Biology

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Cell

"Cell is the fundamental

and structural unit of life."

1.1 Introduction
The cell occupies the same central position in biology as the atom in the THE
physical sciences.
Cell is the fundamental and structural unit of living organisms and basic
SPOT P
unit of life.
LIGHT
The word cell came from latin word
Cell biology or cytology : Study of cell in all respect of structure and function.
cellula meaning small room. Plant cell
Discovery of cell was the first cell to be discovered by
(i) Robert Hooke (1665) observed dead cell which resembled honeycomb scientists.
like structures in cork (comes from bark of tree). He called these boxes
cell. He published what he observed under microscope in his book
Micrographia.
(ii) Antony Van Leeuwenhoek (1674) was first to observe living cell like
bacteria and protozoa in water.
(iii) Robert Brown (1831) discovered the nucleus.
(iv) J. E. Purkinje (1839) used the term protoplasm. It is living matter
present inside the cell.
(v) T. H. Huxley (1868) described protoplasm as "physical basis of life".
(vi) Rudolf Virchow (1855) German pathologist established that all cells arise
from pre existing cells (“omnis cellula e cellula”). Fig.1 Cork cells as discovered by
1.2 The cell theory Robert Hooke under his microscope
The German botanist Matthias Jacob Schleiden and the German zoologist
Theodor Schwann in 1838 gave the cell theory.
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Further formalized by the German researcher Rudolf Virchow in 1858. In

its modern form, this theory has four basic parts: THE
(1) The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life; all organisms
are composed of cells.
SPOT P
LIGHT
(2) All cells are produced by the division of pre-existing cells.
Jan Swammerdam in 1658 gave the
(3) All basic chemical and physiological functions - for example, repair, first description of the cell in his
growth, movement and digestion - are carried out inside the cells. account of the red blood cells of the
(4) The activities of cells depends on the activities of subcellular structures frog.
within the cell (these subcellular structures include organelles, the plasma
membrane, and, if present, the nucleus).

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ACTIVE BIOLOGY 1.1
Aim
Observation of plant cells.

Method

(i) Separate out a thin onion scale from an onion.

(ii) Tear it from the concave side so as to get a transparent, thin and
Nucleus membranous onion peel piece called epidermis.

(iii) Now keep this onion peel piece in a watch glass containing water.
Cells
(iv) Cut out a small portion of this peel and place it flat on a glass slide
on a drop of water with the help of a thin camel-hair paint brush.

(v) Add a drop of safranine.

Fig.2 Cells of an onion peel
(vi) Drain out the excess stain and mount the onion peel in a drop of
glycerine under a coverslip.
(vii) Examine the slide under low and high powers of a compound
microscope.

THE
SPOT P Fig.3 Separation and mounting of onion peel
LIGHT Observation
The discovery of electron microscope
by Knoll and Ruska, in 1939 made The epidermal cells of onion peel can be seen as regularly arranged linear
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it possible to observe and understand or rectangular compartments with rigid cell walls. Nucleus is pushed towards
the complex structure of cell and its the periphery due to presence of a central vacuole.
organelles.
Precautions

(i) Immediately put the peel of onion bulb in a water containing

petri-dish to avoid its folding and drying.

(ii) Spread the peel uniformly on the slide.

(iii) Excess of stain should be drained off.

(iv) There should be no air bubble under the coverslip.

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ACTIVE BIOLOGY 1.2
Aim
To prepare a temporary stained slide of squamous epithelial cells of cheek
of man. Plasma
membrane
Method
(i) Wash your mouth and scrap a little of the internal lining of your mouth Nucleus
with a clean tooth pick or spatula or ice-cream spoon.
(ii) Place the scrapping in a watch glass containing a very small quantity
of normal saline with the help of needle.
(iii) After cleaning, transfer the material to a glass slide.
(iv) Put a drop of methylene blue and wait for a couple of minutes.
(v) Wipe off the extra stain with a dropper or blotting paper.
(vi) Put a drop of glycerine on the stained material. Fig.4 Cheek Cells
(vii) Place a coverslip. Tap the coverslip with the blunt end of needle so
as to spread the cells.
(viii) Observe the temporary mount under low and high power of
microscope.
Observation
The cells are flat and polygonal in shape with distinct rounded nucleus in
the middle. Each cell is bounded by a thin cell membrane. Cytoplasm is
lightly stained.
Precautions THE
(1) Do not scrap the cheek too hard as it may injure the buccal mucosa. SPOT P
(2) Scrapped material should be spread uniformly on the slide. LIGHT
(3) Excess of stain should be drained off. Cells are measured in micrometres
(4) There should be no air-bubble under the coverslip. or microns (m). A micron is
one-thousandth part of a millimetre
These activities prove that not only cheek of man but all the organisms
(10–6 ).
that you observe around are made up of cells. This confirms that the basic
structural unit of life is cell.
Size and shape of cell
Size of cell : Normal size in human – 20 µm to 30 µm in diameter.
(i) Largest cell : In animals – Ostrich egg [15 cm in diameter]
In plants – Acetabularia [6-10 cm]
(ii) Longest cell : In animals – Nerve cell [upto 1 meter]
In plants – Ramie fibre. [55 cm]
(iii) Smallest cell : PPLO – Pleuro Pneumoniae Like Organism
[Mycoplasma – 0.1 - .25 µm.]

BUILDING CONCEPTS 1.1 THE

P
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How does the smallness of cells provides greater efficiency ? SPOT

Explanation LIGHT
The smallness of cells provides more surface area per unit volume. With Largest human cell : Female ovum
an increase in size, this ratio gradually decreases. Since many nutrients (0.01 mm in diameter)
enter and wastes leave the cell by diffusion, and the rate of diffusion is Smallest human cell : Red blood cell
directly proportional to the surface area available, a small cell is more (7.5 mm in diameter).
efficient than a larger one. Thus, the larger surface area of the cell in relation
to its volume causes greater diffusion of :
Respiratory gases, i.e, oxygen into the cell and carbon dioxide out the cell.
Intake of nutrients.
Metabolic wastes from the interior of the cell to the outside.
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Shape of cell : Shape of cell mainly depends upon the specific
function it performs.
(i) Elongated & branched – Nerve cell (ii) Discoidal/saucer – RBC
(iii) Spindle – Muscle cell (iv) Spherical – Eggs
(v) Branched – Pigment cell of the skin (vi) Slipper shaped – Paramecium
(vii) Cuboidal – Germ cells of gonads (viii) Polygonal – Liver cells

THE
SPOT P Smooth muscle cell

LIGHT
All cells are found to have the same
Bone cell
organelles, irrespective of their
function and location in an organism.
Blood cells

Ovum
Human sperm
Fat cell

Nerve cell

Fig.5 Different shapes and sizes of cells of human body

BUILDING CONCEPTS 1.2

How the cell shapes suit various function ?
Explanation
Cells show a great variation in their shape. They may be spherical, oval,
rounded, elongated, cuboidal, cylindrical, tubular, discoidal or irregular.
The shape of cells is often related to the different functions they perform.
Human white blood cells are amoeboid (showing amoeba-like movement with
pseudopodia) and can squeeze out through capillary walls. Red blood cells are
circular and biconcave to move easily through small spaces and transport oxygen.
Nerve cells are long to conduct impulse from distant parts of the body to
the brain and vice-versa. Muscle cells are long and contractile to help in
the movement of bones. Xylem vessels are long and elongated to help in
the conduction of water and minerals.
Guard cells in the leaves of a plant are kidney-shaped to open and close
the stomata to allow exchange of gases.
THE Number of cell :
SPOT P Unicellular organisms : The organisms which are made of single cell are
called unicellular organisms.
LIGHT
Example bacteria, Amoeba, Paramoecium, Chlamydomonas.
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The size of organism is dependent

upon the number of cell and not on The single cell is able to perform all life processes, like obtaining of food,
the size of the cell. respiration, excretion, growth and reproduction.
Few-celled organisms : Some very small plants and animals are made up
of relatively few cells-just a few hundred or a few thousand cells.
e.g. Spirogyra, Volvox
Multicellular organisms : The organism which are made million of number of
cells are called multicellular organisms.
e.g. Fungi (except yeast), plants and animals.
All the cells of multicellular organisms have similar basic structure and under
take similar basic functions.

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BUILDING CONCEPTS 1.3
Which property of multicellular organisms differentiate them from
unicellular organisms ?
Explanation

Due to the property of division of labour the cells in multicellular organisms

are specialised to perform different functions of the body and in unicellular
organisms only a single cell has to perform all activities.

CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 1.1

(a) Leeuwenhoek's (b) Robert Hooke's
simple microscope compound microscope
1. Who discovered cell and how ?
2. Why is the cell called structural and functional unit of life?

1.3 Invention of microscope

A microscope is an instrument used to magnify objects i.e. increase the
size of image.

Simple microscope: The first microscope called simple microscope was

developed by a Dutch cloth merchant, Antony Van Leeuwenhoek. He clamped
a very tiny biconvex lens between two brass plates and made microscopic (c) Light (d) Electron
microscope microscope
observations. In this microscope, the eye was kept close to the lens on one
side while the object to be viewed was placed at the screw point on the other Fig.6 Various types of microscopes
side of the lens. Leeuwenhoek constructed many simple microscopes by using
lenses of magnifying power ranging between 75 to 250 times.

Compound microscope: Robert Hooke (1635-1703), an English scientist,

developed a microscope using two lenses to achieve greater magnified view THE
of the object. In this microscope, the light coming out from an oil flame SPOT P
was thrown on the object placed on a stage below by using a convex mirror. LIGHT
Such microscopes are now called light or compound microscopes. Zacharias Janssen is associated with
the invention of the first optical
Modern compound microscopes: Improvements were made in the Hooke's telescope. He is sometimes also
microscope from time to time. The optical microscopes or ordinary compound credited for inventing the first truly
compound microscope.
microscopes which are used in science laboratories are, in fact, improved design
of the Hooke's microscope. In such a microscope, the objective lens is
positioned close to the object to be viewed and the other lens called eyepiece
lens provides further magnification of the image formed by the objective lens.
Some compound microscopes have a magnification up to 1,000 times.
THE
P
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Electron microscope: Ernst Ruska (1906-1988) and Max Knoll SPOT

(1897-1969), German scientists, devised a microscope called electron LIGHT
microscope which could magnify an object up to 40,000 times. In this In addition to magnifying a
microscope, a beam of electrons was sent through the thinly sectioned specimen, a microscope must
produce a clear image of the closely
object. This beam was focussed by electromagnets and projected on to a spaced parts of the object. The
fluorescent screen to produce a virtual image of the object. ability to provide such an image is
called the resolving power of
Later on such electron microscopes were invented which could magnify microscope.
an object 2,00,000 times and more, and could produce a three-dimensional
image of the object.

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CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 1.1
1. Robert Hooke (1665). The scientist found that cork possesses a number
of small box-like structures which he named cellula which later was
abbreviated to cell. His work was published in the form of a book called
Micrographia.
2. A living organism is made up of one or more cells. Therefore, cell is structural
and functional unit of life. All life functions of an organism reside in its cells.
THE Cells may also become specialised to perform specific functions like
SPOT P contraction in muscle cell or impulse transmission in nerve cell. Therefore,
cells are functional units of life.
LIGHT 1.4 Basic structure of the cell
Plasma membrane is flexible and is
made of a bilayer of lipids (called Structure of cell
phospholipids) and proteins. This
structure was explained by Singer
and Nicolson in the fluid mosaic Cell membrane Protoplasm
model of plasma membrane.

Cytoplasm Nucleus
Nuclear membrane
Matrix Cell organelles Inclusions Nucleoplasm
Mitochondria Nucleolus
Chloroplast Chromatin Threads
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi body
Lysosomes
Ribosomes
Centrosomes
Vacuole
(A) Plasma membrane or cell membrane
All living cells, prokaryotic and eukaryotic, have a plasma membrane that
encloses their contents and serves as a semi-permeable or selectively
permeable barrier to the outside environment. The plasma membrane is
permeable to specific molecules, however, it allows nutrients and other essential
elements to enter the cell and waste materials to leave the cell. Small molecules
such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water are able to pass freely across the
membrane but the passage of larger molecules, such as amino acids and sugars,
is carefully regulated. The plasma membrane is flexible and made up of organic
molecules called lipids and proteins. Flexibility enables the cell to engulf in
THE
SPOT P food and other materials (endocytosis). E.g. Amoeba.

LIGHT
Hydrophilic heads of
In the plasma membrane, some phospholipid molecules
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carbohydrate molecules may be

attached to the protein or lipid
molecules. Thus forming glycoproteins Hydrophobic tail of
and glycolipids. phospholipid molecules

Completely embedded
intrinsic protein molecules
Extrinsic protein
molecules
Partially embedded
intrinsic protein molecules
Fig.7 Fluid mosaic structure of the plasma membrane by Singer and Nicholsan (1972)

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BUILDING CONCEPTS 1.4
What is the role of membrane carbohydrate in cell-cell recognition?
Explanation
Short chains of sugars are linked to proteins and lipids on the exterior side
of the plasma membrane, where they help in interaction with the surface
molecules of other cells.
THE
(B) Cell wall
It is the outermost rigid, non living and freely permeable layer found outside
SPOT P
the plasma membrane in all the plant cells, bacteria, blue-green algae, LIGHT
some protists and all fungi. It is absent in the animal cells. Between cell Cellulose is a complex fibrous car-
bohydrate which cannot be digested
walls of adjacent cells is the middle lamella, a thin layer of polysaccharide by human beings and several other
(pectins). Middle lamella glues the cells together. animals.
Structure and function
Cell wall of plant cells is formed of a fibrous polysaccharide called cellulose,
while it is formed of peptidoglycan in bacteria and blue-green algae but
is formed of chitin in most of fungi. Cell wall is a protective and supportive
coat. It also provides a definite shape to the cell.
(C) Cytoplasm
The fluid content/protoplasmic mass of the cell inner to plasma membrane
excluding nucleus is called cytoplasm.
The cytoplasm is composed of the matrix, the organelles and non-living
THE
inclusions like vacuoles and granules.
The Matrix : It is a transparent, homogeneous semi-fluid substance. In its
SPOT P
active state, it remains saturated with water. If the water content is decreased,
LIGHT
Non-living cytoplasmic inclusions in-
its vital activity is also reduced, and may even halt, as in the case of dry
clude reserve food, excretory
seeds. Living cytoplasm is always in a state of movement. granules, secretory granules and
crystals of minerals.
The Organelles : Organelles are living parts of the cell having definite
shape, structure and function. These tiny chemical factories produce
hormones, enzymes and other substances which are released for the use
in the cell and elsewhere in the body.
Inclusions : As a result of diverse metabolic activities of the cell organelles,
a variety of soluble and insoluble chemical products accumulate within the
cell. These are generally found stored in vacuoles or granules.
Cell organelles
They are sub-cellular structures which have characteristic form, structure
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and function where certain processes are localized in eukaryotes. THE

(In prokaryotes, beside the absence of defined nucleus, membrane bound
cell organelles are absent). They are of following types :
SPOT P
LIGHT
(1) Endoplasmic Reticulum - wrapping it up Endoplasmic reticulum is a cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum is a complex network of membrane bound channels organelle with single membrane
covering.
or sheets, tubules and vesicles. It does not work alone. The ER works closely
with the Golgi apparatus and ribosomes. It creates a network of membranes
found through the whole cell. The ER may also look different from cell
to cell, depending on the cell's function.

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Two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum
There are rough ER and smooth ER. They both have the same types of
membranes but they have different shapes and rough ER has ribosomes
THE
SPOT P attached. Rough ER looks like sheets of bumpy membranes while smooth
ER looks more like tubes. Sometimes the ER looks like a flat balloon. Sacs
LIGHT of the ER called cisternae store the complex molecules.
Smooth ER are the sites of lipids syn-
thesis, mainly steroids (a type of
Function of Endoplasmic Reticulum
ringed organic molecules used for (i) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is important in the synthesis and storage
many purpose in an organism).
of steroids.
(ii) Some of the proteins and lipids synthesized by RER and SER respectively
help in building the cell membrane which is known as membrane biogenesis.

Rough
Endoplasmic
Reticulum

Ribosome

Smooth
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
THE
SPOT P
LIGHT Fig.8 Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
The cytoplasm surrounding Golgi (iii) ER serves as channels for the transport of materials between various
body have fewer or no other
regions of cytoplasm or between cytoplasm and nucleus.
organelles. It is called Golgi ground
substance or zone of exclusion. (iv) It also functions as a cytoplasmic framework providing a surface for
some of the biochemical activities of the cell.
(v) SER plays an important role in detoxifying many poisons and drugs and
is also a site of lipid synthesis.
(vi) RER is engaged in synthesizing proteins and enzymes.
(2) Golgi complex
Discovered by Camillo Golgi (1898) in nerve cells of owl. It is located near
the nucleus.
Golgi bodies are pleomorphic structures, because components of golgi body
are different in structure & shape in different cells.
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It is formed of four types of components.

THE
SPOT P (i) Cisternae : These are long flattened and unbranched saccules. 4 to
8 saccules are arranged in a stack.
LIGHT
Golgi apparatus is a cell organelle (ii) Tubules : These are branched and irregular tube like structures
with single membrane covering.In associated with cisternae.
plants, Golgi body is known as
Dictyosomes, as they are found scat- (iii) Vacuoles : Large spherical structures associated to tubules.
tered (net like pattern) in the plant cell.
(iv) Vesicles : Spherical structures arise by budding from tubules. Vesicles
are filled with secretory materials.

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Transport vesicles
reaching forming face
Cis face (convex, facing
nucleus)
Saccule
Swollen
End
Golgi Ground
(Concave, facing
substance plasma membrane)
Trans face
Tubule Coated THE
Secretory vesicles
leaving mature
face
vesicles
SPOT P
LIGHT
Fig.9 Golgi complex
Acrosome is a bag like structure filled
Function with lytic enzymes which dissolve egg
(i) It is involved in cell-secretion and acts as storage, modification and membrane at the time of fertilization.
condensation or packaging organelle.
(ii) It forms the acrosome of sperm.
(iii) It forms the lysosomes and secretory vesicles.
(iv) It is the site for formation of glycolipids and glycoproteins.
(v) Synthesis of cell wall material (Polysaccharide synthesis).
(vi) Cell plate formation (phragmoplast) during cell division in plant cells.

BUILDING CONCEPTS 1.5

What would happen to the life of a cell if there was no golgi apparatus?
Explanation
There would be no lysosomes for intracellular digestion and cleaning, no
complexing of molecules, no secretion and no formation of plasma membrane.
(3) Lysosomes - little enzyme packages
Lysosomes are spherical bag like structures covered by membrane.
Lysosomes hold enzymes that were created by the cell.
A lysosome is basically specialized vesicle that holds a variety of hydrolytic
enzymes. The enzyme proteins are first created in the rough endoplasmic
reticulum. Those proteins are packaged in a vesicle and sent to the Golgi
apparatus. The Golgi then does its final work to create the digestive enzymes
and pinches off a small, very specific vesicle. That vesicle is a lysosome.
From there the lysosomes float in the cytoplasm until they are needed.
THE
P
Functions of lysosomes
(i) The purpose of the lysosome is to keep the cell clean by digesting any SPOT
foreign materials as well as worn-out cell organelles. They might be used LIGHT
to digest food or break down the cell when it dies. Lysosomes are called digestive bags
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because they contain lots of diges-

(ii) Intracellular digestion.
tive enzymes. Lysosomes are the cell
(iii) Formation of bones by the digestion of cartilages. organelle with single membrane cov-
ering.
(iv) Metamorphosis (conversion of larva into adult).

BUILDING CONCEPTS 1.6

Why are lysosomes known as suicidal bags ?
Explanation
At the time of cellular damage, the lysosomes burst to release its enzyme
and they digest its own cell. Therefore, lysosomes are also known as suicidal
bags of a cell.
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(4) Mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) : Power house of the cell
Structure of the mitochondrion is long and slender, or even bean-shaped,
or oval as seen under an electron microscope.The mitochondria have two
membranes protecting it on the outside.The outer most layer is smooth,
and also contains transport proteins that passes materials in and out of the
mitochondrion.The outer compartment, the area between the two
THE
SPOT P membranes, is filled with liquid. The inner membrane folds inward and
these invaginations are called cristae. It looks like folds and are the sites of
LIGHT ATP synthesis. At the cristae are present tennis racket like structures called
Cristae increases the surface area for Oxysomes or Elementary particles or F1 - F0 particles.
ATP-generating chemical reactions.
Mitochondrial matrix have enzymes for aerobic respiration. Beside these
enzymes matrix have a complete protein synthesis apparatus (Ribosome-
70-s, DNA & RNA, enzymes) so mitochondria called as semi autonomous
cell organelles.
Sometimes, a cell might only have one mitochondrion, but cells, such as
muscle cells, that require large amounts of energy have great numbers of
mitochondria. Muscle cells might contain thousands of mitochondria.

Outer
THE membrane Inner Inter-membrane
SPOT P membrane
space

Crista
LIGHT Matrix

Animal cells have a greater distribu-

tion of mitochondria than plant cells.
In plants, energy is also produced
during photosynthesis. This compen-
sates for the less number of mitochon-
dria in plant cells.

Fig.10 Structure of Mitochondria (Longitudinal section)

(5) Plastids
Plastids are major organelles found in the cells of plants and green algae.
Plastids are the site of manufacture and storage of important chemical
compounds used by the cell. Plastids often contain pigments used in
photosynthesis and the types of pigments present can change or determine
THE the cell's colour. Plastids are responsible for photosynthesis, storage of
SPOT P products like starch. They are double membranous cell organelles. Plastids
LIGHT are of three types-
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Chloroplasts and mitochondria are (i) Chromoplasts

semi autonomous cell organelle as For pigment synthesis and storage. Chromoplasts are red yellow and
they are having their own DNA and orange in colour and are found in petals of flower and in fruits.
ribosomes which are useful in
protein synthesis. Their colour is due to two pigment, carotene and xanthophyll.
(ii) Leucoplasts
Leucoplasts are colourless or white plastid. They occur in plant cell not
exposed to light, such as roots and seeds.
Leucoplasts are the centre of starch grain formation and they are also
involved in the synthesis of oil and proteins.

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(iii) Chloroplasts

Chloroplasts probably the most important among the plastids since they
are directly involved in photosynthesis. They are usually situated near
the surface of the cell and occur in those parts that receive sufficient
light. e.g. the palisade cells of leaves. The green colour of chloroplasts THE
is caused by the green pigment chlorophyll. The chlorophyll in SPOT P
photosynthetic prokaryotic bacteria is associated with membranous LIGHT
vesicles (bag like structures) but not with plastids as in eukaryotic cells. During ripening of fruits, the colour
changes from green to yellow or
Structure of chloroplast
reddish because of the degeneration
Chloroplasts are usually disc-shaped and surrounded by a double membrane. of chlorophyll and the masked
carotene pigments take over.
Inside the inner membrane there is a watery protein-rich ground substance
or stroma. In the stroma three-dimensional arrangement of membrane
bound vesicles called thylakoids are present. The thylakoids usually lie in
stacks called grana and contain the photosynthetic pigments - chlorophyll
a and b and yellow to red carotenoids. The grana are interconnected by
tubular membranes called the intergranal frets or lamellae.

Stroma Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

70S 80S

Inter-lamellar
50S 60S
Granum junction (fret) Subunit Subunit

30S 40S
Subunit Subunit
Thylakoids
Ribosome

Fig.11 Chloroplast Fig.12 Structure of Ribosome

Functions of chloroplast
Chloroplasts are the sites for photosynthesis.

They contain enzymes and coenzymes necessary for the process of

photosynthesis.

CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 1.2

1. Why is plasma membrane called selectively permeable membrane? THE
2. What are oxysomes ? SPOT P
LIGHT
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(6) Ribosomes
Ribosomes are smallest and mem-
Ribosomes are the protein builders or the protein synthesizers/protein brane less cell organelles. They are
composed of RNA and proteins. It is
construction teams of the cell. These proteins might be used as enzymes
also called organelle within an or-
or as support for other cell functions. It is also known as Engine of cell. ganelle and protein factory of cell.

A ribosome consists of two subunits. Scientists named them 60-S (large) and
40-S (small).

The 60-S / 40-S model works fine for eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells
have ribosomes made of 50-S and 30-S subunits.

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Ribosomes can either be free or bound (attached).
Free ribosomes : They are floating in the cytoplasm. Those floating
ribosomes make proteins that will be used inside the cell.
Bound ribosomes : Other ribosomes are found attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum (rough endoplasmic reticulum). These attached
ribosomes make proteins that will be used inside the cell and also for
exporting out of the cell.
THE
SPOT P (7) Vacuoles
Vacuoles are membrane bound non-cytoplasmic sacs that contain non living
LIGHT liquid or solid contents.
Contractile vacuole in unicellular
fresh water organisms take part in There are common fluid filled vacuoles which occur in both plant and animal
osmoregulation and excretion. cells. In animal and young plant cells, sap vacuoles are small. In mature
plant cells, there is a large central vacuole occupying 50–90% of cell volume.
The covering membrane of the sap vacuole is called tonoplast. The fluid
content of the vacuole is called cell sap. Sap vacuole stores salts, sugar,
amino acid, organic acids and some proteins. It is also a dump for waste
products in plant cells. Sap vacuole helps in maintaining turgidity and rigidity
of the cell. It also regulates osmotic absorption of water.

THE CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 1.2

SPOT P 1. Cell membrane is semipermeable membrane for water. It permits the entry
LIGHT of gases through diffusion. Ions, sugar, amino acids, etc. pass through the
Peroxisomes contain oxidases, plasma membrane by an active process. Plasma membrane is impermeable
peroxidases and catalases which are
oxidative enzymes. They can me- to certain other materials. Therefore, it is selectively permeable.
tabolize (H2O2) hydrogen peroxide 2. In the mitochondria at the cristae are present tennis racket like structures
formed by the activity of oxidases.
called Oxysomes or Elementary particles or F1- F0 particles. They are the
site for generation of ATP.
(8) Centrosome
Centrosome was discovered by Benden. Boveri named it as centrosome. It
is found in animal cells but absent in plant cells with a very few exceptions.
The centrosome is located in the cytoplasm near the nucleus. It consists of two
centrioles - oriented at right angles to each other - embedded in a mass of
amorphous material (centrosphere).
THE
SPOT P Function : In animal cells centrioles play important role in initiation of cell
division by arranging spindle fibres between two poles of cell.
LIGHT
Photorespiration - is a process in (9) Peroxisomes or Uricosomes
plant metabolism which attempts to They are semi-spherical in shape and often have a granular or crystalline
node05\B0B0-BA\CBSE\9th\ICSE Part-1\Biology-1\01_Cell.p65

reduce the consequences of a waste-

ful oxygenation reaction by the
core. The core is probably made up of a collection of enzymes. The enzymes
enzyme RuBisCo. that are found in peroxisomes take hydrogen from various substrates and
bind it to oxygen, making the by-product hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). In
animal cells peroxisomes are concerned with peroxide (H2O2)metabolism.
Peroxisomes play an important role in the liver, where they detoxify alcohol
by removing hydrogen to form H2O2. Although, hydrogen peroxide is
toxic, enzymes do exist in peroxisomes that convert it into water.
In plants, peroxisomes occurs in cells of green tissues and are concerned
with photorespiration.

12
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(D) Nucleus-Headquarter of the cell
Discovered by – Robert Brown (1831)
"Nucleus is double membrane bound dense protoplasmic body, which controls
all cellular metabolism and encloses the genetic information of cell".
Nucleus is considered as controller or director of the cell. THE
Study of nucleus is known as karyology. SPOT P
Structure : It is made up of following four contents LIGHT
Sieve tube in plants and mature mam-
malian red blood cells do not have a
Ribosomes
nucleus.
RER
Nucleolus Nuclear Pores

Chromatin
material

ER

Outer Membrane
Inner Membrane Nuclear
Perinuclear Space Envelope
Ribosomes
Nucleoplasm

THE
Fig.13 Structure of nucleus
SPOT P
(a) Nuclear membrane/ Nuclear envelope/Karyotheca LIGHT
(b) Nuclear sap/Nucleoplasm/Karyolymph Nucleopore takes part in exchange
of different substances between nu-
(c) Nucleolus cleoplasm and cytoplasm.

(d) Chromatin threads

(a) Nuclear envelope : Nucleus is surrounded by two membranes, that
separates nucleoplasm from cytoplasm. The nuclear membrane has
minute pores. These are called nucleopores.
(b) Nucleoplasm : The part of protoplasm which is enclosed by nuclear
membrane is called nucleoplasm. It contains chromatin threads and
nucleolus.
(c) Nucleolus : Discovered by Fontana. Usually one nucleolus is present
in each nucleus but sometimes more than one nucleoli are present. It is THE
a store house of RNA. SPOT P
LIGHT
node05\B0B0-BA\CBSE\9th\ICSE Part-1\Biology-1\01_Cell.p65

(d) Chromatin threads: A darkly stained network of long and fine threads
called chromatin threads. Chromatin threads are intermingled with one Chromosomes are chemically made up
of DNA and histone proteins. DNA car-
another forming a network called chromatin reticulum. Whenever the cell ries all genetic information which is
is about to divide the chromatin material gets organized into chromosomes. passed on to next generation. The func-
tional segments of DNA are called
Number of chromosomes : The number of chromosomes is definite in the genes.
cells of each species, e.g., every human body cell (except sperms in males
and ova in females) contains 46 or 23 pairs of chromosomes. Similarly the
number of chromosomes in the cells of a few other species are as given in
table below

13
ICSE : Class IX
ALLEN
Organism 2n (Diploid Number)
Ascaris and Mucor 2 1 pair
Drosophila 8 4 pairs
Pea 14 7 pairs
Lion, cat and Tiger 38 19 pairs
Rat and wheat 42 21 pairs
Man 46 23 pairs
Amoeba proteus 250 125 pairs
THE Ophioglossum 1262 631 pairs
SPOT P From the number of chromosomes, it is quite clear that the complexity and
LIGHT structure of an organism are not determined by the number of chromosomes.
Gene : Chromosomes are made of Rather, these are the genes which determine the characteristics and
chromatin, which is composed of functioning of all species.
hereditary units called genes.
Genes are made of complex Functions of nucleus
chemical substance DNA.
The nucleus performs following functions :
(1) It controls all the metabolic activities of the cell.
(2) It brings about growth of the cell by directing the synthesis of structural
proteins.
(3) Nucleolus takes part in the formation of ribosomes.
(4) It regulates cell cycle.
THE
SPOT P (5) It contains genetic information and is concerned with the transmission
of hereditary traits from one generation to another.
LIGHT On the basis of the presence or absence of a well developed nucleus,
The DNA pattern helps in ascertain-
ing the identity of a person and hence organisms can be of two types
the term DNA fingerprinting. This (1) Prokaryotes : Organisms, whose cells lack a nuclear membrane and
technique can even testify the
percentage of an individual. the genetic material lies freely in the form of nucleoid, are known as
Now, DNA-fingerprinting has prokaryotes. Ex. Bacteria, blue green algae.
become very common.
(2) Eukaryotes : Organisms, whose cells have a well organized nucleus
with nuclear membrane are known as eukaryotes.
Ex. All plant and animal cells.

CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 1.3

THE
SPOT P 1. Name the cell organelle in which following structures are present :

(A) Cristae (B) Stroma (C) Centriole (D) Chromosome

LIGHT 2. Name the type of plastid which stores food.
The life activities that differentiate
node05\B0B0-BA\CBSE\9th\ICSE Part-1\Biology-1\01_Cell.p65

protoplasm from nonliving substances 3. If the cellular organization is destroyed due to some physical or chemical
are growth, nutrition, respiration,
influence. What will happen ?
excretion, metabolism, irritability, etc.
It responds to external stimuli like 4. Where are proteins synthesized inside the cell ?
pin-pricks, electric shock, sudden
change in temperature, etc. Protoplasm
(Proto-first ; plasma-form) Protoplasm is the living substance of a cell. The
portion of protoplasm that occurs in the nucleus is called nucleoplasm and
the portion that occurs outside the nucleus is called cytoplasm. Protoplasm
is a translucent, semi-fluid granular substance which loses its transparency
on heating.

14
 Biology
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Protoplasm is a complex mixture of several chemical compounds. The
common elements found in protoplasm are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, iron, phosphorus, sulphur, etc. These combine to form
carbohydrates, proteins, fats and nucleic acids. Certain acids, bases, salts
and water are the important inorganic chemical compounds found in the
protoplasm.

Animal cell vs plant cell

THE
Cell wall
Animal cell
Absent Present
Plant cell
SPOT P
Plasma Membrane Only cell membrane
is present
Cell wall and cell
me mbrane both
LIGHT
are present Plant cells have a definite cell wall,
contain plastids and a well
developed vacuole whereas in
Lysosomes Lysosomes occur in Lysosomes usually
animal cells, cell wall and plastids
cytoplasm not evident
are lacking but a centrosome is
Nucleus Present Present present.
Shape of the cell Round (irregular shape) Rectangular (fixed
shape)
Plastid Animal cell don't have Plant cell have
plastids
plastids
Cytoplasm Present Present
Endoplasmic Present Present
Reticulum
(Smooth and Rough)
Ribosomes Present Present
Mitochondria Present Present
Vacuole One or more small One, large central
vacuoles (much smaller vacuole taking up
than point cells). 90% of cell volume.
Centrioles Present in all animal cells Only present in lower
plant forms.
Golgi Apparatus Present Pr ese nt an d are
called dictyosomes

Microvilli
THE
SPOT P
Golgi
apparatus
Plasma membrane
LIGHT
Centriole Stem cells : Stem cell is an undiffer-
node05\B0B0-BA\CBSE\9th\ICSE Part-1\Biology-1\01_Cell.p65

Lysosome
entiated cell in the embryo or adult,
Smooth which can undergo unlimited
endoplasmic Peroxisome
Ribosomes divisions and can give rise to one or
reticulum
Nuclear several different cell types.
envelope
Mitochondrion
Nucleolus

Rough
Nucleus endoplasmic
reticulum
Cytoplasm

Fig.14 Animal cell

15
ICSE : Class IX
ALLEN
Rough endoplasmic
Mitochondrion reticulum
Smooth Lysosome
endoplasmic
Chloroplast (opened to
reticulum
show thylakoids)
Plasma Golgi apparatus
membrane Nucleus
THE
SPOT P Nucleolus
Nuclear envelope

LIGHT Cytoplasm Adjacent cell wall

Mycoplasma is a prokaryote which Cell wall
does not have a cell wall. Ribosome

Chloroplast
Peroxisome
Fig.15 Plant cell

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 1.3

THE
SPOT P 1. (A) Mitochondria
(C) Centrosome
(B) Chloroplast
(D) Nucleus
LIGHT 2. Leucoplasts
Viruses being acellular are neither 3. Lysosomes will burst to release digestive enzymes. Digestive enzymes cause
prokaryotic nor eukaryotic.
break down of various cellular component causing destruction of the cell.
4. In the free and bound ribosomes.

Difference between prokaryotes & eukaryotes

Characteristic Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
THE Size of cell Typically 0.2-2.0 µm in Typical 10-100 µm in
SPOT P Nucleus
diameter
No nuclear membrane
diameter
True nucleus, consisting of
LIGHT
or nucleoli nuclear membrane &
The Nucleoid (meaning nucleus-like)
is an irregularly shaped region with nucleoli
in the cell of a prokaryote that con- Membrane Absent Present ; examples include
tains all or most of the genetic mate-
rial. enclosed lysosomes, Golgi complex,
organelles endoplasmic reticulum
mitochondria, chloroplasts
Cell wall Usually present ; When present, made up of
made up of peptidoglycan cellulose or chitin

P la sm a
m embran
e Ribosom
es
Plasma membrane No carbohydrates and Steroid and carbohydrates
node05\B0B0-BA\CBSE\9th\ICSE Part-1\Biology-1\01_Cell.p65

Cell wal
l generally lacks steroid that serve as receptors
are present
Cytoplasm No cytoskeleton or Cytoskeleton ; cytoplasmic
cytoplasmic streaming streaming present
N ucleoi
d
Ribosomes Smaller size (70S) Larger size (80S) ; smaller
Fig. 16 Bacteria size (70S) in organelles
Chromosome Single circular Multiple linear chromosomes
chromosome
Cell division Binary fission/ Amitosis Mitosis, meiosis

16
 Biology
ALLEN
EXERCISE # 1
Multiple choice questions 10. If the nucleus is a cell's "control centre" and
chloroplasts its "solar collectors". Which of the fol-
1. The term "protoplasm" to the living substance
lowing might be called the cell's "food processor"
present inside the cell, was given by
and "garbage disposer"?
(1) Robert Hooke (2) Robert Brown
(1) Lysosome (2) Ribosome
(3) J.E. Purkinje (4) W.Flemming (3) Golgi apparatus (4) Nucleolus
2. The longest cell in human body is 11. Lysosomes are the reservoirs of
(1) Neuron (2) Muscle fibre (1) Fat
(3) Epithelial cell (4) Bone cell (2) RNA
3. Animal cell is limited by (3) Secretory glycoproteins
(1) Plasma membrane (4) Hydrolytic enzymes
(2) Nuclear membrane 12. Which one of the following is common in plant and
(3) Cell wall animal cell ?

(4) Basement membrane (1) Mitochondria (2) Chloroplast

(3) Centriole (4) Cell wall
4. Which one is not a part of nucleus?
13. In chloroplasts, chlorophyll is present in the
(1) Chromatin (2) Nucleolus
(1) Stroma (2) Thylakoids
(3) Centrosome (4) Nucleoplasm
(3) Outer membrane (4) Inner membrane
5. The common feature amongst nucleus, chloroplast
14. Identify human cells which lack nucleus
and mitochondria is
(1) WBC (2) RBC
(1) DNA (2) Lamellae
(3) Muscle cells (4) Nerve cells
(3) Cristae (4) All of these
15. Which of the following is called 'An organelle within
6. Nucleus is separated from surrounding cytoplasm
an organelle' ?
by a nuclear envelope which is
(1) Plastid (2) Ribosome
(1) Single and porous (3) Lysosome (4) Microsome
(2) Double and porous 16. Which of the following organelles lack membranes?
(3) Single and non porous (1) Ribosome (2) Mitochondria
(4) Double and non porous (3) Golgi complex (4) Nucleus

7. The function of the nucleolus in the cell is 17. The membrane surrounding the vacuole of a plant
cell is called
(1) Secretory
(1) Tonoplast
(2) Synthesis of DNA
node05\B0B0-BA\CBSE\9th\ICSE Part-1\Biology-1\01_Cell.p65

(2) Plasma membrane

(3) Synthesis of RNA and ribosomes
(3) Nuclear membrane
(4) None of these
(4) Cell wall
8. The cell organelle associated with cell secretion is
18. A mature plant cell has
(1) Plastids (2) Mitochondria
(1) Protoplasm and vacuole
(3) Golgi apparatus (4) Nucleolus
(2) Vacuole and cell wall
9. Double membrane is absent in
(3) Cell wall and protoplasm
(1) Mitochondrion (2) Chloroplast
(3) Nucleus (4) Lysosome (4) Protoplasm, cell wall and vacuole
17
ICSE : Class IX
ALLEN
19. Centriole is associated with True or false

(1) DNA synthesis 1. Robert Hooke discovered the nucleus.

(2) Reproduction 2. The ostrich egg is the largest animal cell known.

(3) Spindle formation 3. Membranes are useful for compartmentalisation in cells.

(4) Respiration 4. The plasma membrane has a rigid structure.

20. Which of the following is an inclusion? 5. Knoll and Ruska discovered the electron microscope.

(1) Mitochondria 6. Dictyosomes are found in plant cells.

(2) Lysosome 7. Oxysomes are found in Golgibodies.

(3) Golgi complex 8. Golgibodies are also considered as "traffic police

man of cell".
(4) Starch grain
9. The functional segments of DNA are called genes.
21. The cell organelle taking part in photorespiration is
10. Ribosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes.
(1) Glyoxysome
Fill in the blanks
(2) Dictyosome
1. Centrioles help in cell division by forming..........
(3) Peroxisome
2. ............... and ............... are semi autonomous
(4) Endoplasmic reticulum
organelles.
22. Centrioles are found in
3. In plant cells, the vacuoles are filled with.........
(1) Chromosomes (2) Nucleus
4. During cell division chromatin is condensed into thick
(3) Centrosome (4) Centromere cord like structures called...............

23. Peroxisomes contain 5. A compound microscope can magnify an object

upto ..... times.
(1) Hydrolytic enzyme
6. The cells having well organised nucleus are
(2) Transferase
called............
(3) Isomerase
7. The body of Amoeba is made up of .......cell.
(4) Oxidising enzyme (Oxidase)
8. Ribosomes are associated with the synthesis of
24. How many lens systems are present in a compound .............
microscope ?
9. The cellular organelle often referred as suicidal bag
(1) One (2) Two is .............
node05\B0B0-BA\CBSE\9th\ICSE Part-1\Biology-1\01_Cell.p65

(3) Three (4) Four 10. Chromosomes are made up of ..........and ..........

25. The ability to distinguish two closely placed objects One word questions
by an optical system is called
1. An organism whose body is made up of many cells.
(1) Video power
2. An organism whose cells do not have well organised
(2) Resolving power nucleus.

(3) Magnifying power 3. The living substance present inside the cell.

(4) Distinguishing power 4. Part of a cell performing specific function.

18
 Biology
5. Controlling centre of a cell. 11. Name the outermost covering of animal cell.

6. "Power houses" of a cell. 12. Name the nucleic acids that are present in an
animal cell.
7. "Suicide bag" of a cell.
13. What for ATP stands ?
8. Protein factories of a cell.
14. Name the cell organelle known as "kitchen of the
9. Inner membrane of mitochondria is thrown into folds cell".
known as
15. Name the cell organelle known as "engine of the
10. First living cell was discovered by cell".

EXERCISE # 1 ANSWER KEY

Multiple choice questions

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
A ns. 3 1 1 3 1 2 3 3 4 1 4 1 2 2 2
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
A ns. 1 1 4 3 4 3 3 4 2 2

True or false

1. F 2. T 3. T 4. F 5. T 6. T 7. F 8. T 9. T 10. F
Fill in the blanks

1. Spindle fibres 2. Mitochondria, chloroplast 3. Cell sap 4. Chromosomes 5. 1000

node05\B0B0-BA\CBSE\9th\ICSE Part-1\Biology-1\01_Cell.p65

6. Eukaryotic cells 7. Single 8. Protein 9. Lysosome

10. DNA, Protein
One Word answers

1. Multicellular 2. Prokaryote 3. Protoplasm 4. Cell organelle 5. Nucleus

6. Mitochondria 7. Lysosomes 8. Ribosomes 9. Cristae
10. Antony van Leeuwenhoek 11. Cell membrane 12. DNA & RNA
13. Adenosine triphosphate 14. Chloroplast 15. Ribosome

19
ICSE : Class IX

EXERCISE # 2
Short answer type questions Long answer type questions
1. Why does rough endoplasmic reticulum look rough 1. Distinguish between cell wall and cell membrane.
under microscope ? 2. Explain the structure of nucleus. What is its function?
2. What name is given to the Golgi apparatus occuring 3. What is the main function of each of the following
in plant cells? Why is it named differently in plant organelles:
cells ? (i) Cell wall (ii) Plasma membrane
3. Why are lysosomes called scavengers ? (iii) Chromosomes (iv) Nucleolus
4. What are suicidal bags? Why are they called so ? (v) Mitochondria (vi) Chloroplasts
5. Why are mitochondria called the power house of (vii) Golgi apparatus (viii) Lysosomes
the cell ? (ix) Centrioles (x) Vacuoles
4. Comment on the following :
6. Do you agree that " A cell is a building unit of an
organism". Explain why ? (i) Chloroplast is called "Kitchen of the cell".
(ii) Chloroplast is semi-autonomous structure.
7. How does a cell act as basic structural and functional
unit of an organism ? (iii) Lysosomes are Garbage disposers.

8. What is the function of mitochondria ? 5. Describe the ultrastructure of a typical animal cell.
6. Differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic
9. Categorize the cells on the basis of presence or
cells.
absence of nuclear membrane.
7. The figure shows an organelle.
10. How is rough ER different from smooth ER? What
functions do they perform in a cell ?
11. Describe the functions of Golgi complex. 1
12. Why do plant cells possess large sized vacuole ? 2
13. How can mitochondria make their own protein ? 3
14. What are different types of plastids? What are their 4
functions ?
15. What would happen to the life of a cell if there was (i) Name the organelle.
no Golgi apparatus ? (ii) In which cell this structure is present ?
16. What are the functions of ribosomes ? (iii) What is the function of the structure ?
17. Do plant cells contain centrioles ? (iv) Label the parts 1 to 4.
18. Why does the plant cell remain more rigid than the 8. The figure shows a certain structure of a cell.
animal cell ?
19. What are genes ?
20. Name the components which consititute ribosomes.
21. Draw a neat and labelled diagram of a chloroplast.
node05\B0B0-BA\CBSE\9th\ICSE Part-1\Biology-1\01_Cell.p65

22. Who put forward the cell theory ? What are its salient
features ?
23. What is the contribution of the following scientists ? (i) Name the structure.
(i) Huxley (ii) Purkinje (ii) Why is it important to the cell ?
(iii) Leeuwenhoek (iv) Knoll and Ruska
(iii) Is this structure present in all the cells ? If not
24. Draw a labelled diagram to show the structure of a mention the cell.
plant cell.
9. Describe the structure of Mitochondrion.
25. Mention three features found only in plant cells and
10. List any five common features found both in plant
one found only in animal cells.
and animal cells.

20