous ectopic (tubal) pregnancy.
 Birth defect. Non canalization of vagina and fallopian tube

*******Assisted ReproductiveTechnologies (ART).: Technologies which assist

childless couple to have children are collectively called assisted reproductive technologies.
1. In vitro Fertilization (IVF): It involves fertilization of ovum outside the body followed by
Embryo Transfer (ET) into the uterus.. This technique is popularly known as ‘test tube
baby’ programme.
a) Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer (ZIFT)
In this technique, ova from the wife/ donor female and sperms from the husband / donor
male are collected and fused under simulated conditions in the laboratory to form a zygote.
The zygote is allowed to divide and is then transferred into the fallopian tube of the female
b) Intra Uterine Transfer (IUT).: .If the embryo formed from zygote is with more than 8
blastomeres, it is then transferred directly into the uterus hence. It is called Intra Uterine
Transfer (IUT).
2. Gamete Intra fallopian Transfer (GIFT): In this technique, ovum is collected from a
donor female and it is transferred into the fallopian tube of another female who cannot
produce ovum, but can provide suitable environment for fertilization and development of
embryo inside the uterus..
3. Intra-Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI): In this technique the sperm is directly
injected into the ovum under appropriate conditions in the laboratory.
4. Artificial Insemination (AI): In this technique, the semen collected either from the
husband or a healthy donor is artificially introduced either into the vagina or into the
uterus of the female. This technique is used when the male is inability to inseminate the
female or due to very low sperm counts in the ejaculates,
Note: introduction of the semen directly into the uterus is termed as Intra uterine
insemination (IUI).
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