International Journal of Sustainable Development and

Planning
Vol. 18, No. 2, February, 2023, pp. 447-455
Journal homepage: http://iieta.org/journals/ijsdp

Review on Carbon Footprint of the Palm Oil Industry: Insights into Recent Developments
Wai Onn Hong

WE ACT Services Sdn Bhd, Jalan Prima Tropika, Taman Prima Tropika, Seri Kembangan 43300, Malaysia

Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.18280/ijsdp.180213 ABSTRACT

Received: 21 December 2022 A typical palm oil mill is estimated to produce greenhouse gas emissions of 637–1,131 kg CO2
Accepted: 3 January 2023 eq/t crude palm oil. Huge efforts are being made to reduce the carbon footprint of palm oil
mills. However, the data from such research works have not been consolidated. This paper is
Keywords: a critical review of the most recent developments in the palm oil milling process and unit
palm oil industry, palm oil milling, carbon operations that leads to greenhouse gas emissions, specifically focusing on the development
footprint, GHG emissions, sustainability of palm oil mills today. In addition, the paper explored the importance of energy self-
sufficiency of palm oil mills. To do so, the author compared this configuration with a mill that
requires an external power supply and estimated that a self-sufficient palm oil mill could
potentially reduce emissions by 457 kg CO2 eq/t crude palm oil. Methods with the greatest
positive effect on the carbon footprint have been identified for further investigation.

1. INTRODUCTION assessments of palm oil production, applications of renewable

energy, and utilization of the generated biomass [6, 7]. Life
Palm oil is an edible vegetable oil that is derived from the cycle assessments have also been performed on CPO
fruit of the oil palm tree. It is an agricultural commodity production [8-10]. However, a thorough scientific review of
produced on a large scale and is consumed and traded globally. the carbon footprints of palm oil mills with different
In order to satisfy the high demand for vegetable oils, global configurations is lacking. Thus, the environmental
palm oil production increased from 24 million tons (t) in improvements made by the industry over the years have not
2000–2001 to approximately 73 million t in 2020–2021 [1]. yet been documented.
The main palm-oil-producing countries are Indonesia and In the current paper, GHG emissions at different unit
Malaysia, which produced 46.5 and 19.8 million t palm oil, operations of a typical palm oil mill are discussed. Further, the
respectively, in 2020–21, equivalent to 85% of the world’s latest initiatives taken to reduce the carbon footprint in palm
total production [1]. The worldwide demand for palm oil is oil mills are examined. The unique configuration and the
expected to hit 156 million t by 2050 [2]; it is mainly driven importance of self-sufficient palm oil mills are also discussed.
by rapidly growing populations and an increase in per-capita To achieve these goals, a collection and analysis of academic
consumption [2, 3]. Such an increase in the demand for palm papers were conducted. Paper search was primarily done using
oil can be attributed to the fact that it is relatively cheap and several large academic databases and search engines,
versatile, both in its edible and non-edible industrial including, but not limited to, Scopus, Google Scholar, PubMed
applications. Palm oil can be fractionated into a liquid called and MDPI. The research was conducted manually using
olein and a solid called stearin. Olein is widely used as cooking phrases such as “palm oil,” “carbon footprint,” “life cycle
and frying oil, whereas stearin finds its applications in solid fat assessment” and “greenhouse gas.” For each of these
formulations and food processing. Palm oil and palm kernel keywords, the results were examined considering the factors
oil are important raw materials for the oleochemical industry. found in the literature review.
However, the production of crude palm oil (CPO) is
frequently criticized for the emission of greenhouse gases
(GHG) and other sustainability-related issues. The main 2. PALM OIL MILL OPERATION
GHGs in Earth’s atmosphere are water vapour, carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone [4]. To tackle Although palm oil mills’ design is based on the concepts
global climate change, Indonesia and Malaysia, the world’s developed in the early 1950s [11, 12], there have been
two largest palm oil producers, have made tremendous efforts significant improvements in all aspects of milling over time.
to adopt sustainable practices in palm oil production and The typical palm oil milling process is best described in the
improve their carbon footprint. According to Pandey et al. [5], form of activities at different stations (Figure 1). Fresh fruit
carbon footprint is defined as the “quantity of GHGs expressed bunches (FFBs) from plantations are transported to a palm oil
in terms of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO 2 eq), emitted into mill. Milling operations include reception, sterilization,
the atmosphere by an individual, organization, process, threshing, digestion, pressing, clarification, purification and
product or event from within a specified boundary”. kernel recovery. The primary products are CPO and palm
A few research works have focused on improving the kernels. The generated biomass comprises empty fruit
sustainability of palm oil mills through environmental bunches, pressed mesocarp fibres, palm kernel shells and

447
decanter solids, whereas the liquid by-product is palm oil mill mill also has a boiler station and a power plant that drive steam
effluent (POME), which is the combination of many waste turbines to generate power and facilitate various processes
sources such as sterilizer condensate, the heavy phase from [13-15].
clarification and wastewater from wet separation. A palm oil

Figure 1. Typical palm oil milling process flow

2.1 Reception and sterilization oil mill and are where palm oil is extracted from the fruits.
Fruitlets discharged from the thresher are conveyed to vertical
FFBs delivered to the palm oil mill are inspected and graded cylindrical digesters, where they are steam-heated and mashed
for ripeness and other characteristics before being loaded onto by stirring arms to loosen the mesocarp from the nuts and to
ramp hoppers and cages. These cages are moved into a break up oil-bearing cells to facilitate better oil release.
horizontal sterilizer and a pressure vessel. FFBs are then Digested mash is then fed into a continuous screw press to
sterilized at 143°C and 300 kPa for approximately 90 min. extract or squeeze out the rich oil-containing liquor, which
This sterilization process helps deactivate the lipase enzymes leaves behind a press cake that consists of pressed mesocarp
which are responsible for the formation of free fatty acids and fibres and nuts. The digestion and pressing stations have also
loosen the individual fruits from bunches for easier separation seen continuous improvements. The screw press design has
in subsequent processing. In addition, it preconditions the nuts been improved to allow palm fruits to undergo either single-
to reduce palm kernel breakage during both pressing and nut- or double-screw pressing. The double-screw press system
cracking processes. The sterilizer condensate generated during enables maximal oil extraction with minimal nut breakage.
this process is a primary source of POME [16, 17]. The The screw press capacity has been increased from 3–4 to 25–
sterilization process has been improved by many new 30 tons FFB/h to reduce the number of units in operation. The
processes and technologies. Various new sterilizers have been most recent development is the use of enzymatic technology
introduced, including cage-less continuous horizontal, to improve oil extraction [18].
vertical, tilting, oblique, spherical and multi-door system
horizontal kinetic sterilizers. The labour-intensive capstan and 2.4 Clarification and purification
bollard system has been replaced by partially and fully
automated cage movement systems [3]. These improvements The Press liquor extracted during pressing comprises a
have not only increased process efficiency and safety but also mixture of palm oil, water and solid or fibrous materials. It is
reduced the overall dependence on labour and vehicles and, diluted with hot water and then screened through a vibrating
thus, fossil fuel consumption. screen to remove coarse contaminants. Subsequently, it is
clarified in a vertical settling or clarifier tank, where gravity
2.2 Threshing separation takes place. In the lighter phase, oil is skimmed off
from the top and purified through a high-speed centrifuge to
A thresher is a horizontal rotating drum. Sterilized fruit remove any traces of impurities before being sent to a vacuum
bunches are loaded at one end and are then lifted and dropped dryer to remove moisture. Finally, CPO is transferred into a
repeatedly as they make their way through a rotating drum, storage tank before it is dispatched to refineries for further
during which the palm fruits are separated from the bunch processing. The underflow or sludge is the heavier phase and
stalks. Detached palm fruits pass through bar screens in the is discharged from the bottom of the clarifier tank, following
drum and are conveyed to a digester, while bunch stalks (i.e. which it is fed into the desander and then a centrifugal
empty fruit bunches) are returned to the plantation as mulch separator such as a decanter or sludge separator for remnant
and manure or are used as a solid fuel for the steam boiler. oil recovery. The remaining water and fibrous debris or
generated heavy phase is discharged as POME [17]. Although
2.3 Digestion and pressing the press liquor is commonly diluted with hot water, some oil
mills use a new oil recovery system without dilution that can
The digestion and pressing stations are the core of the palm

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significantly reduce the amount of liquid by-product Table 1. GHG emissions from a palm oil milling operation
generated.
GHG Emissions
2.5 Kernel recovery (kg CO2 eq/t CPO production)
Ref.
The other product from the pressing station is the press cake. POME Boiler Fossil Fuel
A pneumatic separation system is used to separate nuts and Digestion Emissions Consumption
pressed mesocarp fibres. The nuts are cracked to produce 758a, b - - [21]
kernels and shells, which are separated by a dry separation
process using a multi-stage winnowing system followed by a 744 - 11.1 [22]
claybath and/or hydrocyclone (wet separation). The 637 - 14.1 [23]
wastewater generated from wet separation is another source of
POME [17]. Palm kernels are then dried and stored before 1,094 - - [24]
being dispatched to kernel-crushing plants, whereas palm 885 - 11.1 [25]
kernel shells and pressed mesocarp fibres are used as fuel for
steam and electricity generation. Palm oil mills are energy 792 170.2 - [26]
self-sufficient because of the voluminous biomass available. 965–1,131b 41.28–67.68 9.1–21.3c [8, 27]

2.6 Boiler station - - 5.0c [28]

Note: (a) Average CPO production of 199.5 kg/t FFB [29]; (b) Methane has a
The boiler station produces steam to drive a steam turbine Global Warming Potential of 25 [4]; (c) Emission factor of 2.70 kg CO 2 eq/L
and generate power to facilitate various processes such as diesel consumption [30]
sterilization, digestion and clarification. Steam generation has
advanced from less-efficient and labour-intensive small- 3.1.1 POME Digestion
capacity fire-tube boilers to automated water-tube boilers, Among the three major GHG emission sources, POME
including a “walking floor” boiler fuel storage system, moving digestion in an open ponding system is the dominant one [31,
grates for fuel combustion and an ash removal system [3]. This 32]. It is the most common POME treatment and has been
has reduced the dependence on loaders and manual labour. adopted by over 85% of palm oil mills [33]. A ponding system
Biogas is now being captured from POME for combustion in comprises acidification, anaerobic and facultative (i.e.
the boiler for additional energy. aerobic) ponds. Biogas mainly comprises methane, carbon
dioxide, trace components of hydrogen sulphide and other
2.7 Effluent treatment plant gases [34] that are emitted from POME treatment ponds during
the anaerobic process. As a GHG, methane is 25 times as
The processing of FFBs for CPO and palm kernels results potent as carbon dioxide [35].
in a liquid by-product in the form of POME, which is Previous studies have reported that a mill producing 1 t CPO
generated from the sterilizer, claybath or hydrocyclone, and without biogas capture emits 637–1094 kg CO2 eq from
the sludge separator or decanter. While POME is non-toxic, it POME [21-24]. Vijaya et al. [8] reported that the 12 oil mills
is the primary cause of environmental pollution when selected for their study produced GHG emissions worth 965–
untreated because of its high acidity, chemical oxygen demand 1131 kg/t CPO due to POME digestion. These studies support
and biochemical oxygen demand. The most commonly used the values of 885 and 792 kg CO2 eq/t CPO reported by Kulim
effluent treatment system is the ponding system with [25] and Sime Darby Plantation [26], respectively. The small
anaerobic and aerobic digestion. New tertiary systems have variations in the results were attributed to differences in the
been developed to treat effluent more sustainably and meet ratio of POME generated to 1 t FFBs processed, which may be
stringent regulations. Many palm oil mills are now investing caused by seasonal trends for the crops, the quantity of water
in new technologies to harvest biogas for fuel and reuse other used for crude palm oil dilution, wet separation process in
biomass materials to create an extra revenue stream. kernel recovery station, such as claybath and/or hydrocyclone,
and cleaning of the oil mill [27, 36]. On top of that, the quantity
of POME generated depends also on the crude palm oil
3. RESULTS clarification and purification technology and effluent
recycling initiative. For example, by using emerging
3.1 GHG emissions technology, not only that extra water dilution is not needed,
but also the POME generated is recycled and mixed with
GHGs exist in gaseous form in the atmosphere. They absorb shredded empty fruit bunches at a purpose-built composting
and emit radiant energy within the infrared radiation range, plant for organic fertiliser production. This system can
contributing to global warming and climate change [19]. reprocess all POME generated by an oil mill into fertiliser,
Previous research works have reported that the two major thus significantly reducing effluent generation.
GHG emissions sources associated with palm oil milling
3.1.2 Boiler emission
operations are methane emission from POME treatment in The emission of pollutants from the steam boiler has a
open ponds and fossil fuel consumption [20]. Boiler fuel-gas significant environmental impact. The combustion of pressed
stacks are another source of GHG emissions. Table 1
mesocarp fibres, palm kernel shells, empty fruit bunch fibres,
summarizes the GHG emissions attributed to palm oil milling
or a combination of the above in the boiler’s furnace emits
operation.
pollutants such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, sulphur
dioxide and particulate matter. Vijaya et al. [27] reported that
boiler stacks emit 41.28-67.68 kg CO2 eq/t CPO. Sime Darby

449
Plantation [26] reported that their boiler emitted 170.2 kg CO2 average of 14.9 kg CO2 eq/t CPO, as presented in Table 1.
eq/t CPO. This variation may be attributed to the different These findings align with the value of 11.1 kg CO 2 eq/t CPO
approaches used for emission prevention and particulate reported by Kulim [25]. However, Subramaniam et al. [28]
collection such as cyclone dust collectors, electrostatic reported a lower emission value. They found that oil mills had
precipitators and bag-house filter systems. In addition, the a fuel consumption of 0.37 L diesel/t FFB, which translates to
difference in GHG emissions from the flue gas stack could be 5.0 kg CO2 eq/t CPO based on the Malaysian average of 199.5
explained by the type and mixture of the biomass used as kg CPO/t FFB in 2017–2020 [29] and an emission factor of
boiler fuel. Generally, pressed mesocarp fibres have higher 2.70 kg CO2 eq/L diesel [30].
moisture content and ash content compared to the palm shell. Since the quantity of diesel used to power appliances and
Hence, when more pressed mesocarp fibres are burned, more lights in buildings is greater than that required to operate heavy
particulate is expected to be generated. vehicles, the variations in the results could be explained by the
duration of boiler operation. Assuming two oil mills have
3.1.3 Fossil fuel consumption similar processing hours, the one with longer boiler operation
Palm oil mills can be energy self-sufficient if they use hours would need less diesel fuel. This is possible if the mill
biomass for cogeneration. However, electricity is still needed is either equipped with a “walking floor” boiler fuel storage
for offices, lighting, the housing complex and other facilities system, which enables a continuous feeding of biomass to the
within the mill and estate compound when the mill is not in steam boiler or channelling biogas captured from POME for
operation. Electricity is supplied by a diesel generator set if the combustion in the boiler, even during non-processing hours.
mill is not connected to the electrical grid. Diesel is also
needed for vehicles used by the mill. The diesel consumption 3.2 Carbon footprint reduction
of tractors and loaders varies depending on the operating hours
and level of automation employed in the milling process. Almost all sectors of the global economy are major
Kaewmai et al. [22] and Bessou et al. [23] found stated that contributors to GHG emissions, including energy, transport,
fossil fuel consumption for production, transportation and forestry and land use, agriculture, industrial processes and
combustion resulted in GHG emissions of 11.1 and 14.3 kg waste generation [37]. Developments are being made to reduce
CO2 eq/t CPO, respectively. Vijaya et al. [8] selected five oil palm oil mills’ carbon footprint. These initiatives are
mills that were not connected to the electrical grid and found summarized in Table 2.
GHG emissions worth 9.1–21.3 kg CO2 eq/t CPO, with an

Table 2. Developments for reducing the carbon footprint

Initiatives /
Benefits Remarks / Findings Ref.
Developments

GHG emissions decrease from 546.9 and 896.5 kg CO2 eq/t

GHG emissions drop 85% [27]
CPO to 82.0 and 134.5 kg CO2 eq/t CPO, respectively.

Biogas capture from GHG emissions drop by 90% GHG emissions decrease from 650 to 70 kg CO2 eq/t CPO. [38]
POME Generate carbon offsets of 4,264– Biogas is exported to the electrical grid for electricity
[3]
5,117 kg CO2 eq generation.
See “Biomass as Sold Fuel” Palm kernel shells can be used as an alternative to fossil fuels.
Biodiesel Production
Reduce 84.1%–85.3% GHG Palm sludge oil from POME is converted into biodiesel and
from Palm Sludge Table 3
emission compared with fossil fuel used in vehicle engines.
Oil
Enzyme-assisted Oil Reduce 9% GHG emissions per Not much detail is found. This could be attributed to the lower
[39, 40]
Extraction Process ton CPO methane emissions from open ponds.a
Biomass Utilization Generate carbon credit of 87.4 kg Palm kernel shells are used as an alternative to coal and other
[41]
as Solid Fuel CO2 eq/t CPO fossil fuels.
Note: (a) Based on the author’s experience and observations as a chemical engineer and palm oil mill engineer

3.2.1 Biogas capture from POME 90% reduction in GHG emissions from 650 to 70 kg CO2 eq/t
Biogas plants can be installed in palm oil mills to not only CPO. The biogas captured from POME can be utilized in
generate renewable energy but also prevent methane various ways. Biogas can be used as renewable energy to
emissions. POME generated during palm oil milling operation produce heat or electricity or a combination of both [42-44].
is retained for some time before being discharged. The biogas Hong [3] reported that a mill with a processing capacity of 90
produced by POME degradation can then be utilized for power t FFB/h could produce 1,000–1,200 m3 raw biogas/h. The
generation or is flared to ensure that methane is not released biogas can be exported to the electrical grid to produce
into the atmosphere. One ton of CPO yields approximately approximately 6,500–7,800 kWh worth of electricity based on
85.55 m3 of biogas comprising 65% methane and 35% CO 2 energy content of 6.5 kWh/m3 [45]. For Malaysia, this
with other trace gases [8]. Vijaya et al. [27] found that biogas translates into carbon offsets or carbon credits amounting to
capture reduces GHG emissions due to POME by 85% from 4,264–5,117 kg CO2 eq or 198.4–238.1 kg CO2 eq/t CPO
546.9 to 82.0 and 896.5 to 134.5 kg CO 2 eq/t CPO, based on an emission factor of 0.656 kg CO2 eq/kWh worth of
respectively. Gan and Cai [38] found similar results, with a electricity [46] and average production of 199.5 kg CPO/t FFB

450
in 2017–2020 [29]. When biogas is used in steam boilers, it from milling, it has zero life cycle GHG emissions up to the
offsets the use of palm kernel shells. This enables biomass to point of collection [47]. Hence, the system boundary for this
be used as an alternative to fossil fuels, which can also assessment includes esterification and transesterification
generate carbon offsets or carbon credits. This is how the palm processes and transportation of the biodiesel to Europe for (co-
oil industry could contribute to emission climate neutrality, generated) electricity production. The esterification and
that is, through biogas capture from POME. transesterification processes include the conversion of
glycerides and free fatty acids into biodiesel [39, 48]. The
3.2.2 Biodiesel production from palm sludge oil scope of transportation includes the transportation of the
Instead of being left in the effluent treatment pond, palm biodiesel from the biodiesel plant to the port and shipment to
sludge oil could be an attractive natural source for biodiesel the EU [24]. Depending on the fossil fuel comparators,
production; not only is it a cheap raw material, but utilizing it biodiesel produced from palm sludge oil has a GHG emission
can help address global sustainability challenges [3]. As an reduction potential of 84.1–85.3% (see Table 3), which is
alternative to petrodiesel, biodiesel offers considerable above the 70% threshold specified in the Renewable Energy
benefits regarding GHG emissions. The carbon footprint of Directive (RED) II [49]. Although palm sludge oil-based
biodiesel production using palm sludge oil as feedstock can be biodiesel can significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions as
evaluated by calculating the GHG emissions reduction compared to fossil-based diesel, the usage of palm sludge oil-
compared to fossil fuels. Because palm sludge oil is a residue based biodiesel in the region has yet to change significantly.

Table 3. Palm sludge oil biodiesel production: Estimated GHG emissions

Value Unit Ref.

Output
Palm sludge oil biodiesel 1,000.00 kg biodiesel/1,111 kg palm sludge oil
Input
Utility
Steam 388.89 kg/t biodiesel
151.67 g CO2 eq/t biodiesel [24]
Electricity 33.33 kWh/t biodiesel
30,322.67 g CO2 eq/t biodiesel [24]
Nitrogen 2.78 kg/t biodiesel
156.67 g CO2 eq/t biodiesel [50]
Chemical
Methanol 133.33 kg/t biodiesel
257,638.67 g CO2 eq/t biodiesel [50]
Liquid enzyme 13,333.33 g CO2 eq/t biodiesel
Potassium hydroxide 16.67 kg/t biodiesel
6,985.00 g CO2 eq/t biodiesel [50]
Hydrochloric acid 16.67 kg/t biodiesel
17,685.00 g CO2 eq/t biodiesel [50]
Sodium hydroxide 5.56 kg/t biodiesel
2,942.78 g CO2 eq/t biodiesel [50]
Citric acid 0.56 kg/t biodiesel
535.06 g CO2 eq/t biodiesel [51]
Total GHG emissions of biodiesel 329,750.84 g CO2 eq/t biodiesel
8.91 g CO2 eq/MJ biodiesel
Total GHG emissions of biodiesel, including transport to EU 13.86 g CO2 eq/MJ biodiesel [24]
GHG emissions reduction versus fossil comparator I 84.1% Fossil comparator with 87.3 g CO2 eq/MJ biodiesel [52]
GHG emissions reduction versus fossil comparator II 85.3% Fossil comparator with 94 g CO2 eq/MJ biodiesel [49]
Unless otherwise specified, the information is based on the author’s experience and observation.

451
3.2.3 Enzyme-assisted oil extraction process soybean oil is the second most produced and consumed
Enzymatic technology can make the palm oil industry vegetable oil worldwide, and its production is generally
greener and more efficient by breaking down the cellulose and supplied by electricity and steam from the electrical grid and
hemicellulose matrixes in the oil-bearing cell walls [18, 53, natural gas, respectively [63-65]. Therefore, disregarding the
54]. Enzymes are applied either to the palm fruits before recycling of biomass as solid fuel feedstock unfairly distorts
digestion or to the diluted crude oil after pressing [55-57]. the carbon balance sheet of palm oil mills.
While this is an emerging technology in the field of palm oil Table 4 indicates that a palm oil mill using biomass as a
milling, a full-scale mill operation with an enzymatic palm oil solid fuel feedstock reduces GHG emissions by 456.83 kg CO2
extraction process recorded a 4% increase in the oil yield, a eq/t CPO compared to a mill that only uses electricity and
9% reduction in GHG emissions and a 4% reduction in land steam generated from fossil fuels. These values were
use per ton of CPO produced [39, 40]. Although it is unclear determined based on the average amounts of power and steam
where the improvement comes from, a possible factor may be required to produce 1 t CPO in Malaysia. As a wider
the reduced methane emissions from open ponds. implication, the self-sufficient model of palm oil mills avoided
GHG emissions of approximately 33.22 million t in 2019–20,
3.2.4 Process biomass utilization as solid fuels which is equivalent to 0.1% of global energy-related GHG
Biomass is generated in huge quantities in the palm oil emissions, which was reported to be around 33 Gt in 2019
industry, including in the form of empty fruit bunches, pressed [66].
mesocarp fibres and palm kernel shells. In recent years, empty
fruit bunch fibres and pressed mesocarp fibres have been used Table 4. Palm oil milling operation: Estimated GHG
instead of palm kernel shells as solid fuels for the steam boiler emissions when fossil fuel is used
[58-60]. This allows palm kernel shells to be sold for external
use as a renewable energy resource [41]. This is also consistent Descriptions Value Unit Ref.
with the finding that it is possible to produce pellet solid fuels
from biomass stalk and pulp [61]. Input
Palm kernel shells are classified as a renewable energy kWh/t
source that complies with the energy regulations of developed Power 102.61 [6], [8]
CPO
countries such as Japan, Korea, and in Europe [3]. In Malaysia,
biomass boilers are becoming popular because of their Steam 2.64 t/t CPO [6], [8]
attractive design, as well as low maintenance and cost. Palm Impact
kernel shells are the first choice of biomass material, followed
by wood chips and sawdust pellets [3, 62]. This explains the Power
high demand for palm kernel shells in recent years. Palm Total GHG emissions due to kg CO2
kernel shells, if used to replace coal and other fossil fuels for 67.31 [46]
diesel used eq/t CPO
energy generation, can generate carbon offsets or carbon
credits of 87.4 kg CO2 eq/t CPO [41]. So, upgrading palm Steam
biomass into a renewable energy source would not only Energy required to produce MJ/t
promote better utilisation of agricultural waste but also help 6943.23
steam needed CPO
achieve our societal goals on climate.
(a) Heat required to heat up MJ/t
772.09
water from 30°C to 100°C CPO
4. DISCUSSION (b) Heat required to convert
MJ/t
water at 100 °C into steam at 5,968.48
CPO
4.1 GHG avoidance 100°C
(c) Heat required to convert
Palm oil mills are energy self-sufficient because of the steam at 100 °C into steam 212.65
MJ/t
voluminous biomass available. However, not many studies CPO
at 145°C
have investigated the importance of this unique configuration.
Hence, no proper evidence has been documented on how the Total GHG emissions due to kg CO2
389.52 [67]
use of biomass for steam and power generation curbs GHG natural gas consumption eq/t CPO
emissions. Palm oil mills typically have three electricity Total GHG emissions due to kg CO2
sources: the electrical grid, steam turbines fuelled by biomass 456.83
fossil fuel consumption eq/t CPO
and a diesel-powered generator set [8]. Under normal
operating conditions, the steam turbines are used to generate
electricity. The electrical grid or diesel generator set is only
5. CONCLUSION
used during the daily start-up of mill operation or non-
processing hours. Pressed mesocarp fibres, empty fruit bunch
This review aimed to present a consolidated view of the
fibres and palm kernel shells are biomass generated by the
most recent developments in the palm oil milling process and
milling operation. They can be used separately or in
unit operations that leads to greenhouse gas emissions,
combination as solid fuel feedstock for the steam turbines. The
focusing on the development of palm oil mills today. Based on
generated steam and electricity are primarily used on-site, as
the review, a mill that does not utilize biogas or methane
well as in the employees’ housing complex.
capture has been estimated to emit 637–1,131 kg CO2 eq/t
When calculating GHG emissions, researchers often
CPO. The industry has nonetheless established a few
disregard the unique self-sufficiency of palm oil mills. This
initiatives to reduce palm oil mills’ carbon footprint, which
model is not commonly seen in other industries. For example,
include capturing biogas from POME, converting palm sludge

452
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