Physics Syllabus Notes

Contents
Module 5- Advanced Mechanics............................................................................................................ 1
Projectile Motion ................................................................................................................................ 1
Circular Motion ................................................................................................................................... 4
Motion in Gravitation Fields ............................................................................................................... 6
Module 6 – Electromagnetism ............................................................................................................. 11
Charged Particles, Conductors and Electric and Magnetic Fields ..................................................... 11
The Motor Effect ............................................................................................................................... 13
Electromagnetic Induction ................................................................................................................ 16
Applications of the Motor Effect ...................................................................................................... 19
Module 7 – The Nature of Light ........................................................................................................... 23
Electromagnetic Spectrum................................................................................................................ 23
Light: Wave Model ............................................................................................................................ 28
Light: Quantum Model ...................................................................................................................... 31
Light and Special Relativity ............................................................................................................... 33
Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom ....................................................................................... 36
Origins of the Elements..................................................................................................................... 36
Properties of the Nucleus ................................................................................................................. 40
Structure of the Atom ....................................................................................................................... 44
Quantum Mechanical Nature of the Atom ....................................................................................... 47
Deep Inside the Atom ....................................................................................................................... 53

Module 5- Advanced Mechanics

Projectile Motion
● analyse the motion of projectiles by resolving the motion into horizontal and vertical
components, making the following assumptions:
– a constant vertical acceleration due to gravity
– zero air resistance
- A projectile is an object on which gravity is the only force that acts
- Projectiles move freely, i.e. they have no power source, in a parabolic arc
- The only force acting on a projectile is the weight force, which is constant and
directed vertically downwards
- Projectiles can be launched at any angle and therefore the velocity can be broken
down into components
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃
Where ux is the initial velocity of the horizontal component and uy the vertical
component
- The velocity in the horizontal direction is always constant
- In the vertical direction the projectile is affected by a constant acceleration due to
gravity (9.8ms-2 downwards)
- Velocity can be calculated at any time using a Pythagoras’ Theorem
- Air resistance is always ignored
- Horizontal motion and vertical motion are independent of each other
- These equations can be used but whether the horizontal or vertical direction is being
used must be considered
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
2

1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑠
𝑢𝑥 =
𝑡

● apply the modelling of projectile motion to quantitatively derive the relationships

between the following variables:
– initial velocity
– launch angle
– maximum height
– time of flight
– final velocity
– launch height
– horizontal range of the projectile (ACSPH099)
- When a projectile reaches the apex of the parabolic arc, its velocity in the vertical
direction is 0
- Maximum range is achieved when the angle of launch is 45°
- As launch angle increases, maximum height increases and so does time of flight
- As initial velocity increases, time of flight increases
- If maximum height is the same, then the time of flight is the same
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦2 + 2𝑎𝑦 𝛥𝑦
2

𝛥𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡
1
𝛥𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
● conduct a practical investigation to collect primary data in order to validate the
relationships derived above
- Select a projectile launcher that can launch a projectile at a consistent initial velocity
- Launch the projectile vertically i.e. θ= 90° and measure the displacement
Using the formula, 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠, solve for initial velocity
1
Then use 𝛥𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 to find time, the use 𝛥𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 to find how far the
projectile would travel if fired horizontally
𝛥𝑥
Calculate the angle required to hit a target at a specific x and y co-ordinate, 𝑡 = 𝑢
𝑥
1 2
needs to be substituted into 𝛥𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡
- An equation arises which is reducible to a quadratic using the substitution 𝓏=tanθ
● solve problems, create models and make quantitative predictions by applying the
equations of motion relationships for uniformly accelerated and constant rectilinear
motion
- When calculating the time of flight of a projectile launched that does not reach the
height of the launch point, the are can be broken into two parts so as to find time
without using the quadratic formula
- When a projectile is launched from a height it no longer reaches its apex halfway
through the flight
At the apex it is useful to use the formula 𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑢𝑦2 + 2 × 9.8𝛥𝑦, as v=0
- Direction must be given in from the horizontal and units are all in metres
- Change in y is almost always negative
- The max height is the change in y plus the height of the launch
Circular Motion
● conduct investigations to explain and evaluate, for objects executing uniform circular
motion, the relationships that exist between:
– centripetal force, mass, speed, radius
● analyse the forces acting on an object executing uniform circular motion in a variety of
situations, for example:
– cars moving around horizontal circular bends
– a mass on a string
– objects on banked tracks
- Uniform circular motion occurs when an object moves in a circle at a constant
(uniform) speed
- The velocity at any instant is tangential to the circle
- Period is the time taken to travel around one circle
- Frequency is the number of rotations each second
1 1
𝑓= 𝑇=
𝑇 𝑓
- Radians are a measure of angles
- An angle of radian 1 subtends an arc of 1-unit length or a circle with radius 1
- 2π radians = 360°
𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑚)
𝛥𝜃 = =
𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑ⅈ𝑢𝑠 (𝑚)

∑𝑓
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝐹𝑔

𝑚𝑣 2
𝑓𝑐 = , 𝑓𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑣2
∴tan 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔𝑟 = 𝑔𝑟
 FT

Fg

● solve problems, model and make quantitative predictions about objects executing
uniform circular motion in a variety of situations, using the following relationships:
- The velocity of an object moving (with a constant speed) in a circular path is
continuously changing
- Angular velocity is the rate at which the angle is changing and is measured in
degrees/second or radians/second
- Objects undergoing uniform circular motion (U.C.M.) have acceleration which is a
consequence of the centripetal force
- The centripetal force, and hence the acceleration, of an object undergoing U.C.M. is
always directed towards the centre of the circle
- Centripetal force is always supplied by a real force, the nature of which depends on
the situation. E.g. friction on a road, gravity for a satellite

● investigate the relationship between the total energy and work done on an object
executing uniform circular motion
- The kinetic energy of an object undergoing U.C.M. is constant as speed is constant
1
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
- Potential energy on an Earth system depends on how high above the Earth’s surface
the object is. For motion on a horizontal plane G.P.E. is constant
𝐸𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
- For an object undergoing U.C.M. on a horizontal plane there is no work being done
since the total energy is constant
- Since the direction of displacement at any moment is in the same direction as the
velocity, the force and displacement are always perpendicular
- This means that the displacement in the direction of the force is always zero
 - For an object undergoing U.C.M. over a vertical plane there will be a change in GPE
as the height of the object is changing. This means that work is done over any part of
the cycle, since the object returns to its initial position the work is zero over the
whole cycle.

● investigate the relationship between the rotation of mechanical systems and the
applied torque
– 𝜏=𝑟⊥𝐹=𝑟𝐹sin𝜃
- Torque is the rotational equivalent of linear force
- It is a measure of the tendency of a force to cause an object to rotate around an axis
- Maximum torque occurs when the acting force applied is perpendicular to the force
arm
- When the acting force is not perpendicular to the force arm then
o The component force perpendicular to the length of the object is used
o Or the distance from the pivot point perpendicular to the force is used

Motion in Gravitation Fields

● apply qualitatively and quantitatively Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation to:
– determine the force of gravity between two objects 𝐹= 𝐺𝑀𝑚𝑟2
- Newton’s Law of Gravitations states that any two bodies in the universe attract each
other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=
𝑟2
- Where F is gravitational force (Newtons), m1,m2 masses of the objects (Kg) and r is
the distance between the centre of the objects (metres)
- G is the gravitational constant 6.67×10-11Nm2Kg-2
 - A gravitational field is a region in which a gravitational force is exerted on all matter
within that region
- The arrowheads of the field indicate while spacing indicates strength

● apply qualitatively and quantitatively Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation to:

𝑮𝑴
– investigate the factors that affect the gravitational field strength 𝒈 = 𝒓𝟐

– predict the gravitational field strength at any point in a gravitational field, including at
the surface of a planet
- The gravitational field strength on Earth’s surface is g= 9.8ms-2 or 9.8NKg-1
- NKg-1 is a measure of the field’s strength
- ms-2 is a measure of the acceleration within the field
- The further an object is from the centre of the mass, the smaller the strength of the
gravitational field
- g on Earth’s surface can vary
- Since the Earth is a flattened sphere, the gravitational field is stronger at the poles
- Areas where the density of rock is higher will have a stronger gravitational field
- At the equator, g will be smaller due to the centrifugal “force” acting opposite to the
weight force
- Thus, g at the poles is higher also due to this reason

● investigate the orbital motion of planets and artificial satellites when applying the
relationships between the following quantities:
– gravitational force, centripetal force, centripetal acceleration, mass, orbital radius,
orbital velocity, orbital period
- A satellite is an object that is in a stable orbit around a larger central mass
- The only force acting on a satellite is the gravitational attraction between it and the
central body
- Apparent weightlessness occurs when an object is in free fall, satellites are in
constant free fall
- Velocity of a satellite is
2𝜋𝑟 𝐺𝑀
𝑣= 𝑜𝑟 𝑣=√
𝑇 𝑟
- For a satellite in a circular orbit
𝑣 2 4𝜋 2 𝑟 𝐺𝑀
𝑎𝑐 = = 2 = 2 =𝑔
𝑟 𝑇 𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2 4𝜋 2 𝑟𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹𝑔 = = = = 𝑚𝑔
𝑟 𝑇2 𝑟
 - Any object placed at a high enough altitude with the right velocity will continue in
orbit
- Orbital velocity is the instantaneous direction and speed of an object in circular
motion along its path
Newton’s Thought Experiment

● predict quantitatively the orbital properties of planets and satellites in a variety of

situations, including near the Earth and geostationary orbits, and relate these to their uses

Low Earth Orbit Geo-stationary

Speed 7750ms-1 3070ms-1
27900Kmh-1 11052Kmh-1
Altitude 200-400Km 35800Km
Uses - Geotopographic - Information relay,
studies including info is sent up to a
patterns of crop satellite and
grow and desert bounced off to
spreading another place on
- Remote sensing, Earth
geomapping and - Communications
geoscanning satellite
- Studying weather - Weather monitoring
patterns
Orbital Decay Significant Not applicable
Advantages - Able to provide - Easy to track
scans of different - Do not experience
areas of the Earth orbital decay
many times a day
- Closer view of the
surface
- Rapid information
transmission
 - Launches are easier
and cheaper as less
fuel is required
Disadvantages - Much effort is - Delay in
required to track transmission
them - Each satellite has a
- Orbital decay is quite limited view of the
significant Earth
- Orbital paths need - Launching process is
to be controlled to more expensive and
ensure no more difficult
interference - More damage due to
- Affected by Van cosmic rays
Allen radiation

● derive quantitatively and apply the concepts of gravitational force and gravitational
potential energy in radial gravitational fields to a variety of situations, including but not
limited to:

𝟐𝑮𝑴
– the concept of escape velocity 𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒄 = √ 𝒓

- For the gravitational energy of an object in a constant gravitational field

𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
- Escape velocity is the initial velocity required by a projectile to rise vertically and just
escape the gravitational field of a planet
- At this point U=0, and due to the conservation of mechanical energy this occurs
when kinetic energy is equal to gravitational potential energy
1 2
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 =
2 𝑟
2
2𝐺𝑀
𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 =
𝑟
2𝐺𝑀
𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = √
𝑟

● investigate the relationship of Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion to the forces acting on,
and the total energy of, planets in circular and non-circular orbits using: (ACSPH101)
𝟐𝝅𝒓
–𝒗= 𝑻

𝒓𝟑 𝟔𝑴
– 𝑻𝟐 = 𝟒𝝅𝟐

- First Law: The planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus
- Second Law: The line connecting a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal
intervals of time
 - Third Law: For every planet the ratio of the cube of the orbital radius, r, to the
square of the period, T, of revolution equals a constant
𝑟3
=𝐾
𝑇2
- Newton derived that
𝑚4𝜋 2 𝑟 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑓𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 = = 2
𝑇2 𝑟
𝑟 3 𝐺𝑀
∴ 2= 2
𝑇 4𝜋
- This means that knowing a satellite’s orbital radius allows T to be found

● derive quantitatively and apply the concepts of gravitational force and gravitational
potential energy in radial gravitational fields to a variety of situations, including but not
limited to:
𝑮𝑴𝒎
– total potential energy of a planet or satellite in its orbit 𝑼 = −
𝒓
𝑮𝑴𝒎
– total energy of a planet or satellite in its orbit U+K= − 𝟐𝒓

– energy changes that occur when satellites move between orbits

- Since the strength of a gravitational field is non-constant, U=mgh cannot always be
used
𝐺𝑀
𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ 𝑔= 2
𝑟
−𝑚𝐺𝑀
𝑈=
𝑟
- Here, U is negative since as you move further away U should increase and U at the
surface does not equal 0, U=0 when a satellite is at an infinite distance away
𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑓𝐶 = = 𝑓𝑔 = 2
𝑟 𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
= 2
𝑟 𝑟
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑣 2 =
2 2𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐸 =𝑈+𝐾 = −
2𝑟 𝑟
−𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐸=
2𝑟
Where E is the total energy in a non-constant gravitational field (mechanical energy)

● derive quantitatively and apply the concepts of gravitational force and gravitational
potential energy in radial gravitational fields to a variety of situations, including but not
limited to:
– Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
𝑟3 𝐺𝑀
- By using = 4𝜋2, the radius or period of other satellites can be calculated since
𝑇2
𝑟13 𝑟23 𝑟33 𝑟𝑛3
= = =
𝑇12 𝑇22 𝑇32 𝑇𝑛2
- Another method to derive this equation is
2𝜋𝑟 𝐺𝑀
𝑣= 𝑣=√
𝑇 𝑟
𝐺𝑀 4𝜋 2 𝑟 2
=
𝑟 𝑇2
3
𝑟 𝐺𝑀
2
= 2
𝑇 4𝜋

Module 6 – Electromagnetism
Charged Particles, Conductors and Electric and Magnetic Fields
● investigate and quantitatively derive and analyse the interaction between charged
particles and uniform electric fields, including: (ACSPH083)
– electric field between parallel charged plates 𝐸=𝑉𝑑
– acceleration of charged particles by the electric field 𝐹 =𝑚𝑎 ,𝐹 =𝑞𝐸
𝟏
– work done on the charge 𝑊=𝑞𝑉,𝑊=𝑞𝐸𝑑,𝒌 = 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐

- Any charged particle has a region of space around it, i.e. an electric field, where
another charged object will experience a force
- Field lines are drawn with arrow heads which indicate the direction a positive charge
would go
- Electric field strength is the force applied per coulomb of charge
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸
Where F= force(N), q= charge (coulombs), E= electric field strength(NC-1)
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸, 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑞𝐸
- The electric field produced between two oppositely charged plates is uniform, it is
represented by equally spaced field lines
- Electrical potential (V) is defined as the work required per unit charge to move a
positive point charge from infinity to a place in the field
𝑊
𝑉= , 𝑊 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 (𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠)
𝑞
- The difference in potential between two plates is called electrical potential
difference
𝑣
𝐸= , 𝐸 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟ⅈ𝑐 𝑓ⅈ𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝑉𝑚−1 ),
𝑑
𝑑 = 𝑑ⅈ𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 (𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠)
 ∴ 𝑊 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑
1
𝑊 = 𝑞𝑉 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑 = 𝛥𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣 2 (𝐼𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡ⅈ𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡ⅈ𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦)
2
- Work can be done either
o By the electric field on a charged object e.g. a positive charge moving to the
negative plate, or
o On the electric field by forcing an object to move, e.g. a positive charge
pushed to a positive plate

● model qualitatively and quantitatively the trajectories of charged particles in electric

fields and compare them with the trajectories of projectiles in a gravitational field

Quantity or Description Gravitational Field Electric Field

How field strength varies 𝐺𝑀 𝐾𝑞
𝑔= 2 𝐸=
with distance, r, from a 𝑟 𝑟2
monopole
Force between monopoles 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐾𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹=
𝑟2 𝑟2
Potential energy change in a 𝛥𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔𝛥ℎ 𝑊 = 𝑞𝑉
uniform field
Force due to a uniform field 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸
- Charges moving perpendicular through an electric field will travel in a parabolic arc
- Therefore, they undergo the same motion as projectile motion
 - A charged particles motion in an electric field can then also be broken into vector
components

The Motor Effect

● analyse the interaction between charged particles and uniform magnetic fields,
including:
– acceleration, perpendicular to the field, of charged particles
– the force on the charge 𝐹=𝑞𝑣⊥𝐵=𝑞𝑣𝐵sin𝜃
- A charged particle travelling at a steady speed in a, magnetic field will experience a
force, unless the particle is travelling parallel to the magnetic field
- This force is referred to as the Lorentz force and is at a maximum when the particle
is moving perpendicular to the field
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣⊥ 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃
- The direction of the force is determined using the right-hand rule
- Dots are used to depict a field running out of the page, crosses depict a field into the
page

● compare the interaction of charged particles moving in magnetic fields to:

– the interaction of charged particles with electric fields
– other examples of uniform circular motion
- If a moving charge experiences a constant force that is perpendicular to its motion,
its speed will not change
- It will thus follow a circular path under uniform circular motion
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣⊥ 𝐵
𝑣2
𝑞𝑣⊥ 𝐵 = 𝑚𝑎, 𝑎𝐶 =
𝑟
2
𝑚𝑣
𝑞𝑣⊥ 𝐵 =
𝑟
 𝑚𝑣 𝑚𝑣
𝑟= 𝑜𝑟 𝑟=
𝑞𝐵 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃
● investigate qualitatively and quantitatively the interaction between a current-carrying
conductor and a uniform magnetic field 𝐹=𝑙𝐼⊥𝐵=𝑙𝐼𝐵sin𝜃 to establish:
– conditions under which the maximum force is produced
– the relationship between the directions of the force, magnetic field strength and current
– conditions under which no force is produced on the conductor
- Current is the rate of charge over time
𝑞
𝐼=
𝑡
- For 1 metre length of conductor
𝑠 1
𝑣= =
𝑡 𝑡
1
𝐼 = 𝑞 × = 𝑞𝑣
𝑡
𝐹 = 𝐼𝐵
𝐹 = 𝑙𝐼⊥ 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 F = B𝑙lsin 𝜃
- The right-hand rule is used once again to determine the direction of the force, with
current taking the place of velocity
- If the wire is perpendicular to the magnetic field, maximum force is produced
- Electric motors are built to ensure that the current carrying wire is perpendicular to
the magnetic field to ensure that the motor is utilised fully
- If the wire is parallel to the magnetic field, no force is produced

● Analyse the interaction between two parallel current-carrying wires 𝐹𝑙=𝜇02𝜋𝐼1𝐼2𝑟 and
determine the relationship between the International System of Units (SI) definition of an
ampere and Newton’s Third Law of Motion

- Ampere’s Law states that for any current carrying wire a magnetic field is produced
around it according to
𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟
- If there exists two parallel wires A and B, then
𝜇0 𝐼𝐴
𝐵𝐴 =
2𝜋𝑟
∴ 𝐹𝐵 = 𝐼𝐵 𝑙𝐵𝐴 𝑆ⅈ𝑛𝜃 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜃 = 90°)
𝑙𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐴 𝜇0
𝐹𝐵 =
2𝜋𝑟
𝑊𝑟ⅈ𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑠
𝐹𝐵 𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐴 𝜇0
=
𝑙 2𝜋𝑟
𝐹
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛ⅈ𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑁𝑚−1
𝑙
𝜇0 = 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡ⅈ𝑐 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏ⅈ𝑙ⅈ𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (1.256 × 10−6 𝑜𝑟
 4 𝜋 × 10−7 )

- This is and example of Newton’s Third Law as one wire exerts a force on the
other and the other exerts an equal force in the opposite direction
- An ampere is the amount of current needed through two identical parallel
conductors of infinite length when they are 1m apart, in order to produce a
force per unit length of 2 × 10−7 𝑁𝑚−1
- The right-hand grip rule is used to determine the direction of the magnetic
field

- Wires carrying current in the same direction (i.e. one direction) attract
- Wires carrying current in opposite directions repel
Electromagnetic Induction
● describe how magnetic flux can change, with reference to the relationship
𝛷=𝐵∥𝐴=𝐵𝐴cosθ
- Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field passing through a given area
- Magnetic field strength is thus also referred to as magnetic flux density
- The area, A, which is examined is called the area vector
- The direction of the area is normal (perpendicular) to the plane of the area
- The magnetic flux will be at a maximum when the area vector is parallel to the
magnetic field and zero when the area vector is perpendicular to the magnetic field
𝜙 = 𝐵∥ 𝐴
𝑂𝑟 𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
- θ is the angle between the normal of the area and the magnetic field

● Analyse qualitatively and quantitatively, with reference to energy transfers and

transformations, examples of Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law 𝜀= −𝑁𝛥𝛷/𝛥𝑡, including but
not limited to:
– the generation of an electromotive force (emf) and evidence for Lenz’s Law produced by
the relative movement between a magnet, straight conductors, metal plates and
solenoids
– the generation of an emf produced by the relative movement or changes in current in
one solenoid in the vicinity of another solenoid
- The creation of an electric current in a conductor due to a change in the magnetic
field is called electromagnetic induction
- This current is produced by an induced emf, ε (electromotive force), which is a
voltage
- It is the rate of change of magnetic flux that determines the induced emf
𝑁Δ𝜙
𝜀=−
Δ𝑡
 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜀 = ⅈ𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓 (𝑉)
𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠 ⅈ𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜ⅈ𝑙

- Lenz’s law states that an induced emf always gives rise to a current whose magnetic
field will oppose the original change in flux
- This explains the negative sign in Faraday’s Law
- Emf is induced by a change in flux no matter how that change is created, this
includes changing the strength of the magnetic field, area of the coil in the field, the
orientation of the coil

● Analyse quantitatively the operation of ideal transformers through the application of:–
𝑉p𝑉s=𝑁p𝑁s
– 𝑉p𝐼p=𝑉s𝐼s
- A transformer is an electrical device that takes the voltage of one circuit and induces
a different voltage in another
- The changing flux that induces the current in the secondary coil is produced by the
alternating current supplied by the primary coil
𝑁𝑝 ∆𝜙 𝑁𝑠 ∆𝜙
𝑉𝑝 = 𝑉𝑠 =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
𝑉𝑝 ∆𝜙 𝑉𝑠 ∆𝜙
= =
𝑁𝑝 ∆𝑡 𝑁𝑠 ∆𝑡
𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝
= 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑁𝑝 𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
Primary coil power = Secondary coil power
𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠
 𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠 𝐼𝑝
= =
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝 𝐼𝑠

● evaluate qualitatively the limitations of the ideal transformer model and the strategies
used to improve transformer efficiency, including but not limited to:
– incomplete flux linkage
– resistive heat production and eddy currents
- Transformers are considered ideal meaning they are 100% efficient and energy
losses can be ignored
- Flux linkage is how much flux from one coil passes through to the other coil, flux
linkage is complete in an ideal transformer
- To prevent eddy currents in the soft iron core, which can cause considerable
undesirable heat, the core is made up of laminated sheets of iron
- The soft iron core enhances the strength of the magnetic field

● Analyse applications of step-up and step-down transformers, including but not limited
to:
– the distribution of energy using high-voltage transmission lines
∆𝑃 = ∆𝑉𝐼
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∆𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝
∆𝑉 2
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 =
𝑅
- To transport electricity over large lengths, i.e. high resistance, with minimal power
loss a low current should be used
- A transformer is used to increase the voltage, thus reducing the current
 - Once power is generated it is stepped-up to a high voltage then transmitted using
powerlines to substations
- Substations then step-down the voltage to a useable 240v

Applications of the Motor Effect

● investigate the operation of a simple DC motor to analyse:
– the functions of its components
– production of a torque 𝜏=𝑛𝐼𝐴⊥𝐵=𝑛𝐼𝐴𝐵sin𝜃
– effects of back emf
- The forces experienced by a coil in a magnetic field will always be at right angles to
the magnetic field
- When the coil is perpendicular to the field, the force will not contribute to the
torque
 𝐹𝑃𝑄 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙 𝐹𝑆𝑅 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙
𝑤𝐵𝐼𝑙
𝜏𝑃𝑄 = 𝜏𝑆𝑅 = 𝑟⊥ 𝐹 =
2
𝜏𝑛 = 𝜏𝑃𝑄 + 𝜏𝑆𝑅 = 𝑤𝐵𝐼𝑙

𝑤𝑙 = 𝐴
𝜏𝑛 = 𝑛𝐼𝐴⊥ 𝐵
𝜏𝑛 = 𝑛𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑠ⅈ𝑛𝜃
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜃 ⅈ𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡ⅈ𝑐 𝑓ⅈ𝑒𝑙𝑑
- Maximum torque is experienced when the area vector is perpendicular to the
magnetic field

Component Description Role

Split ring commutator Made from copper or other Reverses the current at the
good conductors point where the coil is
A ring divided in two perpendicular to the
segments magnetic field
Each half is connected to
one end of the coil
Brushes Usually made from carbon Attached to the
blocks commutator supplying
One is a positive terminal current to the coil
the other is negative If wires were used instead
of brushes, they would be
twisted
Armature An electromagnet magnet Provides the magnetic field
made by coiling thin wire which drives the motor
around a soft iron core effect, it must be supplied
Has an axle which is with a current
attached to the commutator
Stator Strong permanent magnets Provides the magnetic field
around the outside of the which drives the armature
coil/armature

Back emf
- According to Lenz’s law, a back emf will be produced opposing the motion of the coil
𝜀𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑉 − 𝜀𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘
- As the motor speed increases so does back emf, if a load is applied the speed and
emf will reduce and the current in the motor will increase
- If the motor suddenly stops then the current could be high enough to burn out the
motor, this means a resistor is required to maintain suitable current levels
● analyse the operation of simple DC and AC generators and AC induction motors
- Generators convert kinetic/ mechanical energy into electrical energy
- The turning of the coil constantly cuts lines of flux. According to Faraday’s Law an
emf will be induced in the conductor
- Slip ring commutators produce AC
- Split ring commutators produce DC
Components of DC and AC Generators
Stator – Produces a magnetic field which interacts with the armature to induce a current
Armature - Consists of laminated iron sheets fixed on an axle with the rotor coils wrapped
around it. The soft iron core of the armature increases the emf by concentrating the
magnetic field
Rotor Coils – As the coils rotate about the axle they experience a changing magnetic flux as
such, a current is induced within the coils
Axle – Provides a centre of rotation as the armature experiences torque due to the coils
Slip rings – Provide electrical contact by sliding past the brushes during rotation; moreover,
they provide free rotation of the rotor to avoid wire entanglement
Split ring commutator – Provides point of contact between the rotor coils and external
circuit. Reverses the direction of current flow in each coil every half revolution to ensure the
current is always in the same direction
Brushes – Fixed position electrical contacts that connect the external circuit with the rotor
coils
AC Induction motor
- In AC induction motors, the moving magnetic fields produced by the stator coils
induce eddy currents in the squirrel cage
- Eddy currents circulate freely in the copper cage and produce their own magnetic
field
- The squirrel cage fields interact with the rotating stator fields such that the rotor
experiences torque and rotates to ‘chase’ the stator fields
- The squirrel cage is designed to maximise eddy currents whilst minimising heat
- Advantages include only one moving part but the speed is fixed at the rate of the AC
source
 - Doubling the speed will double the amplitude and halve the period

● relate Lenz’s Law to the law of conservation of energy and apply the law of conservation
of energy to:
– DC motors and
– magnetic braking
- If a conductor moves past a stationary magnet, eddy currents will be induced in the
conductor by the magnet according to Faraday’s Law
- Due to Lenz’s law the eddy currents create their own magnetic field that opposes the
original field of the magnet
- This creates a drag force, slowing the conductor down
- Advantages of magnetic braking include the lack of physical components and the
ability to adjust the breaks by adjusting the current
- They do not work when the conductor is stationary

Module 7 – The Nature of Light

Electromagnetic Spectrum
● investigate Maxwell’s contribution to the classical theory of electromagnetism,
including:
– unification of electricity and magnetism
– prediction of electromagnetic waves
– prediction of velocity
- Maxwell unified the two separately studied fields in physics of electricity and
magnetism, leading to many breakthroughs
- Proposed that a changing electric field would produce a magnetic field at right angles
to the electric field, the magnetic field will then produce an electric field and so on
- The wave is self-propagating and does not require a medium
- Using the permeability of free space, he calculated the speed of EMR to be
3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
- The speed of light was so similar to the speed of EMR, this suggests that light is a
type of EMR
- He proposed that EMR extended beyond the wavelengths that we could see with our
eyes
- Hertz confirmed Maxwell’s prediction by discovering waves that had the same
properties as light
● conduct investigations of historical and contemporary methods used to determine the
speed of light and its current relationship to the measurement of time and distance
Galileo Galilei – 16th Century
1) Galileo and his assistant stood 1km apart
2) Galileo opened his lantern and began his method of timing
3) When his assistant saw the light from the lantern he opened his lantern
4) Galileo stopped timing when he saw the light from his assistants’ lantern
5) Used the velocity formula to calculate speed
Analysis
2𝑑 2 × 1000
𝑡= = = 7 × 10−6 𝑠
𝑐 3 × 108
If the average human reaction time for visual stimuli is 0.25 seconds, what is the fastest
possible speed Galileo could have measured?
2𝑑 2000
𝑣= = −6
= 4000𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑡 7 × 10 + 0.25 × 2
Results
- Completely inaccurate, borderline invalid (the method could not practically measure
aim)
- Sources of error were significant systematic error in the timing method, random
error in the reaction time
- Precision was very low as a result of available technology
Ole Romer – 1676
Method
 1) Measured the length of time of Io’s eclipse of Jupiter
2) Variations in times of the eclipse coincided with times that Jupiter was closer to or
further away from the Earth
3) He determined that the time variations were caused by the light having to cross the
diameter of the Earth’s orbit by a lesser or greater degree
4) Using his calculated data and the orbital speed and orbital diameters of planets he
estimated the speed of light
Results
𝑣 = 2.14 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
- Inaccurate results as a result of inaccurate known values
- First person to suggest light travels at a finite speed
Hippolyte Fizeau – 1850
Method
1) Shone a focused light onto a rotating disc which had slots cut into it a regular
intervals
2) The light passed through the slots and onto a mirror a long distance away which
reflected it back through the slots
3) At a certain speed of rotation, the light became completely blocked by the teeth of
the rotating disc
4) Using the rotation rate of the disc to block the returning light, he could determine
the time of the return journey of the light and hence calculate its speed
Analysis
- If a tooth moves exactly the width of a gap in the time it takes the light to return, it
will completely block the light
∆𝜃
𝜔=
∆𝑡
∆𝜃 2𝑑
𝑡= =
𝜔 𝑐
2𝑑𝜔
𝑐=
∆𝜃
Results

- 3.13 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 , within 2% of the modern value

- First person to directly measure the speed of light

Leon Foucault - 1862

Method
 1) Shone a focused light onto a rotating mirror which reflected it onto a fixed mirror a
long distance away
2) The fixed mirror reflected it back to the source having first rotated through a slight
angle
3) Measuring the angle let Foucault determine how far the mirror had rotated and this
permitted the calculation of the speed of light
Results
- 2.98 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
Louis Essen and A C Gordon Smith – 1940
Method
1) Using an electric circuit that oscillates at a specific frequency they created
microwaves of known frequency
2) The microwaves were produced inside a cavity to produce standing waves
3) By measuring the distance of the cavity precisely the wavelength could be
determined
4) Using the known relationship 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆, the speed of light could be determined
Results
- 299792500 ± 1000 ms −1
- Modern value is 299792458 𝑚𝑠 −1

The metre
- If c is a constant, then that provides a clear way to define the metre
- The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum during a time
1
interval of 299792458 of a second

● investigate how spectroscopy can be used to provide information about:

– the identification of elements
- Emission spectra is the spectrum of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation
emitted due to an electron making a transition from a high energy state to a lower
energy state
 - Absorption spectra is the spectrum of EMR transmitted through a substance,
showing dark lines or bands due to absorption at specific wavelengths
- Lines produced in absorption and emission spectra a characteristic of the atoms that
were heated or that the light passed through
- No two different elements produce the same spectrum
- All atoms of the same element produce the same spectrum

● investigate how the spectra of stars can provide information on:

– surface temperature
– rotational and translational velocity
– density
– chemical composition
Surface Temperature
- The spectrum of a star is not equal intensity for all colours
- Short wavelengths correspond to the blue end of the visible spectrum while long
wavelengths correspond to the red end
- High energy stars (hot) peak in intensity in the UV range
- Low energy stars (colder) peak in intensity in the infrared range
- Measuring peak intensity allows for the temperature to be determined

The Doppler Effect

- The change in frequency or wavelength of a wave for an observer who is moving
relative to the wave source

Radial Velocity
- Due to the Doppler effect if a star is moving towards the Earth, its observed
wavelengths shorten and are blue shifted
- The extent of shifting reveals how fast the star is moving
Translational Velocity
- The actual translational velocity of the star is the vector sum of the radial velocity
and the tangential velocity
Rotational Velocity
- The red and blue shifting of the light from the two sides of the star means the
observed band smears out over a range of wavelengths
- The degree of broadening in the stars spectrum reveals the rate of rotation
Density
- If the density of a star is high, then the light leaving the star will produce broader
spectral lines than a low-density star
- This is due to more collisions in the star’s photosphere

Light: Wave Model

● Conduct investigations to analyse qualitatively the diffraction of light (ACSPH048,
ACSPH076)
● Conduct investigations to analyse quantitatively the interference of light using double
slit apparatus and diffraction gratings 𝑑sin𝜃=𝑚𝜆
- When a plane (straight) wave passes through a narrow opening or meets a sharp
object it experiences diffraction
- Young performed his famous double slit experiment where he shone light through
two tiny adjacent slits. The light produced interference patterns on the screen and
hence provided strong evidence in support of a wave model of light

- This formula was used to analyse the interference pattern

𝑑𝑠ⅈ𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
Where:
d is the slit separation (m)
θ is the angle from the perpendicular bisectors between the slits
λ is the wavelength of the light waves (m)
- Increasing the wavelength of light and increasing the distance from the slits to the
screen increases the fringe spacing
- Decreasing the distance between slits increases the fringe spacing
● Analyse the experimental evidence that supported the models of light that were
proposed by Newton and Huygens

Newtons Theory of Light

- Newton proposed that light consists of small particles called corpuscles, where
different colours are different sizes
Huygens’ Wave Theory of Light
- Huygens proposed that light is a form of energy that travels in waves which vibrate
perpendicular to the direction of motion
- Each point on the wavefront acted as a source of wavelets for the next wavefront
Evidence for and Against

Newton’s Theory Huygens’ Theory

Medium Particles can travel through At the time, waves were
a vacuum thought to require a
medium. Requires the
aether
Reflection Particles reflect like light Where the incident ray
does strikes is the source of the
new wavefront
Diffraction Particles create a localised Wavefronts spread out in
wave in the aether circular wavefronts when
they pass through small
openings
Refraction A force perpendicular to the As the wave enters the new
interface of the boundary medium it changes speed
between the mediums acts and hence direction, the
upon light when it enters a partial reflection/refraction
new medium of light supports a wave
model
 Interference Does not account for Waves either interfere
interference constructively or
destructively

● Conduct investigations quantitatively using the relationship of Malus’ Law 𝐼=𝐼max𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃

for plane polarisation of light, to evaluate the significance of polarisation in developing a
model for light
Unpolarised Light
- If the direction of vibration of an electric field vector takes place in all possible
directions, then they average out with no preferred direction
Polarised Light
- Polarised light occurs when vibrations of the light vector restricted in one particular
direction
- When unpolarised light passes through a polarising filter the resulting intensity is
50%
Malus’ Law
- Calculates the intensity of polarised light after it passes through a polarised filter
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos 2 𝜃
Where:
I = the intensity of resulting light
Imax = the intensity of the polarised light
θ = the angle between plane of polarisation and filter
Light: Quantum Model
● analyse the experimental evidence gathered about black body radiation, including
Wien’s Law related to Planck's contribution to a changed model of light (ACSPH137)
𝒃
– 𝝀𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑻

Black body
- An object that can absorb and/or emit energy perfectly (all wavelengths)
Wien’s Law
- Determines the peak wavelength for an object at a particular surface temperature
𝑏
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑇
Where 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = peak wavelength emitted
b = 2.898 × 10−3 𝑚𝐾 (Wien’s constant)
T = Surface temperature (K)
Planck’s Law
- Planck proposed that the radiation emitted from a black body is not continuous like
waves, it is emitted as packets of energy called quanta (photons)
- The energy of the quanta or photons are related to their frequencies by the equation
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
𝑐 ℎ𝑐
𝑓= 𝐸=
𝜆 𝜆
−34
Where h= 6.626 × 10 𝐽𝑠 (Planck’s constant)
The Electron Volt
- Defined as the amount of energy an electron gains (or loses) after being accelerated
by 1 volt of electricity
- J →eV × 1.602 × 10−19
- eV → J ÷ 1.602 × 10−19

● Investigate the evidence from photoelectric effect investigations that demonstrated

inconsistency with the wave model for light
The Photoelectric Effect
- The phenomenon when a metal surface emits electrons when struck by EMR with a
frequency above a certain value
Observations of the Photoelectric Effect
 - Only occurs when the EMR used is above a certain frequency
- Maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted depends on the frequency of
the EMR
- Emission of photoelectrons is instantaneous
- Increase in the intensity of the EMR used will result in a larger photocurrent
- The photocurrent has a max value with increasing light intensity
- Light sources with different frequencies but the same intensity produces the same
maximum current, however, the higher frequency has a higher stopping voltage
Wave Model Inconsistencies
- The frequency of the light should be irrelevant to whether or not photoelectrons are
ejected
o A wave form is a continuous form of energy transfer, so it would be expected
that energy from the wave would build up over time
- The wave model predicts that there should be a time delay between striking the
metal and the photoemission
● analyse the photoelectric effect 𝐾max=ℎ𝑓−𝜙 as it occurs in metallic elements by
applying the law of conservation of energy and the photon model of light,
Wave- Particle Duality
- The phenomenon whereby light can behave as both waves and particles at the same
time
Einstein’s Explanation of the Photoelectric Effect
- Light behaves like particles called photons, each photon carries a discrete package of
energy
- The collision between photons and electrons leads to the photoelectric effect
Work Function (𝛟)
- The minimum photon energy required to free electrons from a metal surface
- For a particular metal, the amount of energy required to eject a photoelectron is a
constant value that depends on the bonding strength within the metal
Threshold Frequency
- The minimum frequency (which determines the energy) the light must have to cause
the photoelectric effect in a metal
𝜙 = ℎ𝑓0
Where 𝑓0 = threshold frequency, h= Planck’s constant, ϕ= work function

Photoelectric Equation
 - If the energy of the photon is greater than the work function of the metal, then a
photoelectron is emitted
- The remainder of the energy in excess of the work function is transferred into the
kinetic energy of the photoelectron
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙
Where 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = max kinetic energy of an emitted photoelectron, f = frequency of the
incident photon
- Stopping voltage is the reverse potential applied across the electrodes in a cathode
ray tube to stop the emission of photoelectrons from the emitter
𝑊 = 𝑞𝑉
∴ 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑞𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔

Light and Special Relativity

● analyse and evaluate the evidence confirming or denying Einstein’s two postulates:
– the speed of light in a vacuum is an absolute constant
– all inertial frames of reference are equivalent
Galilean Relativity
- A frame of reference is anything with respect to which we describe motion and take
measurements
- An inertial frame of reference is one that is either stationary or moving with a
constant velocity
- A non-inertial frame of reference is one that is undergoing acceleration
Principle of Relativity
- All steady motion is relative and cannot be detected without reference to an outside
point
- Applies only for non-accelerated steady motion
- No mechanical experiment or observation will reveal your velocity without using an
external frame
Einstein’s Postulates
1) The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference (i.e. no preferred
frame of reference)
2) The speed of light has a constant value, c, for all observers regardless of their motion
or the motion of the source
a. Einstein disregarded the aether as its existence was superfluous
● investigate the evidence, from Einstein’s thought experiments and subsequent
experimental validation, for time dilation 𝑡=𝑡0√(1− 𝑣2𝑐2) and length contraction
𝑙=𝑙0√(1−𝑣2𝑐2), and analyse quantitatively situations in which these are observed, for
example:
– observations of cosmic-origin muons at the Earth’s surface
– atomic clocks (Hafele–Keating experiment)
– evidence from particle accelerators
– evidence from cosmological studies
Muons
- According to classical physics, cosmic origin muons would not be able to reach the
surface of the Earth as they exist for only 2.2μs so they would decay before reaching
the surface
- Special relativity explains that since they were travelling at 0.9c, from the
perspective of people on Earth, times slows down so we can detect them on Earth
Haefele – Keating Experiment
- Atomic clocks were flown at high speeds around the world and were shown to have
recorded different times when compared to clocks that were at rest
Time Dilation
𝑡0
𝑡𝑣 =
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐
Where 𝑡0 = time for inertial frame, i.e. the time experienced by the moving frame,
𝑡𝑣 /𝑡 = time for external frame of reference
 v = velocity, c= speed of light
- Stationary time speeds up from the moving objects perspective
- Moving objects time slows down from stationary viewers perspective
- Both the object and viewer experience time normally from their perspective

Length Dilation
- Length contraction is when the length of a moving object appears shorter to the
viewer compared to the length of the object when measured at rest
- Length dilation only occurs on the axis of motion
𝑣2
𝑙 = 𝑙0 √1 −
𝑐2
Where 𝑙0 = length measure at rest, 𝑙 = length in the moving frame
Einstein’s Thought Experiments
- Einstein wondered: “Suppose I am sitting in a train traveling at the speed of light. If I
hold a mirror in front of me, will I see my reflection?”. There are two possibilities:
o No. If the train is traveling at the speed of light, light from his face would not
reach the mirror in order to be reflected back. By not seeing his reflection he
would know that the train was traveling at the speed of light without having
to refer to an outside point. This violates the principle of relativity
o Yes. This means that light would travel at its normal speed relative to the
train. This does not violate the principle of relativity. However, it also means
that, relative to a stationary observer outside the train, light would be
traveling at twice its usually speed. This requires time dilation

● describe the consequences and applications of relativistic momentum with reference to:
– 𝑝𝑣=𝑚0𝑣√(1−𝑣2𝑐2)
– the limitation on the maximum velocity of a particle imposed by special relativity
- As one approaches the speed of light, the impulse required to accelerate increases
exponentially
- Therefore, mass is relative to the frame of reference it is measured in
𝑚0 𝑣
𝑃𝑣 =
2
√1 − 𝑣 2
𝑐
- This implies that one would never be able to reach the speed of light as the required
impulse becomes too large
● Use Einstein’s mass–energy equivalence relationship 𝐸=𝑚𝑐2 to calculate the energy
released by processes in which mass is converted to energy, for example: (ACSPH134)
– production of energy by the sun
– particle–antiparticle interactions, eg positron–electron annihilation
– combustion of conventional fuel
Mass Defect
- The difference between the mass of the atom and the mass of all the particles in the
atom
- The whole nucleus or atom is always smaller
- Binding energy is the energy needed to separate an atom into its separate parts
- Atomic mass unit → Kg × 1.661×10-27
- Kg → Atomic mass unit ÷ 1.661×10-27
Electron- Positron
- The positron is the anti-particle of the electron (same mass, opposite charge)
- If a positron collides with an electron, annihilation occurs, and gamma rays are
produced
0 0
−1𝑒 + −1𝑒 → 𝛾 + 𝛾
- The mass of the electron and positron are converted into energy (gamma rays)
- This is done according to
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
Where E= energy (J), m=mass (kg), c = speed of light

Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom

Origins of the Elements

● Investigate the processes that led to the transformation of radiation into matter that
followed the ‘Big Bang

- Investigate the processes that led to the transformation of radiation into matter that
followed the Big Bang
- First proposed in 1927, the Big Bang theory is the most widely held theory regarding
the origins of the universe
- After the Big Bang, there was an intense amount of energy, it was so hot that matter
could not form, only energy
 - As the universe expanded, it began to cool and simple particles began to form over
the next thousand years, for a short time it was hot enough for the fusion of
hydrogen into helium and some lithium
- Initially, vast amounts of matter and antimatter existed, annihilating each other to
produce high energy photons, an imbalance in the amount of matter resulted in
more matter particles forming. This annihilation produced large amounts of
radiation known as Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)

● Investigate the evidence that led to the discovery of the expansion of the Universe by
Hubble
- Aleksandr Friedmann and George Lemaitre proposed theoretically that the universe
was expanding but Edwin Hubble was the first to confirm it.
- Hubble notice that the light from distant stars was red-shifted, i.e. the spectral lines
of elements were red-shifted, according to the Doppler effect this means that the
stars are moving away from the Earth
- When Hubble graphed their velocities, he noticed that the speed of recession was
proportional to the distance away
𝑣 = 𝐻0 𝑑
Where
v=velocity (kms-1),
H0=Hubble’s constant (s-1)
d=distance away (megaparsecs)

● Analyse and apply Einstein’s description of the equivalence of energy and mass and
relate this to the nuclear reactions that occur in stars
- Einstein’s equation 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 predicted that mass could be converted into energy
- Mass defect is the difference between an atoms mass and the combined mass of its
particles
- Within stars,4 hydrogen atoms fuse together to form helium and large amounts of
energy, the mass of 4H is greater than the mass of He, this mass deficit is
transformed into energy using 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

● Account for the production of emission and absorption spectra and compare these with
a continuous black body spectrum
- An emission spectrum is produced when electrons in an atom are ‘excited’ by
electro-magnetic radiation and jump to a higher energy level, when they return to
the ground state, they release a photon of light
 - The light produced is always a certain frequency for certain jumps of each element
- Lines produced in absorption and emission spectra are characteristic of the atoms
that were heated or that light passed through
- An absorption spectrum is produced when electrons of an atom absorb radiation at
set wavelengths, the radiation is re-emitted in a different direction so that the
wavelength appears as black lines against the spectrum
- Continuous spectra are produced from black bodies at certain temperatures

● Investigate the key features of stellar spectra and describe how these are used to
classify stars
- The peak wavelength from stars can be used to determine surface temperature
using Wien’s Law
- Stars are classified on the strength of hydrogen spectral lines in their spectra
- The thickness of absorption lines in spectra indicates the pressure of the gases in the
star’s atmosphere, less dense atmospheres produce thinner spectral lines and vice
versa
- Spectral lines also indicate the presence of elements within the star, the spectral
classes of stars are shown below in the diagram along with their associated
properties.
- Due to the Doppler effect, the velocity of a star, whether it’s moving towards the
Earth or away can be determined
● Investigate the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram and how it can be used to determine the
following about a star:
– characteristics and evolutionary stage
– surface temperature
– colour
– luminosity
- A H-R diagram plots luminosity of stars against temperature
- The main band of stars is called the main sequence which includes 90% of all stars,
they fuse hydrogen into helium
- Red giants develop after a main sequence star has fused all its hydrogen, the core
shrinks and rapidly fuses the remaining hydrogen, expanding the size of the star,
they eventually are able to fuse heavier elements, they are red due to their low
temperature which is due to their large size
- White dwarves form when red giants don’t possess enough mass to fuse carbon,
they shed their outer layer as a planetary nebula leaving behind a white core
- Surface temperature is generally related to luminosity, with red giants and white
dwarves the exceptions
- Hotter stars tend towards the blue range, while cooler stars to the red
- Main sequence stars with masses 0.4-8M0(M0 is the mass of the sun) form giants →
red supergiants→ planetary nebula → white dwarves
- Main sequence stars with masses 8-25M0 form giants → super giants→ supernova→
neutron star
- A supernova is a cataclysmic explosion caused by the gravitational collapse of a star,
neutron stars are extremely dense stars composed of tightly packed neutrons
- Main sequence stars with masses greater than 25M0 form super giants→
supernova→ black hole
● Investigate the types of nucleosynthesis reactions involved in Main Sequence and Post-
Main Sequence stars, including but not limited to:
– proton–proton chain
– CNO (carbon-nitrogen-oxygen) cycle
- Main sequence stars share hydrogen as their nuclear fusion source
- The proton-proton chain dominates fusion reactions in stars below 18 million Kelvin
- Firstly, two protons collide forming deuterium, a positron and a neutrino. The
deuterium then reacts with another proton to form helium-3 and gamma rays.
Helium-3 must react with another helium-3 to form helium and 2 protons
1) 11𝐻 + 11𝐻 → 21𝐻 + 𝑒 + + 𝑣 2) 21𝐻 + 11𝐻 → 32𝐻𝑒 + 𝛾
3) 32𝐻𝑒 + 32𝐻𝑒 → 42𝐻𝑒 + 11𝐻 + 11𝐻
Net eqn) 4 11𝐻 → 42𝐻𝑒 2𝑒 + + 2𝑣 + 2𝛾
- The Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen cycle is the dominant fusion process in stars above 18
million Kelvin
- Carbon, nitrogen and oxygen act as catalysts for the fusion of hydrogen
1) 126𝐶 + 𝑝 → 137𝑁 + 𝛾 2) 137𝑁 → 137𝐶 + 𝑒 + + 𝑣 3)137𝐶 + 𝑝 → 158𝑂 + 𝛾
15 15 + 15 12 4
4) 8𝑂 → 7𝑁 + 𝑒 + 𝑣 5) 7𝑁 + 𝑝 → 6𝐶 + 2𝐻𝑒
- Once a star completes its hydrogen source and leaves the main sequence, what
happens depends on its mass, more massive stars can continue to fuse elements up
to iron
- Once a star becomes a red giant, the further gravitational collapse of the core results
in higher temperatures, at around 100 million degrees Kelvin the triple alpha process
occurs, fusing helium together
1) 42𝐻𝑒 + 42𝐻𝑒 → 84𝐵𝑒 2) 84𝐵𝑒 + 42𝐻𝑒 → 126𝐶 + 2𝛾 3) 126𝐶 + 42𝐻𝑒 → 168𝑂 + γ

Properties of the Nucleus

● analyse the spontaneous decay of unstable nuclei, and the properties of the alpha, beta
and gamma radiation emitted
- Radioactive atoms will spontaneously emit radiation from the nucleus

- Isotopes are forms of the same element that contain equal numbers of protons but
different numbers of neutrons
 - Isotopes that are unstable are radioactive and are called radioisotopes
- Unstable nuclei emit radiation in an attempt to stabilise themselves
Alpha Decay (𝛂)
- Heavy unstable nuclei may eject alpha particles
- Alpha particles are positively charged and consist of two protons and two neutrons,
i.e. a helium nucleus
238 234 4
92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 2𝐻𝑒 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
- They have a double positive charge and due to their relatively large mass they are
slow moving and lose energy quickly
- They have poor penetrative ability, can be stopped by paper or human skin
Beta Decay (𝛃)
- There are two types of beta decay, beta plus (β+) and beta minus (β-)
- β- occurs when the electron is emitted from the nucleus rather than from the
electron cloud
- A beta particle is an electron with minus 1 charge and almost negligible mass
- β- usually occurs when the nucleus has too many neutrons, a neutron decays into a
proton releasing an electron and an antineutrino (𝑣̅ )
14 14 0
6𝐶 → 7𝑁 + −1𝛽 + 𝑣̅
- Beta plus occurs when the nucleus has too many protons, the proton may decay
into a neutrino (v) and a positron
- Beta particles are much lighter than alpha particles and are emitted at speeds up to
90% of the speed of light
- They have a higher penetrative ability than alpha particles, a thin sheet of
aluminium would stop them

Gamma Rays (𝛄)

- After radioisotopes have emitted an alpha or beta particle, the daughter nucleus has
excess energy, so it rearranges itself releasing a gamma ray ( 00𝛾 )
- Gamma rays are high energy electromagnetic radiation and have no charge or mass
131 131 ∗ 0
53𝐼 → 54𝑋𝑒 + −1𝛽
131 ∗ 131 0
54𝑋𝑒 → 54𝑋𝑒 + 0𝛾

- Gamma rays travel at the speed of light and have a very high penetrative ability
- Several centimetres of lead are required to stop them

● examine the model of half-life in radioactive decay and make quantitative predictions
about the activity or amount of a radioactive sample using the following relationships:
– 𝑁t=𝑁o𝑒−𝜆𝑡
– 𝜆=𝑙𝑛2𝑡1/2
 - Different radioisotopes decay at different rates
- Half-life is the time taken for half of the atoms in a given mass to decay
- Count rate is the activity of the sample
- Half life is solely determined by nuclear instability and is unaffected by chemical
reactions or heat
- The number of particles remaining at a point in time can be found using the
following formulae
𝑁𝑡 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁𝑡 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎ⅈ𝑛ⅈ𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒ⅈ, 𝑁𝑜 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒ⅈ,
𝑙𝑛2
𝜆 = 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ( 𝜆 = ),
𝑡1
2

𝑡
𝑛=
𝑡1
2

Where n is the no. of half-lives elapsed, combining these two

1 𝑛
𝑁𝑡 = 𝑁0 ( )
2
Decay Series
- When a radionuclide decays, the daughter nucleus is usually unstable. The daughter
nuclei will continue to decay until they reach a stable nucleus. This is called a decay
series

● Model and explain the process of nuclear fission, including the concepts of controlled
and uncontrolled chain reactions, and account for the release of energy in the process

Nuclear Fusion
- Up until the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick in 1932, alpha particles
were fired at nuclei to analyse results
- When the nuclei became larger, alpha particles were too strongly repelled by the
positive nucleus
- Neutrons are positive and so are very useful as a form of radiation
- Nuclear fission occurs when an atomic nucleus splits into two or more pieces usually
triggered by the absorption of a neutron
- Nuclides that can undergo nuclear fission after absorbing a neutron are called fissile
- When uranium-235 absorbs a neutron it undergoes fission, this process releases 2 to
3 neutrons
 1
0𝑛 + 235 91 142 3
92𝑈 → 36𝐾𝑟 + 56𝐵𝑎 + 3 0𝑛 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
- Uncontrolled fission reactions are allowed to proceed without any moderation, such
as removing the neutrons
- Controlled fission reactions are moderated by removing ejected neutrons
- Relatively large amounts of energy are released in this process

● analyse relationships that represent conservation of mass-energy in spontaneous and

artificial nuclear transmutations, including alpha decay, beta decay, nuclear fission and
nuclear fusion
- Due to the conservation of mass-energy, radiation should be released with constant
amounts of energy. This explains the production of alpha and gamma radiation with
constant kinetic energy
- Beta particles are emitted with anti-neutrinos as well which explain its inconsistent
kinetic energy. If the kinetic energies of both particles was recorded it would be
constant

● account for the release of energy in the process of nuclear fusion

- Nuclear fusion is the process whereby light nuclei are combined to form heavier
nuclei
- Since nuclei are positively charged, they will repel each other. Therefore, large
amounts of energy are required to overcome the electrostatic forces
- This amount of energy is called the energy barrier
- Extremely high temperatures are required for fusion and more energy is released per
nucleon for fusion than fission
2 2 3 1
1𝐻 + 1𝐻 → 1𝐻 + 1𝐻
- The total mass of the reactants will be slightly greater than the mass of the products,
the mass defect is converted into energy according to E=mc2
● Predict quantitatively the energy released in nuclear decays or transmutations,
including nuclear fission and nuclear fusion, by applying:
– the law of conservation of energy
– mass defect
– binding energy
– Einstein’s mass–energy equivalence relationship 𝐸=𝑚𝑐2

- The energy released as a result of mass defect is given by E=mc2

- During fission, the combined mass of the incident neutron and the and the target
nucleus is always slightly higher than the combined masses of the fission products
- The binding energy of the nucleus is how much energy is needed to separate the
nucleus into the individual protons and neutrons
- A higher binding energy value indicates a stable nucleus
- Iron is the most stable nucleus, elements smaller than iron undergo fusion, elements
heavier than iron undergo fission
- As nucleons fuse together, the binding energy increases, this is the energy released
in fusion
- When a large nucleus such as uranium splits into two fragments, the binding energy
per nucleon increases, this is the energy released during fission

Structure of the Atom

● investigate, assess and model the experimental evidence supporting the existence and
properties of the electron, including:
– early experiments examining the nature of cathode rays
– Thomson’s charge-to-mass experiment
– Millikan's oil drop experiment
- Cathode rays are beams of electrons emitted from the cathode of a high vacuum
tube
- J.J. Thomson determined that cathode rays were negative by observing them deviate
towards a positive plate
Charge-to-mass Ratio Experiment
- J.J. Thomson passed a cathode ray through an electric field and a magnetic field that
were perpendicular to each other
- In this arrangement, the two fields deflected the ray in opposite directions
- By adjusting the strength of the two fields the forces were brought into equilibrium
and the ray was not deflected, i.e. FE=FB
𝐹𝐸 = 𝑞𝐸 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵
𝑞𝐸 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵
𝐸
𝑣 = (𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑦)
𝐵
 - The force caused by the magnetic field was perpendicular to the direction of motion
of the ray, and hence could be equated to centripetal force i.e. Fc=FB
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 𝐹𝑐 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑞𝑣𝐵 =
𝑟
𝐸
𝑞𝑣𝐵 = 𝑚𝑣 (𝑣 = )
𝐵
𝑞 𝐸
=
𝑚 𝑟𝐵 2
- The radius of the arc caused by the magnetic field could be measured and the
electric field and magnetic field strength were known

Millikan Oil Drop Experiment

- A spray of oil drops was introduced between two metal plates
- Charged drops became suspended between them when qE=mg
- Drops could be charged to varying degrees
- Charge on a drop was always an integer multiple of 1.6×10-19C
- Thus, it could be determined that the charge of an electron was 1.6×10-19C, which is
very close to the modern value
● investigate, assess and model the experimental evidence supporting the nuclear model
of the atom, including:
– the Geiger-Marsden experiment
– Rutherford’s atomic model
– Chadwick’s discovery of the neutron
J.J. Thomson ‘Plum Pudding Model’
- Thomson proposed that electrons were embedded and scattered randomly among
the regions of the atom
- The rest of the atom was uniformly positively charged with mass evenly distributed
but low in density

Geiger – Marsden Experiment

- Shot alpha particles through a thin film of gold
 - Most of the alpha particles were scattered by less than 2°, this supported Thomson’s
model as the electric field would deflect them slightly
- About 1 in 10000 particles were deflected greater than 90°, this could not be
explained by Thomson’s model
Rutherford’s Atomic Model
- The experimental results could be explained if the mass and electric charge were
concentrated in the middle of the atom, i.e. the nucleus
- Large deflections were caused by collision with a dense nucleus
- If the alpha particle skimmed pas the nucleus or collided with electrons, then their
path would be altered slightly
- Most particles travelled unhindered, as the atom is mostly empty space
- Rutherford proposed an atomic model of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by
a cloud of electrons

Chadwick’s Discovery of the Neutron

- Alpha bombardment of beryllium caused unstable nuclei to emit radiation (i.e.
neutrons)
- The radiation passed through hydrogen rich paraffin, ejecting protons
- The protons’ kinetic energy was measured and determined to be too big to be
caused by gamma rays
- Using the law of conservation of momentum, James Chadwick deduced that the
radiation was particles with no charge and a similar mass to protons

Quantum Mechanical Nature of the Atom

● Assess the limitations of the Rutherford and Bohr atomic models
Limits to Rutherford’s Model
 - According to Maxwell, an accelerating charge such as an electron orbiting a nucleus
should emit electromagnetic radiation
- This should cause the electron to lose energy, thus slowing downs and theoretically
spiral out of orbit and crash into the nucleus
- Rutherford’s model also could not explain emission spectra from atoms

Niel’s Bohr (1885-1962)

- Overcame the problem of accelerating electrons not constantly emitting EMR
- Explained emission spectra
- Provided theoretical backing and mathematical validity for the empirical nature of
the Rydberg equation
Bohr’s Model
- Electrons ‘orbit’ a positively charged nucleus
- These orbits are called electron shells or energy levels
- The further the orbit is from the nucleus, the greater energy level of electrons that
orbit
- When electrons absorb some quanta of energy, they move to higher energy levels
- When electrons fall back to lower energy levels they release quanta of energy as
EMR
- Electrons in stable orbit do not emit radiation
Limitations of Bohr’s Model
- Could not explain the differences in intensity and thickness of spectral lines
- Could only be accurately applied to single-electron atoms

● Investigate the line emission spectra to examine the Balmer series in hydrogen
 - The Balmer series describes the spectral line emission for electrons transitioning
from n≥3 to n=2, where n is the orbit from the nucleus

● Relate qualitatively and quantitatively the quantised energy levels of the hydrogen
atom and the law of conservation of energy to the line emission spectrum of hydrogen
using:
- Bohr suggested that electrons orbit the nucleus in specific energy levels
- Electron energies are said to be quantised as only certain levels are allowed
- When an electron jumps from one energy level to another it absorbs (moves to a
higher energy level) or releases (moves to a lower energy level)
- The frequency of a photon emitted or absorbed by a hydrogen atom can be
calculated by the difference in energy levels
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝑓
- The wavelength of the spectral lines for the hydrogen atom are given by the Rydberg
formula
1 1 1
= 𝑅( 2 − 2 )
𝜆 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖
Where:
λ= wavelength
R= Rydberg constant (1.097×107m-1)
nf= The final quantum level of the electron
ni = The initial quantum level of the electron

● Investigate de Broglie’s matter waves, and the experimental evidence that developed
the following formula:
– 𝜆=ℎ/𝑚𝑣
 - Louis de Broglie proposed that all particles have a wave nature as well as a particle
nature expressed by
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣
Where:
λ= wavelength of the particle
h= Planck’s constant
m= mass of the particle (kg)
v=velocity of the particle

Experimental Evidence
- In 1927, Davisson and Germer fired electrons towards nickel crystals and studied the
behaviour of these electrons as they scattered off the nickel surface
- Some of the electrons would pass through the gaps between the nickel atoms, which
act as many slits, so diffraction would occur
- Consequently, interference patterns were produced
- Davisson and Germer were able to observe a series of maxima and minima of the
scattered electrons, thus proving the wave nature of electrons and hence matter as
well
Standing Waves
- A wave in a medium in which each point on the axis of the wave has an associated
constant amplitude

De Broglie’s Particle-wave Theory of the Electron

- De Broglie suggested that the electron could only maintain a steady energy level if it
established a standing wave
- The stable orbits of the hydrogen atom are those where the circumference is exactly
equal to a whole number of electron wavelengths
● Analyse the contribution of Schrödinger to the current model of the atom
Erwin Schr𝐨̈ dinger
- Developed a mathematical equation that could describe the wave behaviour of
electrons in situations other than the simple hydrogen model
- The wave properties of electrons are interpreted as representing the probability of
finding an electron in a certain location
- His equation is used to calculate the regions of space in which and electron could be
found in an atom
- His ideas supported a wave mechanics model
Schr𝐨̈ dinger’s Cat
- A thought experiment that describes the counter-intuitive nature of a quantum
mechanical system
1) A cat is placed in a closed box with a flask of poison
2) A quantum mechanical system is set up such that there is a 50% chance of the
flask being broken and the cat killed
3) Schrö dinger argued that until the box is opened to reveal the outcome of the
experiment, the cat is considered as simultaneously alive and dead, this is
analogous to the dual nature of light and particles
- Schrö dinger’s contribution adds probability and therefore uncertainties to quantum
mechanics
- According to quantum mechanics, there is a physical limit to the absolute accuracy of
particular measurements. Schrö dinger understood that this limit was inherent in the
nature of the wave particle nature of the wave particle duality and the effect of
observation on an object

Werner Heisenberg
- Clearly identified this limit in the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
o The more exactly the position of a particle is known, the less is known about
its momentum. Similarly, the more precisely the momentum of a particle is
measured, the less certain its exact location
- This means that the act of measurement causes a change in the value being
measured
- Heisenberg described electron behaviour using a complicated matrix mathematical
model
Quantum Mechanical Model of Electrons
- Electrons don’t exist in well-defined circular paths
- Due to the wave nature of the electron, the paths can be thought of more as clouds,
where the particular location of an electron at any point, according to Heisenberg,
 only introduces uncertainty, preventing you from knowing where the electron would
be at the next moment in time

Deep Inside the Atom

● Analyse the evidence that suggests:
– that protons and neutrons are not fundamental particles
– the existence of subatomic particles other than protons, neutrons and electrons
- Particle accelerators have shown that protons and neutrons are not fundamental
particles as when they collide at high speeds, they break into constituent particles
such as quarks
- Physicists studying the energy of beta particles ejected from radioisotopes
discovered that there was some energy that was not accounted for
- Wolfgang Pauli predicted that the missing energy resulted in a particle called the
neutrino

● Investigate the Standard Model of matter, including:

– quarks, and the quark composition hadrons
– leptons
– fundamental forces
The Standard Model
- The standard model is a description of all known particles and three of the forces
acting between them
- According to the standard model, all matter is made of 12 fundamental particles and
their antiparticles, these particles are called fermions
Quarks
- All protons and neutrons are made of fundamental particles called quarks
- There are six flavours of quarks: up, down, top, bottom, strange and charmed
- All quarks have non-integer charges
Particle Name Charge (elementary charge)
Up +2/3
Down -1/3
Top +2/3
Bottom -1/3
Strange -1/3
Charmed +2/3
 - Quarks are the only particles to interact by the strong nuclear force
- Quarks have not been observed by themselves but combine to form hadrons
- Hadrons include baryons (3 quarks) and mesons (2 quarks)
- Baryons include protons (2 up and 1 down quark) and neutrons (1 up quark and 2
down quarks)
- Mesons consist of a quark and anti-quark pair

Fundamental Forces
- There are four fundamental forces: the strong nuclear, weak nuclear,
electromagnetic and gravitational
- The standard model suggests that forces are exerted through the exchange of
particles called bosons

Force Nature Relative Range (m) Force carrier

Strength (boson)

Strong nuclear Bonds nucleons 1 10-15 Gluon

together, acts
between quarks

Weak nuclear Causes 1/137 10-18 (less than W+, W- and Z

radioactive width of a
decay proton)
Electromagnetic Responsible for 10-6 Infinite Photon
both electric and
magnetic fields
Gravity A force of 6×10-39 Infinite Graviton
attraction that (theoretical)
acts between
any two objects
with mass

Leptons
- The particles in this group interact by exchanging W and Z bosons which mediate the
weak nuclear force
Lepton Name Charge
Electron -1
Electron neutrino 0
Muon -1
Muon Neutrino 0
Tau -1
 Tau Neutrino 0

● Investigate the operation and role of particle accelerators in obtaining evidence that
tests and/or validates aspects of theories, including the Standard Model of matter
- Particles accelerators investigate the nature of matter by examining structure of
atoms and molecules via collisions
- The particles are brought to high speeds using strong magnetic fields, the curvature
of the particle provides clues into its momentum
- Calorimeters and tracking devices are used to detect the particles produced in
collisions
- Particle accelerators have detected hundreds of other subatomic particles through
the collisions and have provided evidence for the existence of the Higgs Boson
predicted by the Standard Model