CHAPTER > O1 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry @ ‘KEY NOTES Development of Chemistry + Tesanciont lin, chomistry was called Rasryon Shinty, Rastantra, Rs Kriya or svi + According to Rigveda, tanning of leather and dyeing of cotton were practised during 1000-100 BCE Kautilyr’s Arthashastn describes the production of salt from Sea It also mentions about many type of liquors, Sushrute Sanita explains the impoctance of alkalies The Charaka Samhita mentions ancient indians who knew how to prepare sulphuric aci, nitric acid and oxides of copper tin and zine, the sulphates af copper, rnc and fron and the carbonates of lead and iron asopanishada describes the preparation of gunpowder mixture, gajuna’s work Rasratnaar deals with the formulation ‘of mercury compounds, He has also discussed methods for the extraction of metals like gold, silver tin and copper. CChalrapani discovered mercury sulphide. He used ‘mustard oil and some alkalies as ingredients for making soap. Brihat Samlita informs about the preparation of ghutinows ‘material to be applied on walls andl roofs of houses and temples. It also gives references to perfumes and cosmetics Atlureovda mention some dye stuff. The material used ‘were turmeric, madder, sunflower, lac ete. Acharya Kanda was fest proponent of atomie theory. ‘According to him, al substances are aggregates form of ‘smaller tnits called atome which are eternal, indestructible, spherical, suprasensible and in motion in the orginal state Importance of Chemistry «Principles of chemistry are applicable in dive weather patter, functioning of brain and operation of chemical industries, manufacturing frilisers alkalis, acids, salts dyes, polymers, drugs soaps, detergents, metal, alloys et + Chemistry proves methous fo isolation fe saving drags from natural sources aed makes possible synthesis of such drugs Some ofthese drugs ae cisplatin and taxal which are effective in cancer therapy. The drug AZT is used fr helping AIDS patents, Safer altematives to environmentally hazardous refrigerants like FC's responsible for ozone depletion in the stratosphere have been successfully synthesised. Nature and Classification of Matter * Anything that occupies space and has mass i called matter. All substances contain matte on physical basis, itcan be classified into solid, liquid and gases. () Insolid, the particles are held very close to each other in an orderly fashion and there is not much freedom of movement Due to such azrangement, solids have definite volisme and definite shape. (i) In Tiguids, the particles are close to each other but they ean move around. Liquids possess definite volume but do not possess definite shape. They take the shape of the container ‘mn which they are placed. Gi) In gases, the particles are far apart as compared to those present in solid or liquid states and their movement ise find fast. Gases have neither definite volume nor defini shape. «© These three states of matter are interconvertble, by changing, the condition of temperature and pressure, Solid = liquid = Gas areas such as‘+ On the basis of chemical composition, matter is classified as mixture or pure substances ‘© Mixture contains particles of two or more pure substances which may be present in tin any ratio, Theie composition is variable. A mixture may be homogeneous ot heterogeneous. = Ina homogeneous mixture, the components completely -mix with each other. This means, the particles of components ofthe mixtures are uniformly distributed throughout the bulk ofthe mixture and its composition is uniform throughout. eg. salt dissolved in water ~ Ina heterogeneous mixture, the composition is not ‘uniform throughout and sometimes diferent components aze visible. e salt and sand! in Water. «© Pare substances have different characteristic from mixtures. Constituent particles of pure substances have fixed composition. ~ These can further be classified into elements and compounds. ~ Particles ofan element consis of only one type of atoms, ‘These particles may exist as atoms or moleces. ~ Some elements sch as sodium or copper contain atoms as thelr constituents particles and their all atoms are of ‘same type, where in some others such as hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen, the constituent particles are molecules which are formed by two or more atoms, = When f¢0 oF more atom of difterent elements combine together ina definite ratio, dhe molecule of a compound is obtained. The constituents of 3 compound cinnot be separated into simpler substances by physical methods. However, these can be separated by chemical methods ~ The atoms of different elements are presentin » ‘compound ina fixed and definite ratio. The properties of ‘a compound are different from those ofits constituent clement. Properties of Matter and their Measurement Exch substance is associated with come unique set of characteristics, which are colletively ealled the properties of| matter, “The properties of matter ar categorised into two types Physical Properties “Those properties which en be méasured or observed without changing the identity or the composition ofthe substance are called physical properties. eg colour, odour, melting point, boiling point density ee ‘Chemical Properties “Those properties which require a chemical change to eceur properties. eg, characteristic reactions of different substances ; city, basicity, combustibi KEY NOTES“; Master The NCERT > CHEMISTRY (VoI-!) Measurements of Physical Properties Quantitative measurements of properties is required for scientific investigation. Many properties of matter like length, ‘area or volume are quantitative in nature and is represented bby a number followed by units in which it s measured. For example, ength of a room ear be shown as 6 m. The International System of Units (St) Many systems or measurements est aziong them the English land the melt systems are widely used. The scintitic community has agreed to have a uniform an common system Ubroughout the world which is abbreviated as I units Mass and Weight © Mass of a suibstance isthe amount of matter present in it, ‘while Weight i the force exerted by gravity on an object. + Themass ofa substance is constant, whereas the weight may vary fom one place to another due to change in gravity. + The SI unt ofmassis kilogram (kg). The mass ofa substance cane determined accurately by using analytical balance Volume # Teistheamtnt of space occupied bya substance In system, volume has units of n°. » Inlaboratory, the volumes of liquids or solutions can be measured by graduates cylinders, burette, pipette etc. = A volumetre flask s use to prepare a known volume of 8 ftion Density {© Density of a substance isthe amount of mass per unit volume. {© Stunits of density is kg m- ‘© Density ofa substance tells us about how closely its particles are packed. IF density is more, it means particles are more closely packed, Temperature 1 Temperature i the measure of hotness or coldness of a body. «There ate three common scales lo measure temperature °C (degree Celsius), °F (degree Fahrenheit) and K (Kelvin), The! unit of temperature is K. + The temperature on Fahrenheit scale and Celsius seale are related to each other by following relationship 6 9 +3 eo+2 ‘© The Kelvin scale is relate to Celsius scale as follows. K="C+27315 ‘* Temperature below 0°C are possible in Celsius scale but in Kelvin scale, negative temperature is not possible. Uncertainty in Measurement '» A convenient system of expressing the numbers in tctentific notation ia ted, Le. expemential notation in, which any number can be represented in the form N x 10", ‘where is an exponent having positive or negative vals and N is a number which varies between 1.000 and 9.989.CHAPTER OI > Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry + Inaddition and subtraction, fist the number are writen in such a way that they have the same exponents. After that, the coefficients are add or subtracted asthe ease may be. ‘© Multiplication and division operation follow the same rule ‘Significant figuees are the meaningful digits which are known with certainty plus one which is estimated or + Precision refers tothe closeness of various measurements forthe same quantity. Accuracy is the agreement of 2 particular value to the true value of the result «© While addition and subtraction of significant figures, the resll cannot have more digits to the right ofthe decimal point than either af the original numbers: «= Allnon-zero digits or zero present between two non-zero cligits are significant, Zeroes on the let side of a number are never significant, while that on right side, if present after a decimal point, are significant. «© In multiplication and division of significant figures the res must be reported with no more significant figures as fn the measurement with the few significant figures, ‘© The method used to convert units fram ane system to the others called factor label method or unit factor method ‘or dimensional analysis. Laws of Chemical Combinations Elements combine to orm molecules in accordance tothe following five bess of chemical combinations Law of conservation of ass] Antoine Lavolsor Matter can neither be created nor be destroyed during the course of a chemical reaction, however its physical and chenical nature may change. Taw of define proportions] Joseph Byoast Wis alo called as lw of definite onposton 2A gre compoand slnajn conta cy fle ooparion of elements by wei [Law of malpie proportions] Yon Dalton 1 eo elements can combi tm mot than one commpoura the maces Beatie pat combine ‘with a fixed mass ofthe otherelement, are in the ratio cofsmall whole numbers. Law of gaseous volumes] Gay Lussac ‘When gases combine or are priced in a chemical reaction, they do 50 in a simple ratio by volume provided all gases are at same temperature and pressure. ‘Avogndro’slaw) Avogadro Equal volumes of all gases under the same condition of number of molectiles Dalton's Atomic Theory + Dalton proposed atomic theary in which he proposed the following Matte consists of indivisible atoms. (i) All the atoms ofa given element have identical properties including identical mass. Atoms of diferent ‘ements differ in mass. (68) Compounds are formed when ators of different clements combine in fixed ratio (iv) Chemical reactions involve reorganisation of atoms, ‘These are neither cried norsestrayed ina chemical + Dalton’s theory could explain the lass of chemical combination. However, ifcald not explain the law of ‘gascous volumes Ieeotldl not provide the reason for combining of toms, Atomic and Molecular Masses * The present system or atomic masses is based on carbon: (20) asthe standard which isone ofthe isotopes of carbon. I this system, ™C is assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass nit and masses oF al other atoms are given relative to thistandacd. * One atomic mass units defined as a mass exactly equal to fone-twelfth ofthe mass of one carbon-L2 atom. At present, ‘amv’ hac boon roplaced by 'u’which ie Known 26 nifiod amt = 1.66 «10 g + Many naturally occurring elements exist as more than one fnotope. When we take into account the existence ofthese isotopes and their elatve abundance, the average atomic asso the element can be compiited. + Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of the clements present in a molecule, Its obtained by ‘multiplying the atomic mass ofeach element by the ‘umber ofits atom and adding them together. + Some substances sich as sodium chloride do not contain dliscrete molecules a8 their constituent unit, The formula such as NaCl is used to calculate the formula mass instead of molecular mass as inthe solid state sodium chloride doesnot exist asa single enti Mole Concept and Molar Masses + One mole isthe amount ofa substance that contains as, many particles or entities as there are atoms in exactly 125 ofthe 2C isotope ‘+ 6022. 10" this number i called Avogadto’s number or Avogadro's constant. It's denoted by Nig + The mass of one mole ofa substance in grams is called its solar mass which is numerically equal to atomic/molecular/formula mass in KEY NOTES+ For determining the percentage composition of each clement in a compound. Mass % of an element _ Mass of that element in a compound Molar mass ofthe compound "1 Empirical and Molecular Formula ‘© An empirical formula represents the simplest whole number ratio of various atoms present ina compound, whereas the molecilar formula shows the exact numberof ciferent types ‘of atoms present in a molecule of compound. ‘Short Trick to Find Empirical and Molecular Formula Step 1 Divide percentage composition by atomic mass to obtain atomic ratio, Step? Divide atomic ati by minimum value of atomic ratio to obtain simplest ratio, Step 3 Multiply simplest ratio by integer to obtain simplest whole nuimlser ratio, Step 4 Write symbols of various elements present with their respective whole number ratio asa subscript to the lower hand comer of symbol to obtain empirical formula Step Multiply empirical formula by to obtain Molecular mass | earn = Mees ma Reactions in Solutions following ways shown in below table: Mass percent ‘Mate tradon Definition Themassofa ——‘ThettiooFmmberof moles of component pe 100g pated cmposea toe ttl fthewoltog,_/huber ole of te son, Formula him 100” yg = ne — x 100 Ken "emt —x 100 Tae * Keen =! Unis Unites Unites Note Molarityofsaluton after dilution, MV = MV: KEY NOTES“; Master The NCERT > CHEMISTRY (VoI-!) Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations + Stoichiometry deals wih the calculation of masses of the reactants and prodiictedavolved in a chemical reaction. Irean be determined with the knowledge of balanced chemical equation. Abualanced chemical equation has the saene numberof toms of each element oo both sides ofthe equation. Inthe balanced reacton, CHyG) + 20;(9) => CO,(g) + 28,019), the coefficients for ©, and! H0 ae called stoichiometic coefficients. Sinilaly oF CH, and CO, stoichiometric cooticients ane 1 only. + According to the shove chuanical reaction, {i One moe of CH (4) rects with two moles of O43) 0 sive one mole of CO,(g) and two moles of O49) (Ope molecule of CH,() reacts wth 2 molecules of OG) to gis one molecule of CO,(s) and 2 molecules oi F,0@) {fi) 2221. of CH) reacts with 454 Lof OX) to give 227 Vo! CO, and 454 Lof H,O%). (49) og of CHH(q) meets with 25324 of x(t give Hg Gf CO, and 2183 of HO) + Thé reactant which gets consumed first and limits the imouto prolant vival va cele aston a alles the Himiting reagent ‘= The concentration of solution or the amount of Substance present in its given volumes can be expressed in any ofthe Comparison between Concentration Terms Molarity (4, Formality F) The numberof mols ofthe solute in {ine of he slution, ‘Molatity ) The number of moles of solute present in| kg of solvent. m= Fain 51000 Mor P= aha 02) Teaenn (8) Noting 1000 Mor Mas on 8) a ani) te Ft Vtg 2) peta da 10 Mac moths mol