Paper No.

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Paper Title: Food Chemistry

Module-08: Dietary Fibre: Classification, Properties and Role in Health

Dietary Fiber is an important part of a healthy diet. It can be defined as a food material,
particularly plant material, that is not hydrolysed by enzymes secreted by the human
digestive tract but that may be digested by microflora in the gut. Plant components that fall
within this definition include non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) such as celluloses, some
hemi-celluloses, gums and pectins, as well as lignin, resistant dextrins and resistant starches.
In the year 2009 the Codex Alimentarius Commission defined that “Dietary fiber means
carbohydrate polymers with ten or more monomeric units, which are not hydrolyzed by the
endogenous enzymes in the small intestine of humans and belong to the categories:

 Edible carbohydrate polymers naturally occurring in the food as consumed;

 Carbohydrate polymers, which have been obtained from food raw material by
physical, enzymatic, or chemical means and which have been shown to have a
physiological effect of benefit to health as demonstrated by generally accepted
scientific evidence to competent authorities;
 Synthetic carbohydrate polymers, which have been shown to have a physiological
effect of benefit to health as demonstrated by generally, accepted scientific evidence
to competent authorities.

1. Classification: Fiber can be classified based on structural components or solubility

characteristics. The classification that is increasingly used and popular is the one based
on solubility. As suggested by the term, soluble fiber characteristically dissolves in
water, while insoluble fiber does not, but instead retains water.

2. Sources and types of dietary fiber: Dietary fiber is found only in plant foods: fruits,
vegetables, nuts and grains. Meat, milk and eggs do not contain fiber. The form of food
may or may not affect its fiber content. Canned and frozen fruits and vegetables contain
just as much fiber as raw ones. Some types of processing, though, may reduce fiber
content, drying and crushing, for example, destroy the water-holding qualities of fiber.
Table 1 provides the sources of dietary fibre and Table 2 gives information on the Major
dietary fiber polymers found in major food groups.

Table 1. Fiber Types and Characteristics, Food Sources and Bacterial Degradation.
Types of fibre Characteristics Food sources Degradation
Soluble
Pectins 1-4% plant polysaccharides, fruits and vegetables Whole wheat flour +
bran, cabbage, beans,
Gums Legumes, oats, fruits, vegetables, food additives Oatmeal, dried beans +++
Mucilages Synthesized by plant cells Food additives +++
Insoluble
Cellulose Structural framework, cereals, Whole wheat flour, +
grains, fruits, vegetables, bran, cabbage family,
legumes
Hemicellulose 15-30% cell wall matrix for Bran, cereals, whole + +
cellulose

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 Lignin Mature cell walls Mature vegetables, 0
wheat

Table 2. Major Dietary Fiber Polymers found in Major Food Groups

Food Groups Polymers Present

Cereals Cellulose,Arabino Xylans,Β – D-glucans, Other non cellulosic

polysachharides,Phenolic Esters, Lignin
Vegetables& Fruits Cellulose,Pectic substances,Xyloglucans,Other non cellulosic
polysachharides,Lignin
Seeds Cellulose,Pectic substances,Xyloglucans,Other non cellulosic
polysachharides,Galactomannans
Food Additives Gums,Alginates,Sulphated galactans,Cellulosic esters and ethers,
Modified starches (carboxy methyl cellulose)

2.1Pectin
This is the most widespread soluble dietary fibre in foods and chemically known as
polygalacturonic acids. Pectic polysaccharides are structural elements of primary cell walls
and intercellular regions and commercially pectin can be isolated from either apple pomace
or from citrus peels (levels up to 30% on a dry weight basis) of higher plants, functioning as
hydrating agent and cementing material of the cellulosic network. They make about one-
third of the cell-wall dry substances and the highest concentration is seen in the middle
lamella, with a gradual decrease from the primary cell wall toward the plasma membrane.
They are widely found in fruits, vegetables, legumes, and roots (i.e. sugar beets and
potatoes) as storage polysaccharides. The functional groups of the polymer are present
either as free carboxylic acids, methyl esters, or carboxylate anions (as sodium, potassium,
or calcium salts). The degree of esterification determines the properties of pectins.

2.2 Gums: Polysaccharide gums are numerous and diverse in nature. They can be harvested
from seeds, plant exudates, bacterial cultures, and algae. Although these polysaccharides are
technically classified under dietary fibers, they are generally used in very small quantities in
foods, and therefore contribute little to total dietary fiber intake. The most popular seed
gums include guar gum and locust bean gum. Guar gum is harvested from the seeds of
Cyamopsis tetragonolobus, and locust bean gum comes from Ceratonia siliqua. These
gums are made up of the same basic chemical structure, a - β (1→4)-linked D-
mannopyranosyl backbone with α-D-galactose side chains linked (1→6) to the mannose
backbone. The physical characteristics depends on the degree of the galactosyl branching
and pattern of branching basic structure. Plant exudate gums include gum arabic, gum
tragacanth, gum karya, and gum ghatti. The polysaccharide fraction of the crude gum
consists of an arabinogalactan with a β-(1→3)-linked galactopyranosyl backbone, heavily
substituted at C-6 with side chains consisting of arabinose, galactose, glucuronic acid, and
rhamnose.

2.3 Mucilages: The term mucilage describes a group of clear, colorless, gelling agents
derived from plants. Psyllium is one example of the mucilage fibre. Psyllium is the
common name used for several members of the plant genus Plantago whose seeds are used
commercially for the production of mucilage. The genus Plantago contains over 200
species. P. ovata and P. psyllium are produced commercially in several European countries,

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the former Soviet Union, Pakistan, and India. Unlike the rest of the dietary fibers psyllium
refers to the crude source of dietary fiber, rather than the polysaccharide fraction itself. The
gel-forming component of the husk, representing 55–60% of the dry weight, is a neutral
arabinoxylan consisting of a β -(1→4)- linked xylopyranosyl backbone, substituted at
position 2 with single xylopyranosyl residues, and at position 3 with a trisaccharide
moiety:α-L-arabinofuranosyl-(1→3)-β-D-xylopyranosyl-β(1→3)-β- arabinofuranosyl-
(1→3) . In contrast, the major polysaccharide in psyllium seeds is an acidic
glucuronoarabinoxylan, the backbone of which consists of (1→3)-xylopyranosyl linkages
interspersed among the normal β -(1→4)-linkages.
2.4 Cellulose : Cellulose is a homopolysaccharide consisting of β -(1→4)-linked glucose
residues . The nature of the β- (1→4) linkage allows cellulose polymers to arrange into
rigid, insoluble microfibrils through multiple hydrogen bonds. These microfibrils provide
structural integrity and mechanical support for plants .In its native state, cellulose is found in
whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. It can be obtained commercially from wood pulp and
added to food as an anti caking, thickening, or texturizing agent; however, its uses in food
are limited because cellulose often imparts a gritty texture and demonstrates little
functionality in food. These short comings can be overcome by chemical modification and
high shear accompanied by alkaline and hydrogen peroxide treatments. Cellulose contains
multiple hydroxyl groups, which may be chemically modified to change its functionality.
These modifications can result in water- or oil-soluble polymers that can be used in food or
drug delivery applications. These modified celluloses are further categorized on the basis of
their degree of substitution, which is defined as the average number of substituted hydroxyl
groups on each glucose residue of the cellulose chain. Because each glucose monomer
contains three available hydroxyl groups, the maximum degree of substitution that modified
cellulose can have is three.
2.5 Hemi cellulose: Hemi cellulose is a polysaccharide substance extractable from
agricultural biomass with aqueous alkali solutions. Hemicelluloses include a number of
complex polysaccharides made up of a variety of pentoses and hexoses, including arabinose,
fructose, galactose, glucose, mannose, and uronic acids. There are two main types of
hemicelluloses that occur in food: xylans and galactans. β -Glucans and mannans are also
important food polysaccharides that have sometimes been grouped under hemicelluloses.
Xylans can be found in hardwoods, herbaceous plants, and grasses, but the most important
food sources of xylans are cereals. Cereal xylans are referred to as arabinoxylans,
(glucurono) arabinoxylans, or heteroxylans, depending on the nature of the side chains along
the xylan backbone. One of the most unique aspects of these xylans is the presence of
feruloyl cross links. In their native structure, these cross links serve to provide structure and
rigidity to the cell wall. In food formulators, this key function makes the polymers insoluble
and poorly functional in foods. Feruloyl crosslinks can be removed by alkali saponification
resulting in a soluble, more functional arabinoxylan however; commercial production of
alkali extractable arabinoxylan has been limited by the costs associated with processing.
Beta- Glucan
Both cellulose and beta-glucan are similar in that they are both β-linked glucans; cellulose
forms rigid water-insoluble microfibrils, while β -glucan is water soluble. The water
solubility of β -glucans can be attributed to its glycosidic linkages, which, depending on
source, can differ markedly. The most important and widely studied β -glucans, from the
dietary perspective, are the cereal β -glucans that are found in the highest concentrations in
oats and barley. This - β glucan is a linear polysaccharide consisting of β -(1→4) linkages,
which are interrupted usually every 2–4 glucose units by a β (1→3) linkage. Bacteria can

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also produce β -glucans, the most prevalent of which is curdlan, an essentially linear homo
polysaccharide of β (1→3)-linked glucopyranosyl units. This type of β-glucan is also
produced by some types of algae. Some yeast and mushrooms produce a β -glucan
consisting of a β - (1→3) linked backbone, with β -(1→6)-branches on about 5% of the
glucose units. These differences in structure affect the physiological properties

2.6 Lignins: This substance is the only non carbohydrate type of dietary fiber. It is a large
compound that forms the woody part of plants. In the intestine, it combines with bile acids
to form insoluble compounds, thus preventing their absorption. Lignin is a complex polymer
of phenylpropane units, which are cross-linked to each other with a variety of different
chemical bonds. lignins arise from radical coupling reactions of three primary precursors,
the monolignols p-coumaryl, coniferyl and sinapyl alcohols.

3. Nutritional value of dietary fiber

For many years, dietary fiber was not considered to have a significant nutritional value.
Many fibers are fermented in the large intestine to produce hydrogen, methane, carbon,
dioxide, and short-chain fatty acids.The short-chain fatty acids are rapidly absorbed from the
gastrointestinal tract and contribute to the energy balance of the body. Because not all fibers
are degraded equally by bacteria, an average of 2 kcal/g fiber has been suggested. Actual
values range from 0 to 3 kcal/g for no fermentable and highly fermentable fibers,
respectively.

4. Physicochemical Properties of Dietary Fiber

Soluble fibers are highly fermentable and are associated with carbohydrate and lipid
metabolism. Insoluble fibers contribute to fecal bulk and reduced transit times. Particle size,
water holding capacity, viscosity, cation exchange capability and binding potential are
specific for every fiber source. These properties change when a food undergoes cooking and
digestion. Other key physical properties include water binding and capacity to swell, bulk
volume density, gelation /viscosity, oil absorption (bile and binding ability) cation exchange
capacity, particle size, color and taste / odour and microbial degradation are better predictors
of physiological function.

4.1 Viscosity
Polysaccharides such as pectins, β-glucans, various gums and algal polysaccharides are
capable of forming highly viscous solutions. This results in poorer mixing of enzymes and
substrates and affects delivery of absorbable nutrients to the mucosal cells. Hence, overall,
the presence of highly viscous materials in the stomach and small intestine slows the
digestion and absorption of nutrients. Viscous polysaccharides blunt the appearance of
glucose in the plasma when included in a glucose tolerance test, and they can delay the
disappearance of starch from the small intestine. These effects of fiber are most likely
related to the viscosity of these fiber sources.

4.2 Water Holding Capacity (WHC)

WHC measures the ability of a fiber to hold water and is related to solubility of the
polysaccharide. Pectin’s, gums, α-glucans and certain hemicelluloses have a high WHC.
WHC has an important relationship with several of the physiologic effects of fibers. For a
polysaccharide to become viscous in the gut it must have a high solubility and WHC, within

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the large intestine, a high WHC facilitates degradation of the polysaccharides by allowing
greater penetration of microbes into the polysaccharide structure. WHC also contribute to
fecal bulking of a fiber by holding water in the fecal residue.

4.3 Bile binding capacity

Bile binding capacity of the fibers cause increase in the excretion of bile acids and also the
turnover of cholesterol and contribute to the ability of certain fibers to lower plasma
cholesterol. Within the small intestine, bile acids and phospholipids are required for micelle
formation and the subsequent digestion and absorption of lipids.

4.4 Particle size

Particle size is also important for determining whether the cell wall is left intact in foods or
is disrupted by grinding for example a finely ground whole-grain starch is more digestible
than in ungrounded whole rice gram.
4.5 Microbial degradation and Short Chain Fatty Acids (SCFA)
The polysaccharides associated with dietary fiber are important for the growth and
metabolism of the micro flora normally present in the human large intestine. This micro
flora, which is a significant proportion of the fecal weight, has the important function of
degrading residual food components and endogenous secretions that enter the large
intestine. In healthy subjects consuming a mixed diet, 70 to 80 % of the fiber disappears
during transit through the gut. Degradation of polysaccharides results in production of
carbondioxide, hydrogen, methane and SCF A of which acetate, butyrate and propionate are
the major anions. The increase in stool weight attributed to an increase in consumption of
fiber from fruits or vegetables is due primarily to an increase in the microbial mass of feces.
Hence, the microbial degradation of fiber is an important determinant of the fecal bulking
ability of fiber sources. About 200 to 300 m mol of SCF A are produced daily in the colon.
These SCFA are absorbed rapidly and the postal concentrations in fed subjects is about 400
rn/L. The potential importance of SCF A is an active area of current investigation.

5. Role of dietary fibre in health

Dietary fiber intake provides many health benefits. Regular intake of dietary fiber reduces
risk for hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and certain gastrointestinal disorders. Furthermore,
increased consumption of dietary fiber improves serum lipid concentrations, lowers blood
pressure, improves blood glucose control in diabetes, promotes regularity, aids in weight
loss, and appears to improve immune function also.

5.1 Physiological actions of TDF in the alimentary tract

Physiological parameters of TDF may be considered on the basis of its progress through the
alimentary tract as follows:

 Mouth and stomach (chewing and salivation, satiation and satiety, gastric emptying)
 Small intestine (digestion of macro nutrients, absorption of nutrients, bile acid re-absorption,
intestinal morphology, intestinal cell proliferation)
 Large intestine / colon (stool weight, water content / dilution; transit time, stool frequency
laxation, micro flora, fermentation, SCF As production, colonic cell proloferation / morphology)
 Blood / hepatic metabolism {Post Prandial serum-glucose and hormone levels, serum lipids (eg.
Cholesterol concentration)

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5.1Cardiovascular health and lipid profile
High levels of dietary fiber intake are associated with lower prevalence rates for CHD,
stroke, and peripheral vascular disease; major risk factors, such as hypertension, diabetes,
obesity, and dyslipidemia, are also less common in individuals with the highest levels of
fiber consumption.
Decades of research suggests that high levels of fibre intake and whole grains are associated
with lower risk of CHD. It was found from seven cohort studies comprising over 158,000
individuals the CHD prevalence was 29% lower in the group with highest intake of
dietary fibre than with those with lowest intake. Whole grain consumption as a source of
fibre might be most protective for CHD. Higher intakes of whole grains are associated with
a 26% reduction in prevalence of ischemic strokes.
Total dietary fiber intake was associated with lower serum LDL-cholesterol values while
soluble fiber was associated with lower systolic blood pressure and total cholesterol values.
Regular use of a soluble fiber can sustain significant hypocholesterolemic effects for long-
term periods. increasing dietary fiber intake or fiber supplementation may have a modest
independent effect in reducing blood pressure, especially in hypertensive individuals.
Psyllium and oat beta-glucan are the most widely used sources of soluble fiber and have
been approved for health claims related to protection from CHD by the FDA. Soluble or
viscous fibers exert primary effects on serum cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol values by
binding bile acids in the small intestine and increasing their excretion in the faeces.

5.2 Glycemic index and diabetes

Fiber has been noted to modify glycemic response and therefore it has been suggested to be
useful in the diabetic diet. Foods with a high glycemic index are rapidly absorbed and cause
a sharp rise in blood glucose whereas foods with a low glycemic index lead to more
moderate rise in blood glucose. Epidemiological studies suggest that higher levels of dietary
fiber intake play a significant protective role with respect to diabetes that is independent of
other dietary factors. Increasing fiber intake in individuals with type 1 or type 2 diabetes was
associated with substantial improvements in glycemic control and reductions in the use of
oral medication and insulin doses. Several studies clearly indicated that increasing dietary
fiber consumption without altering the energy intake from carbohydrates, proteins, or fats
improves glycemic control and reduces the need for medication and insulin in individuals
with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. In the general nutrition guide lines for diabetics a fiber, 25–
50 g/day, (15–25 g/1000 kcal) was recommended.

5.3 Diverticulosis, and Diverticulitis

The physical attributes of fiber contribute to the ability to alter the bulk and composition of
faeces as well as its transit time. Increased faecal bulk from a high dietary fiber intake is due
to the presence of undegraded fiber residue, increase in faecal water, increase in bacterial
cell mass caused by fiber fermentation, and fiber type. Cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin
are more efficient bulking agents. Diverticula is an out pouching of the colon wall which is
the result of the reduced faecal bulk brought by lower fibre intake. However, when fiber

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intake is adequate the increased faecal bulk can reduce the pressure generated by muscular
contraction of the colon, hence reducing the incidence of diverticulosis. This underscores
the need for maintaining adequate dietary fiber intake, especially as we age since the
strength and integrity of the colon wall decreases and becomes more susceptible to
diverticular disease

5.4 Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)

Is a general term for a wide range of gastrointestinal disorders. Both diarrhoea and
constipation are the symptoms of IBS along with abdominal pain or bloating. Wheat bran
and Ispaghula are often prescribed for treatment of IBS. Particularly in constipated
individuals, this treatment provides symptomatic relief. In some individuals, wheat bran
exacerbate symptoms.
Colon Cancer: Fiber may bind with dietary carcinogens minimizing their contact with the
colon and facilitating their excretion. With regard to free radical scavenging, lignin appears
to have some capability. It is likely that the phenolic groups within lignin facilitate this
activity and it has been speculated that this may be a contributing factor in the prophylactic
properties of fiber with regard to certain cancers. It has also been suggested that fiber may
directly affect the colon cells by altering colonic pH or modifying the metabolic by-products
of intestinal flora. One specific metabolic by-product that has been investigated is butyric
acid. Butyric acid is a volatile fatty acid produced after fermentation of dietary fiber by the
microflora in the colon. This volatile fatty acid has been found to stimulate apoptosis of
cancerous colon cells in vitro, thereby providing a potential mechanism for inhibiting
multiplication of carcinogenic cells.

5.5 Energy regulation

By definition, fiber is not enzymatically digested into absorbable sub units. Most fibers
especially soluble ones are fermented to a greater or lesser degree in the large intestine and
the resultant SCFAs are absorbed and used as energy, on an average only 40 % of fiber is
fermented which causes the energy content of fiber per unit weight to be low such that
including fiber in a diet effectively lowers energy density. Furthermore, the capacity of both
soluble and insoluble fibers to bind water leads to an additional lowering of the energy-to-
weight ratio resulting in reduction of voluntary energy intake.

Limitations of dietary fibre

In general the fibre intake has been suggested as 30g/day, however due to the recent disease
burden and other associate problems in the year 2010 ICMR has revised the fibre intake as
40g/ day. The intake of fibre beyond this level may result in the chelation of micronutrients
such as iron, zinc, copper, magnesium, and calcium and also produce phytobezoars
potentially resulting in gastrointestinal obstruction. Balancing the fibre intake and slow
increase of the fire quantity is recommended.

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