ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION

(R20A0453)

Lecture Notes

B.TECH
(III YEAR – II SEM)
(2022-2023)
Prepared by:
T. Manasa Veena
(Asst Professor, Dept of ECE)

Dept. Of CSE (Cyber security)

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)

Recognized under 2(f) and 12 (B) of UGC ACT 1956
(Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE-Accredited by NBA &NAAC–‘A’Grade-ISO9001:2015
Certified) Maisammaguda,Dhulapally(PostVia.Kompally),Secunderabad–500100,Telangana State, India

OPENELECTIVE-III
(R20A0453)ROBOTICSANDAUTOMA
TION
COURSEOBJECTIVES:
 1) To
studyoverviewofEmbeddedSystems,Robots,Microprocessors&Microcon
trollers.
2) TostudyindetailaboutRoboticsandsensors.
3) TostudyaboutAVRRISCMicrocontrollerarchitectureindetail.
4) TostudyaboutARMProcessorindetail.
5) TostudyaboutArtificialIntelligenceinRobotics.
UNIT-I
IntroductiontoEmbeddedSystemDesign,CategoriesofES,OverviewofEmbed
dedSystemArchitecture, Recent Trends in Embedded Systems, Hardware
Architecture of Embedded System,Real-
timeEmbeddedSystems,RobotsandRobotics,MicroprocessorsandMicrocon
trollers,Microcontroller orEmbeddedController

UNIT- II
Robotics: Classification of Robots, Links and Joint, Degree of freedom,
Motors-DCmotors,StepperMotors,ServoMotors;PowerTransmission-
TypeofGears, Robotic Sensors, Applications of Robot, S/w used for Robot
programming.
UNIT- III
The AVR RISC microcontroller architecture: Introduction, AVR family
architecture, register file, Pin diagram of AVR, memory organization, I/O
ports, timers,USART,Interruptstructure.

UNIT-IV
ARMProcessor:Fundamentals,Registers,currentprogramstatusregister,pip
elineconcept,Interrupt andthevectortable.

UNITV
AI IN ROBOTICS: Robotic perception, localization, mapping- configuring
space, planning
uncertainmovements,dynamicsandcontrolofmovement,Ethicsandrisksofar
tificialintelligenceinrobotics.

TEXTBOOKS:
1) SubrataGhoshal,"EmbeddedSystems&Robots",CengageLearning
2) StuartRussell, PeterNorvig,“ArtificialIntelligence: Amodernapproch”,
PearsonEducation,India2003.
 3) ARMSystemDeveloper’sGuide:DesigningandOptimizingSystemSoftwa
re-AndrewN.Sloss,DominicSymes,ChrisWright,ElsevierInc.,2007

UNIT-1
Introduction to Embedded Systems Design:
• Embedded system is an Electronic/Electro mechanical system which is
designed to perform a specific function and is a combination of both
hardware and firmware (Software).
• E.g. Electronic Toys, Mobile Handsets, Washing Machines, Air
Conditioners, Automotive Control Units, Set Top Box, DVD Player etc…
• An embedded system can be a small independent system or a large
combinational system. It is a microcontroller-based control system used
to perform a specific task of operation.
• An embedded system is a combination of three major components:
• Hardware: It comprises of microcontroller based integrated circuit,
power supply, LCD display etc.
• Application software: Application software allows the user to perform
varieties of applications to be run on an embedded system by changing
the code installed in an embedded system.
• Real Time Operating system (RTOS): RTOS supervises the way an
embedded system work. It acts as an interface between hardware and
application software which supervises the application software and
provide mechanism to let the processor run on the basis of scheduling.
An Embedded system is configured to perform a specific dedicated application.
Characteristics of an Embedded System: The important characteristics of an
embedded system are:
• Speed (bytes/sec): Should be high speed
• Power (watts): Low power dissipation
• Size and weight: As far as possible small in size and low weight
• Accuracy (% error): Must be very accurate
• Adaptability: High adaptability and accessibility.
• Distributed: embedded systems may be part of larger systems.
 • Reliability(probability that the system works properly for a specific
period of time): Must be reliable over a long period of time

• So, an embedded system must perform the operations at a high speed

so that it can be readily used for real time applications and its power
consumption must be very low and the size of the system should be as
for as possible small and the readings must be accurate with minimum
error. The system must be easily adaptable for different situations.

Embedded Systems vs General Computing systems:

CATEGORIES OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:
Embedded systems can be classified into the following 4 categories based on
their functional and performance requirements.
Based on the Functional Requirements:
1) Stand aloneEmbedded systems: A stand-alone embedded system works by
itself. It is a self-contained device which does not require any host system like a
computer. It takes either digital or analog inputs from its input ports,
calibrates, converts, and processes the data, and outputs the resulting data to
its attached output device, which either displays data, or controls and drives
the attached devices.
EX: Temperature measurement systems, digital cameras, and microwave
ovens, washing machines are the examples for this category
2) Real time embedded system: An embedded system which gives the required
output in a specified time or which strictly follows the time deadlines for
completion of a task is known as a Real time system. i.e. a Real Time system, in
addition to functional correctness, also satisfies the time constraints.
a) Hard real time E.S: A Real time system in which, the violation of time
constraints will cause critical failure and loss of life or property damage or
catastrophe is known as a Hard Real time system. The hardware and
software of hard real-time systems must allow a worst case execution (WCET)
analysis that guarantees the execution be completed within a strict
deadline. The chip selection and RTOS selection become important factors for
hard real-time system design.
Ex: Deadline in a missile control embedded system , Delayed alarm during
a Gas leakage , car airbag control system, A delayed response in pacemakers
,Failure in RADAR functioning etc.
b) Soft Real time E.S: A Real time system in which, the violation of time
constraints will cause only the degraded quality, but the system can continue
to operate is known as a Soft real time system. In soft real-time systems, the
design focus is to offer a guaranteed bandwidth to each real-time task and to
distribute the resources to the tasks.
Ex: A Microwave Oven, washing machine, TV remote etc.
3) Networked embedded systems: The networked embedded systems are
related to a network. The connected network can be a Local Area Network
(LAN) or a Wide Area Network (WAN), or the Internet. The connection can be
either wired or wireless. The networked embedded system is the fastest
growing area in embedded systems applications. The embedded web server is
such a system where all embedded devices are connected to a web server and
can be accessed and controlled by any web browser. Ex: A home security
system is an example of a LAN networked embedded system where all sensors
(e.g. motion detectors, light sensors, or smoke sensors) are wired and running
on the TCP/IP protocol.
3) Mobile embedded systems: The portable embedded devices like mobile and
cellular phones, digital cameras, MP3 players, PDA (Personal Digital Assistants)
are the example for mobile embedded systems. The basic limitation of these
devices is the limitation of memory and other resources.
Based on the Performance Requirements:
 Small scale embedded systems: Embedded systems which are simple in
application needs and where the performance requirements are not time
critical fall under this category. An embedded system supported by a
single 8–16 bit Microcontroller with on-chip RAM and ROM designed to
 perform simple tasks is a Small scale embedded system. A small scale
embedded system may or may not contain an operating system.
Eg: mp3 player, digital camera
 Medium scale embedded systems: Embedded systems which are slightly
complex in hardware and firmware requirements. An embedded system
supported by 16–32 bit Microcontroller /Microprocessor with external
RAM and ROM or digital signal processors that can perform more
complex operations is a Medium scale embedded system.
Eg: Routers used in networking
 Large scale embedded systems: An embedded system supported by 32-
64 bit processors/controllers or Reconfigurable system on chip (RSoC) or
multicore processors which can perform distributed jobs is considered as
a Large scale embedded system. Complex Embedded systems usually
contain a high performance RTOS for task scheduling , prioritization and
management.
Eg: Airline traffic control system

MAJOR APPLICATION AREAS:

Overview of embedded systems architecture:
 Every embedded system consists of customized hardware components
supported by a Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is the heart of a
microprocessor (µP) or microcontroller (µC).
 A microcontroller is an integrated chip which comes with built-in
memory, I/O ports, timers, and other components.
 Most embedded systems are built on microcontrollers, which run faster
than a custom-built system with a microprocessor, because all
components are integrated within a single chip.
 Operating system plays an important role in most of the embedded
systems. But all the embedded systems do not use the operating system.
 The systems with high end applications only use operating system. To
use the operating system the embedded system should have large
memory capability. So, this is not possible in low end applications like
remote systems, digital cameras, MP3 players, robot toys etc.
 The architecture of an embedded system with OS can be denoted by
layered structure as shown below.
 The OS will provide an interface between the hardware and application
software.
 In the case of embedded systems with OS, once the application
software is loaded into memory it will run the application without any
host system.
 Coming to the hardware details of the embedded system, it consists of
the following important blocks.
 CPU (Central Processing Unit)
 RAM and ROM
 I/O Devices
 Communication Interfaces
 Sensors etc. (Application specific circuitry)
 of the RAM also varies from a few bytes to KB or MB depending on the
application.

Recent Trends in Embedded Systems:

• With the fast developments in semiconductor industry and VLSI
technology ,one can find tremendous changes in the embedded system
design in terms of processor speed , power , communication interfaces
including network capabilities and software developments like operating
systems and programming languages etc.
• Processor speed and Power :With the advancements in processor
technology ,the embedded systems are now a days designed with 32,64
bit processors which can work in real time environment. These
processors are able to perform high speed signal processing activities
 which resulted in the development of high definition communication
devices like 3G mobiles etc.
• Also the recent developments in VLSI technology has paved the way for
low power battery operated devices which are very handy and have high
longetivity. Also , the present day embedded systems are provided with
higher memory capabilities ,so that most of them are based on tiny
operating systems like android etc
• Communication interfaces : Most of the present day embedded systems
are aimed at internet based applications. So,the communication
interfaces like Ethernet, USB, wireless LAN etc.have become very
common resources in almost all the embedded systems. The
developments in memory technologies also helped in porting the TCP/IP
protocol stack and the HTTP server software on to the embedded
systems. Such embedded systems can provide a link between any two
devices anywhere in the globe.
• Operating systems :With recent software developments ,there is a
considerable growth in the availability of operating systems for
embedded systems. Mainly new operating systems are developed which
can be used in real time applications. There are both commercial RTOSes
like Vx Works , QNX,WIN-CE and open source RTOSes like RTLINUX etc.
The Android OS in mobiles has revolutionized the embedded industry.
• Programming Languages :There is also a remarkable development in the
programming languages. Languages like C++, Java etc. are now widely
used in embedded application programming. For example by having the
Java virtual machine in a mobile phones ,one can download Java applets
from a server and can be executed on your mobile. In addition to these
developments, now a days we also find new devices like ASICs and FPGAs
in the embedded system market. These new hardware devices are
popular as programmable devices and reconfigurable devices.
Hardware Architecture of Embedded System
 Central Processing Unit:
• A CPU is composed of an Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), a Control Unit
(CU), and many internal registers that are connected by buses.
• The ALU performs all the mathematical operations (Add, Sub, Mul, Div),
logical operations (AND, OR), and shifting operations within CPU. The
timing and sequencing of all CPU operations are controlled by the CU,
which is actually built of many selection circuits including latches and
decoders. The CU is responsible for directing the flow of instruction and
data within the CPU and continuously running program instructions step
by step.
• For embedded system design, many factors impact the CPU selection,
e.g., the maximum size (number of bits) in a single operand for ALU (8,
16, 32, 64 bits), and CPU clock frequency for timing tick control, i.e. the
number of ticks (clock cycles) per second in measures of MHz .
• The CORE in the embedded system may be a general purpose processor
like a microcontroller or a special purpose processor like a DSP (Digital
signal processor). But any CORE consists of an Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU), a Control Unit (CU), and many internal registers that are
connected by buses.
• In an embedded system, the CPU may never stop and run forever .The
CPU works in a cycle of fetching an instruction, decoding it, and
executing it, known as the fetch-decode-execute cycle. The cycle begins
 when an instruction is fetched from a memory location pointed to by the
PC to the IR via the data bus.
• When data and code lie in different memory blocks, then the
architecture is referred as Harvard architecture. In case data and code
lie in the same memory block, then the architecture is referred as Von
Neumann architecture.
• Von Neumann Architecture:
• The Von Neumann architecture was first proposed by a computer
scientist John von Neumann. In this architecture, one data path or bus
exists for both instruction and data. As a result, the CPU does one
operation at a time. It either fetches an instruction from memory, or
performs read/write operation on data. So an instruction fetch and a
data operation cannot occur simultaneously, sharing a common bus.
• Von-Neumann architecture supports simple hardware. It allows the use
of a single, sequential memory. Today's processing speeds vastly
outpace memory access times, and we employ a very fast but small
amount of memory (cache) local to the processor.

Harvard Architecture:
• Computers have separate memory areas for program instructions and
data using internal data buses, allowing simultaneous access to both
instructions and data.
Memory:
• Embedded system memory can be either on-chip or off-chip.
• On chip memory access is much fast than off-chip memory, but the size
of on-chip memory is much smaller than the size of off-chip memory.
• The ROM, EPROM, and Flash memory are all read-only type memories
often used to store code in an embedded system.
• The embedded system code does not change after the code is loaded
into memory. The ROM is programmed at the factory and cannot be
changed over time.
• The newer microcontrollers come with EPROM or Flash instead of ROM.
• Most microcontroller development kits come with EPROM as well.
• EPROM and Flash memory are easier to rewrite than ROM. EPROM is an
Erasable Programmable
• The size of EPROM ranges up to 32kb in most embedded systems.
• Flash memory is an EPROM which can be programmed from software so
that the developers don‘t need to physically remove the EPROM from
the circuit to re-program it.
 • It is much quicker and easier to re-write Flash than other types of
EPROM.
• When the power is on, the first instruction in ROM is loaded into the PC
and then the CPU fetches the instruction from the location in the ROM
pointed to by the PC and stores it in the IR to start the continuous CPU
fetch and execution cycle. The PC is advanced to the address of the next
instruction depending on the length of the current instruction or the
destination of the Jump instruction.
• The memory is divided into Data Memory and Code Memory.
• Most of data is stored in Random Access Memory (RAM) and code is
stored in Read Only Memory (ROM).
• This is due to the RAM constraint of the embedded system and the
memory organization. The RAM is readable and writable, faster access
and more expensive volatile storage, which can be used to store either
data or code.
• Once the power is turned off, all information stored in the RAM will be
lost.
• The RAM chip can be SRAM (static) or DRAM (dynamic) depending on
the manufacturer. SRAM is faster than DRAM, but is more expensive
I/O Ports:
• The I/O ports are used to connect input and output devices. The
common input devices for an embedded system include keypads,
switches, buttons, knobs, and all kinds of sensors (light, temperature,
pressure, etc).
• The output devices include Light Emitting Diodes (LED), Liquid Crystal
Displays (LCD), printers, alarms, actuators, etc. Some devices support
both input and output, such as communication interfaces including
Network Interface Cards (NIC), modems, and mobile phones
Communication Interfaces:
• To transfer the data or to interact with other devices, the embedded
devices are provided the various communication interfaces like RS232,
RS422, RS485,USB, SPI(Serial Peripheral Interface ) ,SCI (Serial
Communication Interface) ,Ethernet etc.
Application Specific Circuitry:
• The embedded system sometimes receives the input from a sensor or
actuator. In such situations certain signal conditioning circuitry is
needed. This hardware circuitry may contain ADC, Op-amps, DAC etc.
ADC & DAC:
• Many embedded system application need to deal with non-digital
external signals such as electronic voltage, music or voice, temperature,
pressures, and many other signals in the analog form.
• The digital computer does not understand these data unless they are
converted to digital formats.
• The ADC is responsible for converting analog values to binary digits.
• The DAC is responsible for outputting analog signals for automation
controls such as DC motor.
• In addition to these peripherals, an embedded system may also have
sensors, Display modules like LCD or Touch screen panels, Debug ports
c,ertain communication peripherals like I2C, SPI, Ethernet, CAN, USB for
high speed data transmission. Now a days various sensors are also
becoming an important part in the design of real time embedded
systems. Sensors like temperature sensors, light sensors, PIR sensors, gas
sensors are widely used in application specific circuitry.
Power supply:
• Most of the embedded systems now days work on battery operated
supplies.
Because low power dissipation is always required. Hence the systems are
designed to work with batteries
Clock:
 The clock is used to control the clocking requirement of the CPU for
executing instructions and the configuration of timers.
• The watchdog timer is a special timing device that resets the system
after a preset time delay in case of system anomaly. The watchdog starts
up automatically after the system power up.
• One need to reboot the PC now and then due to various faults caused by
hardware or software. An embedded system cannot be rebooted
manually, because it has been embedded into its system. That is why
many microcontrollers come with an on-chip watchdog timer which can
be configured just like the counter in the regular timer. After a system
gets stuck (power supply voltage out of range or regular timer does not
issue timeout after reaching zero count) the watchdog eventually will
restart the system to bring the system back to a normal operational
condition.
Real Time Embedded Systems
• A real-time embedded system is a particular version of
an embedded system that works on the basis of real-time
computing represented by a dedicated type of operating system —
RTOS.
• Its working principles are as follows:
• Quick response to external factors: an embedded system must work
within fixed time constraints.
• Predictability: an embedded system must be deterministic or
predictable, meaning that no deviations are allowed.
• The deadline is above all: meeting the deadline is more important than
other performance characteristics.
• Operational failures may lead to catastrophe: if a task does not meet
time limits, it negatively affects users and may even lead to fatal results.

Categories of Real-Time Embedded Systems:

Real-time embedded systems fall into three categories —
• soft,
• firm and
• hard
depending on the acceptability of violation of time constraints:
• Hard — timing constraints must not be violated. For such built-in
systems, it’s crucial that the deadline is met in all cases. No errors are
acceptable as they will lead to harmful effects and the device will totally
lose its operation value. An air defense system that needs to detect and
intercept an attacking missile within milliseconds has this type of
embedded system. Its failure jeopardizes human lives. Other examples
are airplane sensors or self-driving car control systems.
• Firm — exceeding the deadline is occasionally permitted, though it is
undesirable. Operating failures of firm real-time systems don’t result in
harmful effects. But devices lose their performance value because of
such failures. Manufacturing robots refer to this category.
• Soft — exceeding the deadline is acceptable. Response failures of soft
real-time systems diminish user experience, but they don’t reduce the
performance value at once. If such a system fails to meet a deadline, it
will either recover or gradually diminish its operation. For example, TV
router boxes and gaming consoles refer to soft real-time embedded
systems. Time lags in their operation may happen, but they have either
insignificant or no consequences.
Physical Constraints:
• These refer to hardware components, the required characteristics of the
device itself and external environmental factors. Embedded engineers
usually have to create a product that should satisfy the following
conditions:
• Definite device size
• Spatial constraints for device installation
• Limited memory and power consumption
• Certain environmental conditions for device operation (temperature,
humidity, pressure)
Timing Constraints:
The very essence of real-time systems is that they must respond to events
within predefined time limits. The most severe challenge for developers is to
create a system capable of meeting the deadline under any conditions. They
must do accurate calculations and build the appropriate task scheduling system
to succeed.
Task Scheduling
• For real-time systems, it’s crucial to organize data processing strictly
following timing constraints. Real-time operating systems comprise
scheduling algorithms that are responsible for managing these
constraints. Thus, quick responses to events directly depend on which
scheduling algorithm you choose for your real-time embedded solution.
• There are preemptive and non- preemptive algorithms, and software
engineers can choose from several popular types.
• Priority scheduling. This algorithm prioritizes all tasks and puts forward
the task with the highest priority to be performed first by the processor.
A preventive version of the algorithm stops a running task if there is
another one with a higher priority in the queue. A non-preventive
version doesn’t stop running tasks, but a higher priority task will be the
next in the line. This approach doesn’t suit tasks with equal priority.
 • Round-robin scheduling. This is a preventive scheduling algorithm that
doesn’t prioritize tasks. Instead, it allocates an equal time interval (e.g.,
500 ms) for each task, and the CPU processes them one by one. One task
may go several rounds to be completed. This approach is relatively easy
and straightforward.
• First come, first served (FCFS). This is a non-preventive algorithm that
puts tasks into the running state depending on the time they arrive. The
process is straightforward: the task that comes first is the first to utilize
the computing power. This algorithm ensures a high response time.
• Shortest job first (SJF). The non-preventive version of this algorithm
allocates tasks depending on their execution time: the task with the
shortest execution time is run next. The preventive variant can interrupt
running tasks if a task with a shorter remaining execution period arrives.
Robots and Robotics:
• A robot is a type of automated machine that can execute specific tasks
with little or no human intervention and with speed and precision. The
field of robotics, which deals with robot design, engineering and
operation
• Robots can perform some tasks better than humans, but others are best
left to people and not machines.
• Robot: It is a machine capable of carrying out a complex series of actions
automatically, especially one programmable by computer.
• According to ISO It is an automatically controlled, reprogrammable,
multipurpose manipulator (robot with fixed base) programmable in three
or more axes, which can either be fixed in place or mobile for use in
industrial automation applications.
• According to RIA (Root Institute of America), It is reprogrammable multi-
Functional manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools or
specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the
performance of a variety of tasks.
• Manipulator: Mechanical Hand. We model, design and develop the
human hand in the form of an artificial Hand. It is reprogrammable and
multifunctional.
• CNC: Computerized Numerical Control Machine-We can perform a
variety of tasks by changing the program. Similarly, the same Robot can
be used to perform variety of tasks by reprogramming it. But the level of
reprogrammability differs in CNC machine and Robot(more).
• Robotics: It is the science which deals with the issues related to design,
manufacturing and usage of robots.
• 3H’s of Human beings are copied into Robotics such as
 Hand-with Manipulator
 Head-with Intelligence
 Heart-with emotions
Machines that can replace human beings as regards to physical work and
decision making are categorized as Robots and their study as robotics.
• Czech writer ,Karel Capek in his drama introduced the word robot to the
world in1921.It is derived from the Czech word robota meaning “forced
labourer”.
• Isaac Asimov the well known Russian science fiction writer coined the
word Robotics in his story “Runaround” , published in 1942 to denote the
science devoted to the study of Robotics.
• The robot technology is advancing rapidly. Robots and robot like
manipulators are now commonly employed in hostile environment such
as at various places in an atomic plant for handling radio active materials.
• Robots are being employed to construct and repair space stations and
satellites.
• There are now increasing number of applications of robots such as in
nursing and aiding a patient. Microrobots are being designed to do
damage control inside human veins.
• One type of robot commonly used in the industry is a robotic
manipulator or simply a robotic arm.
• It is an open or closed kinematic chain of rigid links interconnected by
movable joints.
• In some configurations, links can be considered to correspond to human
anatomy as waist, upper arm, and forearm with joints at shoulder and
elbow.
• At the end of the arm, a wrist joint connects an end effector to the
forearm.
• The end effector may be a tool and its a fixture or a gripper or any other
device to do work . The end effector is similar to the human hand with or
 without fingers.

Motivation behind Robotics: To cope up with increasing demands of a dynamic

and competitive market, modern manufacturing methods should satisfy the
following requirements:
 Reduced Production Cost
  Increased Productivity
 Improved Product Quality
 Laws of Robotics:
1)A robot should not injure a human being or through inaction allow a
human to be harmed.
2)A robot must obey orders given by humans except when that conflicts
with the first law.
3)A robot must protect its own existence unless that conflicts with the
first or second law.
The following are things robots do better than humans:

• Automate manual or repetitive activities in corporate or industrial

settings.
• Work in unpredictable or hazardous environments to spot hazards like
gas leaks.
• Process and deliver reports for enterprise security.
• Fill out pharmaceutical prescriptions and prep IVs.
• Deliver online orders, room service and even food packets during
emergencies.
• Assist during surgeries.
• Robots can also make music, monitor shorelines for dangerous
predators, help with search and rescue and even assist with food
preparation.
Different Types of robots
• There are as many different types of robots as there are tasks.
1. Androids
Androids are robots that resemble humans. They are often mobile, moving
around on wheels or a track drive. According to the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, these humanoid robots are used in areas such as
caregiving and personal assistance, search and rescue, space exploration and
research, entertainment and education, public relations and healthcare, and
manufacturing.
2. Telechir
A telechir is a complex robot that is remotely controlled by a human operator
for a telepresence system. It gives that individual the sense of being on location
in a remote, dangerous or alien environment, and enables them to interact
with it since the telechir continuously provides sensory feedback.
3. Telepresence robot
A telepresence robot simulates the experience -- and some capabilities -- of
being physically present at a location. It combines remote monitoring and
control via telemetry sent over radio, wires or optical fibers, and enables
remote business consultations, healthcare, home monitoring, childcare and
more.
4. Industrial robot
• The IFR (International Federation of Robotics) defines an industrial robot
as an "automatically controlled, reprogrammable multipurpose
manipulator programmable in three or more axes." Users can adapt
these robots to different applications as well. Combining these robots
with AI has helped businesses move them beyond simple automation to
higher-level and more complex tasks.
• In 2019, there were over 390,000 industrial robots installed worldwide,
according to the IFR -- with China, Japan and the U.S. leading the way.
In industrial settings, such robots can do the following:
• optimize process performance;
• automate production to increase productivity and efficiency;
• speed up product development;
 • enhance safety; and
lower costs.
5.Swarm robot
Swarm robots (aka insect robots) work in fleets ranging from a few to
thousands, all under the supervision of a single controller. These robots are
analogous to insect colonies, in that they exhibit simple behaviors individually,
but demonstrate behaviors that are more sophisticated with an ability to carry
out complex tasks in total.
6. Smart robot
This is the most advanced kind of robot. The smart robot has a built-in AI
system that learns from its environment and experiences to build knowledge
and enhance capabilities to continuously improve. A smart robot can
collaborate with humans and help solve problems in areas like the following:
• agricultural labor shortages;
• food waste;
• study of marine ecosystems;
• product organization in warehouses; and
• clearing of debris from disaster zones.

Progressive Advancements in Robots

Microprocessors and Microcontrollers
Microprocessor
• The microprocessor is useful in very intensive processes. It only contains
a CPU (central processing unit) but there are many other parts needed to
work with the CPU to complete a process. These all other parts are
connected externally.
• Microprocessors are not made for a specific task as well as they are
useful where tasks are complex and tricky like the development of
software, games, and other applications that require high memory and
where input and output are not defined.
• Eg: Complex home security, Home computers, Video game systems
Microcontroller
• The microcontroller is designed for a specific task or to perform the
assigned task repeatedly. Once the program is embedded on a
microcontroller chip, it can’t be altered easily and you may need some
special tools to reburn it.
• As per application, the process is fixed in microcontroller. Hence, the
output depends on the input given by the user or sensors or predefined
inputs.
• e.g. Calculator, Washing Machine, ATM machine, Robotic Arm, Camera,
Microwave oven, Oscilloscope, Digital multimeter, ECG Machine, Printer
Differences between Microprocessor and Micro-controller
Microprocessor Microcontroller

Brief overview
• Microprocessor consists of only a Central Processing Unit, whereas
Micro Controller contains a CPU, Memory, I/O all integrated into one
chip.
• The microprocessor is useful in Personal Computers whereas Micro
Controller is useful in an embedded system.
• The microprocessor uses an external bus to interface to RAM, ROM, and
other peripherals, on the other hand, Microcontroller uses an internal
controlling bus.
• Microprocessors are based on Von Neumann model Microcontrollers are
based on Harvard architecture
• The microprocessor is complicated and expensive, with a large number
of instructions to process but Microcontroller is inexpensive and
straightforward with fewer instructions to process.
Microcontrollers(Embedded Controllers)
• A microcontroller is a compact integrated circuit designed to govern a
specific operation in an embedded system. A typical microcontroller
includes a processor, memory and input/output (I/O) peripherals on a
single chip.
• Sometimes referred to as an embedded controller or microcontroller
unit (MCU), microcontrollers are found in vehicles, robots, office
machines, medical devices, mobile radio transceivers, vending machines
and home appliances, among other devices. They are essentially simple
miniature personal computers (PCs) designed to control small features of
a larger component, without a complex front-end operating system (OS).

How do microcontrollers work?

• A microcontroller is embedded inside of a system to control a singular
function in a device. It does this by interpreting data it receives from its
I/O peripherals using its central processor. The temporary information
that the microcontroller receives is stored in its data memory, where the
processor accesses it and uses instructions stored in its program memory
to decipher and apply the incoming data. It then uses its I/O peripherals
to communicate and enact the appropriate action.
• Devices often utilize multiple microcontrollers that work together within
the device to handle their respective tasks.
• For example, a car might have many microcontrollers that control
various individual systems within, such as the anti-lock braking system,
traction control, fuel injection or suspension control. All the
microcontrollers communicate with each other to inform the correct
actions. Some might communicate with a more complex central
computer within the car, and others might only communicate with other
microcontrollers. They send and receive data using their I/O peripherals
and process that data to perform their designated tasks.
Elements of a microcontroller:
The core elements of a microcontroller are:
• The processor (CPU) -- A processor can be thought of as the brain of the
device. It processes and responds to various instructions that direct the
microcontroller's function. This involves performing basic arithmetic,
logic and I/O operations. It also performs data transfer operations, which
communicate commands to other components in the larger embedded
system.
Memory -- A microcontroller's memory is used to store the data that the
processor receives and uses to respond to instructions that it's been
programmed to carry out. A microcontroller has two main memory types:
• Program memory, which stores long-term information about the
instructions that the CPU carries out. Program memory is non-
volatile memory, meaning it holds information over time without
needing a power source.
 • Data memory, which is required for temporary data storage while
the instructions are being executed. Data memory is volatile,
meaning the data it holds is temporary and is only maintained if
the device is connected to a power source.
I/O peripherals -- The input and output devices are the interface for the
processor to the outside world. The input ports receive information and send it
to the processor in the form of binary data. The processor receives that data
and sends the necessary instructions to output devices that execute tasks
external to the microcontroller.
There are many supporting components that can be classified as peripherals.
• Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) -- An ADC is a circuit that
converts analog signals to digital signals. It allows the processor at
the center of the microcontroller to interface with external analog
devices, such as sensors.
• Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) -- A DAC performs the inverse
function of an ADC and allows the processor at the center of the
microcontroller to communicate its outgoing signals to external
analog components.
• System bus -- The system bus is the connective wire that links all
components of the microcontroller together.
• Serial port -- The serial port is one example of an I/O port that
allows the microcontroller to connect to external components. It
has a similar function to a USB or a parallel port but differs in the
way it exchanges bits.
Microcontroller features:
• A microcontroller's processor will vary by application. Options range
from the simple 4-bit, 8-bit or 16-bit processors to more complex 32-bit
or 64-bit processors.
• Microcontrollers can use volatile memory types such as random access
memory (RAM) and non-volatile memory types -- this includes flash
 memory, erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) and
electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM).
• Generally, microcontrollers are designed to be readily usable without
additional computing components because they are designed with
sufficient onboard memory as well as offering pins for general I/O
operations, so they can directly interface with sensors and other
components.
• Microcontroller architecture can be based on the Harvard architecture or
von Neumann architecture, both offering different methods of
exchanging data between the processor and memory. With a Harvard
architecture, the data bus and instruction are separate, allowing for
simultaneous transfers. With a Von Neumann architecture, one bus is
used for both data and instructions.
• Most of the microcontrollers are based on RISC architecture.
• MCUs feature input and output pins to implement peripheral functions.
Such functions include analog-to-digital converters, liquid crystal display
(LCD) ,Sensors gathering data.
• Common MCUs include the Intel MCS-51, often referred to as an 8051
microcontroller, which was first developed in 1985; the AVR
microcontroller developed by Atmel in 1996; the programmable
interface controller (PIC) from Microchip Technology; and various
licensed Advanced RISC Machines (ARM) microcontrollers.
• Applications: Microcontrollers are used in multiple industries and
applications, including in the home and enterprise, building automation,
manufacturing, robotics, automotive, lighting, smart energy, industrial
automation, communications and internet of things (IoT) deployments
UNIT-2
Classification of Robots
• Robots can be classified based on the application or by their locomotion
/ kinematics.
• Classifying Robots by their Application: Based on this classification, there
are two broad ways of categorizing robots.
1)Industrial Robots
2)Service Robots
• Industrial Robots: These were one of the first robots to be used
commercially. In a factory assembly line, these are usually in the form of
articulated arms specifically developed for such applications as welding,
material handling, painting and others.
• They can be further subdivided as:
1)Manufacturing Robots
2)Logistics Robots
• Manufacturing robots are designed to move materials, as well as
perform a variety of programmed tasks in manufacturing and production
settings. They are often used to perform duties that are dangerous or
unsuitable for human workers.
• Logistics robots are mobile automated guided vehicles primarily used in
warehouses and storage facilities to transport goods.
• Service robots: The International Organization for Standardization
defines a service robot as ‘a robot that performs useful tasks for
humans.’ They can be further subdivided as:
1. Medical robots
2. Home robots
3. Defence robots
 4. Entertainment robots
5. Agricultural robots
6. Educational robots
 Medical robots are professional service robots that are used in and out
of hospital settings to improve the level of patient care. These robots
reduce the workload of the medical staff, which allows them to spend
more time caring directly for patients. Mobile medical robots are used
for the delivery of medication and other sensitive materials in a hospital.
 Home robots automate tasks like cleaning and disinfecting.
 The primary purpose of Education robots is to make kids aware of their
potential, utility, and help kids build their own robots using readymade
kits. Educational robots are used extensively in schools, both in
classrooms and in extracurricular activities.
 One of the most important uses of robots in defence is to ensure the
safety of soldiers and civilians. For example, remotely operated vehicles
(ROVs) are used to carry out dangerous tasks or activities in hazardous
environments, drones are used for surveillance, and so on.
 Agricultural robots sense weather pattern and can adjust the watering of
crop as needed, can be used for sowing, de-weeding, and harvesting
crops.
Classifying Robots by their Kinematics or Locomotion: Robots can also be
classified according to how they move – or not move.
 Cartesian Robots: these are perhaps the most common types of robots.
They have three axes which are linear i.e, they can only move in straight
lines rather than rotating and are mounted at right angles to each other.
Because of their rigid structure, this type of robots usually can offer good
levels of precision and repeatability. Cartesian robots are mostly used in
the industrial and the manufacturing sector for pick and place type of
operations.
  Cylindrical robots: The body of this type of robot is such that the robotic
arm can move up and down along a vertical member. The arm can rotate
about that vertical axis and the arm can also extend or contract. This
construction makes the manipulator able to work in a cylindrical space.
They are used for assembly operations, spot welding and for die casting
machines. These cannot reach the objects lying on the floor.
Eg:Versatran 600

Spherical coordinate Robots(Polar coordinate Robots): This type of robot

works in a spherical system. It can move in a bi-angular and single linear
direction. SCARA Robots: SCARA stands for Selective Compliance Arm for
Robotic Assembly. This type of robot has one linear and two rotary
movements. Can be used to pick up objects lying on the floor. They are used for
assembly purposes all over the world
Eg: Unimate 2000B
 • Revolute coordinate or Articulated Robots: These are robots with a
wide range of movements that include forward, backward, upward and
downward motion. Because of their large work envelope, articulated
robots can be used for several different applications like assembly, arc
welding, material handling, machine tending, and packaging.

Note: PUMA stands for Programmable Universal Machine for Assembly

Other types:
 Airborne Robots: these robots can fly through the air. Drones are an
extremely popular example of flying robots.
 Aquatic Robots: These robots can work on or under water. They are
mostly used for underwater exploration of oil, gas or minerals.
Joints and links
Two basic typestypes of joints are used in industrial robots
1)Revolute
2)Prismatic
Degree of freedom
Fig 1.9: Representation of six degrees of freedom
DOF of a system: Defined as the minimum number of independent
parameters/variables/coordinates needed to describe the system completely.
Motors:
• DC Motor: A DC motor is defined as a class of electrical motors that
convert direct current electrical energy into mechanical energy.
• From the above definition, we can conclude that any electric motor that
is operated using direct current or DC is called a DC motor.
Parts of a DC Motor
Armature or Rotor
The armature of a DC motor is a cylinder of magnetic laminations that are
insulated from one another. The armature is perpendicular to the axis of the
cylinder. The armature is a rotating part that rotates on its axis and is separated
from the field coil by an air gap.
Field Coil or Stator
A DC motor field coil is a non-moving part on which winding is wound to
produce a magnetic field. This electro-magnet has a cylindrical cavity between
its poles.
Commutator and Brushes
Commutator
The commutator of a DC motor is a cylindrical structure that is made of copper
segments stacked together but insulated from each other using mica. The
primary function of a commutator is to supply electrical current to the
armature winding.
Brushes
The brushes of a DC motor are made with graphite and carbon structure. These
brushes conduct electric current from the external circuit to the rotating
commutator. Hence, we come to understand that the commutator and the
brush unit are concerned with transmitting the power from the static electrical
circuit to the mechanically rotating region or the rotor.
DC Motor Working:
A magnetic field arises in the air gap when the field coil of the DC motor is
energised. The created magnetic field is in the direction of the radii of the
armature. The magnetic field enters the armature from the North pole side of
the field coil and “exits” the armature from the field coil’s South pole side.
The conductors located on the other pole are subjected to a force of the same
intensity but in the opposite direction. These two opposing forces create a
torque that causes the motor armature to rotate.
Working principle of DC motor
When kept in a magnetic field, a current-carrying conductor gains torque and
develops a tendency to move. In short, when electric fields and magnetic fields
interact, a mechanical force arises. This is the principle on which the DC motors
work.
Types of DC motor
• Self Excited DC Motor
• Separately Excited DC Motor
Self Excited DC Motor
• In self-excited DC motors, the field winding is connected either in series
or parallel to the armature winding. Based on this, the self-excited DC
motor can further be classified as:
1. Shunt wound DC motor
2. Series wound DC motor
3. Compound wound DC motor
Shunt wound DC motor:In a shunt wound motor, the field winding is
connected parallel to the armature
Series wound DC motor:In a series wound DC motor, the field winding is
connected in series with the armature winding

Compound wound DC motor:DC motors having both shunt and series field
winding is known as Compound DC motor, The compound motor is further
divided into:
Cumulative Compound Motor
Differential Compound Motor
In a cumulative compound motor, the magnetic flux produced by both the
windings is in the same direction. In a differential compound motor, the flux
produced by the series field windings is opposite to the flux produced by the
shunt field winding.
2) Separately Excited DC Motor: In a separately excited DC motor, the field
coils are energised from an external source of DC supply

Stepper Motor:
• A stepper motor is an electromechanical device it converts electrical
power into mechanical power. Also, it is a brushless, synchronous
electric motor that can divide a full rotation into an expansive number of
steps. The motor’s position can be controlled accurately without any
feedback mechanism, as long as the motor is carefully sized to the
application.Construction & Working Principle:
• The construction of a stepper motor is fairly related to a DC motor. It
includes a permanent magnet like Rotor which is in the middle & it will
turn once force acts on it. This rotor is enclosed through a no. of the
stator which is wound through a magnetic coil all over it. The stator is
arranged near to rotor so that magnetic fields within the stators can
control the movement of the rotor.
 • The stepper motor can be controlled by energizing every stator one by
one. So the stator will magnetize & works like an electromagnetic pole
which uses repulsive energy on the rotor to move forward. The stator’s
alternative magnetizing as well as demagnetizing will shift the rotor
gradually &allows it to turn through great control.
• The stepper motor working principle is Electro-Magnetism. It includes a
rotor which is made with a permanent magnet whereas a stator is with
electromagnets. Once the supply is provided to the winding of the stator
then the magnetic field will be developed within the stator. Now rotor in
the motor will start to move with the rotating magnetic field of the
stator. So this is the fundamental working principle of this motor.

• In this motor, there is a soft iron that is enclosed through the

electromagnetic stators. The poles of the stator as well as the rotor don’t
depend on the kind of stepper. Once the stators of this motor are
energized then the rotor will rotate to line up itself with the stator
otherwise turns to have the least gap through the stator. In this way, the
stators are activated in a series to revolve the stepper motor.
Driving Techniques
Single Excitation Mode
The basic method of driving a stepper motor is a single excitation mode. It is an
old method and not used much at present but one has to know about this
technique. In this technique every phase otherwise stator next to each other
will be triggered one by one alternatively with a special circuit. This will
magnetize & demagnetize the stator to move the rotor forward.
Full Step Drive
In this technique, two stators are activated at a time instead of one in a very
less time period. This technique results in high torque & allows the motor to
drive the high load.
Half Step Drive
This technique is fairly related to the Full step drive because the two stators
will be arranged next to each other so that it will be activated first whereas the
third one will be activated after that. This kind of cycle for switching two stators
first &after that third stator will drive the motor. This technique will result in
improved resolution of the stepper motor while decreasing the torque.
Micro Stepping
• This technique is most frequently used due to its accuracy. The variable
step current will supply by the stepper motor driver circuit toward stator
coils within the form of a sinusoidal waveform. The accuracy of every
step can be enhanced by this small step current. This technique is
extensively used because it provides high accuracy as well as decreases
operating noise to a large extent.
Servo Motors
• A servo motor is a type of motor that can rotate with great precision.
Normally this type of motor consists of a control circuit that provides
feedback on the current position of the motor shaft, this feedback allows
the servo motors to rotate with great precision. If you want to rotate an
object at some specific angles or distance, then you use a servo motor. It
is just made up of a simple motor which runs through a servo
mechanism.
• If motor is powered by a DC power supply then it is called DC servo
motor, and if it is AC-powered motor then it is called AC servo motor. For
this tutorial, we will be discussing only about the DC servo motor
working. Apart from these major classifications, there are many other
types of servo motors based on the type of gear arrangement and
operating characteristics.
• A servo motor usually comes with a gear arrangement that allows us to
get a very high torque servo motor in small and lightweight packages.
Due to these features, they are being used in many applications like toy
car, RC helicopters and planes, Robotics, etc.
• Servo motors are rated in kg/cm (kilogram per centimeter) most hobby
servo motors are rated at 3kg/cm or 6kg/cm or 12kg/cm. This kg/cm tells
you how much weight your servo motor can lift at a particular distance.
For example: A 6kg/cm Servo motor should be able to lift 6kg if the load
is suspended 1cm away from the motors shaft, the greater the distance
the lesser the weight carrying capacity. The position of a servo motor is
decided by electrical pulse and its circuitry is placed beside the motor.

Servo Motor Working Mechanism

• It consists of three parts:
1. Controlled device
2. Output sensor
3. Feedback system
• It is a closed-loop system where it uses a positive feedback system to
control motion and the final position of the shaft. Here the device is
controlled by a feedback signal generated by comparing output signal
and reference input signal.
• Here reference input signal is compared to the reference output signal
and the third signal is produced by the feedback system. And this third
signal acts as an input signal to the control the device. This signal is
present as long as the feedback signal is generated or there is a
difference between the reference input signal and reference output
signal. So the main task of servomechanism is to maintain the output of a
system at the desired value at presence of noises.
• Servo Motor Working Principle
• A servo consists of a Motor (DC or AC), a potentiometer, gear assembly,
and a controlling circuit. First of all, we use gear assembly to reduce RPM
and to increase torque of the motor. Say at initial position of servo motor
shaft, the position of the potentiometer knob is such that there is no
electrical signal generated at the output port of the potentiometer.
• Now an electrical signal is given to another input terminal of the error
detector amplifier. Now the difference between these two signals, one
comes from the potentiometer and another comes from other sources,
will be processed in a feedback mechanism and output will be provided
in terms of error signal. This error signal acts as the input for motor and
motor starts rotating. Now motor shaft is connected with the
potentiometer and as the motor rotates so the potentiometer and it will
generate a signal. So as the potentiometer’s angular position changes, its
output feedback signal changes.
• After sometime the position of potentiometer reaches at a position that
the output of potentiometer is same as external signal provided. At this
condition, there will be no output signal from the amplifier to the motor
input as there is no difference between external applied signal and the
 signal generated at potentiometer, and in this situation motor stops
rotating.
• Servo motor works on PWM (Pulse width modulation) principle, means
its angle of rotation is controlled by the duration of applied pulse to its
Control PIN. Basically servo motor is made up of DC motor which is
controlled by a variable resistor (potentiometer) and some gears. High
speed force of DC motor is converted into torque by Gears. We know
that WORK= FORCE X DISTANCE, in DC motor Force is less and distance
(speed) is high and in Servo, force is High and distance is less. The
potentiometer is connected to the output shaft of the Servo, to calculate
the angle and stop the DC motor on the required angle.

• Servo motor can be rotated from 0 to 180 degrees, but it can go up to

210 degrees, depending on the manufacturing. This degree of rotation
can be controlled by applying the Electrical Pulse of proper width, to its
Control pin. Servo checks the pulse in every 20 milliseconds. The pulse of
1 ms (1 millisecond) width can rotate the servo to 0 degrees, 1.5ms can
rotate to 90 degrees (neutral position) and 2 ms pulse can rotate it to
180 degree.
• All servo motors work directly with your +5V supply rails but we have to
be careful about the amount of current the motor would consume if you
 are planning to use more than two servo motors a proper servo shield
should be designed.
Types of Gears:
• A gear is a toothed cylindrical or roller shape component of a machine
which meshes with another toothed cylindrical to transmit power from
one shaft to another. It is mainly used to obtain different torque and
speed ratio or changing the direction of driving shaft and driven shaft.
• Principle:
• It works on the basic principle of thermodynamic which state that energy
is neither be created or destroyed or we can say it is conservative. it can
be converted into one form to another. We know that power is the
function of speed and torque or we can say that power is product of
torque (Force in rotary motion) and speed (P = TV) of the shaft. So when
we connect a small gear on driving shaft and a larger gear on driven
shaft, the speed decreases of driven shaft per unit rotation of driving
shaft.
Types of Gears:
Gears can be classified in various types according to construction of
teeth, Use, the direction of motion transfer etc. but basically it is
classified according to design of teeth.
1. Spur Gear:
These gears are used to transmit the power in same plane or when the
driving and driven shafts are parallel to each other. In this type of gear
teeth are cut parallel to the axis of the shafts so when is meshes with
another spur gear it transmit the power in parallel shaft and when it
connects with the helical gear it will transmit power at an angle from the
driving axis.
 2. Helical Gear:
• On the helical gears teeth are cut at an angle from the axis of it. It has
cylindrical roller with helicoid teeth. The main advantage of helical gears
is that they work with less noise and vibration because the load is
distributed on the full helix as compared to spur gears. It also has less
wear and tear due to which they are widely used in industries. It also
used for transmit power in parallel shaft but sometime they are used to
transmit power in non-parallel shaft also. In the helical gears if the pinion
(driving gear) is cut with right handed teeth then the gear (driven gear) is
cut with left handed of in opposite direction.

3. Double Helical or Herringbone Gear:

• This gear has both right and left handed teeth on one gear. This gear is
use to provide additional shear area on gear which further required for
higher torque transmission. This is same as helical.

4. Bevel Gear:
• This gear is used to transmit power between perpendiculars. The driving
shaft and driven shaft makes a right angle with each other and both the
axis of shaft meets each other at one point. This gear has helical or spiral
teeth on a conical shaped geometry and meshes with the same gear.

5. Rack and Pinion Gear:

• This gear is used in steering system of automobile. In this type of gear,
teeth are cut on a straight rectilinear geometry know as rack and one
 spur gear known as pinion. This is used to transmit rotary motion to
linear motion. It is seen as the infinite radius driven gear.

6. Worm Gear:
• This type of gear is used to transmit the power in nonintersecting shaft
which makes right angle. In this type of arrangement the driving gear is a
screw gear and the driven gear is helical gear or gear with spiral teeth as
shown in figure.

Software used for robot programming:

• A “robotics software platform” is a software package which simplifies
programming of several kinds of robotic devices by providing
• a unified programming environment;
• a unified service execution environment;
• a set of reusable components;
• a debugging/simulation environment;
• a package of “drivers” for most wide-spread robotics hardware
• a package of common facilities such as computer vision, navigation or
robotic arm control

1.Offline Programming
• RoboDK, offline programming software provides a way for you to
program your industrial robot without needing to be physically
connected to the robot at the time. This means that you don’t need to
take the robot out of production to program it. It reduces downtime,
improves the quality of programming, and allows you to change between
product lines quickly, amongst other benefits.
2. Simulators
Robot simulators come in many forms. Some only allow for simple 2D
simulation of specific aspects of robotics whilst others include 3D
simulation with complex physics engines and realistic environments.
• As well as being an offline programming tool, RoboDK is also a great
simulator. It is simple enough to allow you to easily program your robot
whilst being powerful enough to handle many different use cases.
3. Middleware:
 Middleware is the “software glue” that helps robot builders to avoid
reinventing the wheel when they are designing a new robotic system.
Robot middleware provides a framework for running and managing
complex robotic systems from a single unified interface. f you were
building your own robotic system with multiple components or looking
to coordinate multiple robots, you might use middleware
4. Mobile Robot Planning :Mobile robots are programmed in a different
way from other robots which means using a different type of software
too. For example, path planners are used to program the route that the
robot will take through the environment while obstacle avoidance
algorithms react to changes in the moment.
5. Real-Time Path Planning
Path planning software is used in many areas of robotics. Basic path
planners, are simply used to speed up the programming phase for
industrial robotics. Real-time path planning is much more complex and is
based on teaching–learning-based optimization (TLBO) USING AI.
6. UAV (Drone) Control
A growing type of robotic software is drone control. This refers to any
software which is used to program and coordinate unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs/drones). DroneDeploy, PIX4D are examples of software
used in drone control
(https://surveyinggroup.com/top-5-drone-mapping-softwares-that-you-
will-need-on-your-project)
7. Artificial Intelligence for Robots
• Artificial intelligence (AI) has been used with robotics for many years —
almost as long as robotics have been around. However, there has
recently been a rising number of software solutions specifically for using
AI with robots in particular application areas. As with the other types of
robot software, AI tends to be focused on specific aspects of these
applications, such as analyzing images collected in agricultural settings,
filtering operational data in manufacturing environments, or
coordinating swarms of mobile robots in logistics.
 UNIT – 3

The AVR RISC microcontroller architecture

AVRMicrocontroller:

Microcontroller:Microcontrollercanbetermedasasingleonchipcomputerwh
ichincludesnumberofperipheralslikeRAM,EEPROM,Timersetc.,requiredtop
erformsomepredefinedtask.

Fig. 1: Block Diagram Showing Architecture of AVR

Microcontroller

Doesthismeanthatthemicrocontrollerisanothernameforacomputer…?Theanswe
risNO!

The computer on one hand is designed to perform all the general

purpose tasks on a single machine like you can use acomputer to run a
software to perform calculations or you can use a computer to store some
multimedia file or to
accessinternetthroughthebrowser,whereasthemicrocontrollersaremeantto
performonlythespecifictasks,fore.g.,switchingtheACoffautomaticallywhenr
oomtemperaturedropstoacertaindefinedlimitandagainturningitONwhente
mperaturerisesabovethedefinedlimit.
There are number of popular families of microcontrollers which are
used in different applications as per their capability
andfeasibilitytoperformthedesiredtask,mostcommonoftheseare8051,AVR
andPICmicrocontrollers.InthisarticlewewillintroduceyouwithAVRfamilyofm
icrocontrollers.

History of AVR

AVRwasdevelopedintheyear1996byAtmel Corporation. The

architecture of AVR was developed by Alf-EgilBogen and
VegardWollan. AVR derives its name from its developers and stands for
Alf-
EgilBogenVegardWollanRISCmicrocontroller,alsoknownasAdvancedVirtua
lRISC.TheAT90S8515wasthefirstmicrocontrollerwhichwasbasedonAVRarchi
tecturehoweverthefirstmicrocontrollertohitthecommercialmarketwasAT90S12
00intheyear1997.
AVRmicrocontrollersareavailableinthreecategories:

1. TinyAVR–Lessmemory,smallsize,suitableonlyforsimplerapplications

2. MegaAVR–
Thesearethemostpopularoneshavinggoodamountofmemory(upto256KB),h
ighernumberofinbuiltperipheralsandsuitableformoderatetocomplexapplica
tions.

3. XmegaAVR–
Usedcommerciallyforcomplexapplications,whichrequirelargeprogramme
moryandhighspeed.

ThefollowingtablecomparestheabovementionedAVRseriesofmicroc
ontrollers:

Series Name Pins Flash Memory Special

Feature

TinyAVR 6-32 0.5-8 KB Small in size

MegaAVR 28-100 4-256KB Extended

peripherals

XmegaAVR 44-100 16-384KB DMA , Event

System
included

Importance of AVR

What’s special about AVR?

They are fast: AVR microcontroller executes most of the instructions

in single execution cycle. AVRs are about 4 timesfaster than PICs, they
consume less power and can be operated in different power saving
modes. Let’s do the
comparisonbetweenthethreemostcommonlyusedfamiliesofmicrocontrolle
rs.
8051 PIC AVR
 SPEED Slow Moderate Fast

MEMORY Small Large Large

ARCHITECTURE CISC RISC RISC

ADC Not Present Inbuilt Inbuilt

Timers Inbuilt Inbuilt Inbuilt

PWM Not Present Inbuilt Inbuilt

Channels

AVRisan8-
bitmicrocontrollerbelongingtothefamilyofReducedInstructionSetComputer
(RISC).InRISCarchitecturetheinstruction set of the computer are not only
fewer in number but also simpler and faster in operation. The other type
ofcategorizationisCISC(ComplexInstructionSetComputers).Clicktofindoutdif
ferencesbetweenRISCandCISC.Wewill
exploremoreonthiswhenwewilllearnaboutthearchitectureofAVRmicrocontrolle
rsinfollowingsection.

Let’sseewhatallthismeans.Whatis8-
bit?Thismeansthatthemicrocontrolleriscapableoftransmittingandreceiving
8-bitdata. The input/output registers available are of 8-bits. The AVR
family controllers have register based architecture whichmeans that both
the operands for an operation are stored in a register and the result of the
operation is also stored in
aregister.FollowingfigureshowsasimpleexampleperformingORoperationbet
weentwoinputregistersandstoringthevalueinOutputRegister.
 Block Diagram Showing Simple Example Carrying Out OR Operation Between Two Input Registers And
ValueStorage In Output Register

TheCPUtakesvaluesfromtwoinputregistersINPUT-1andINPUT-
2,performsthelogicaloperationandstoresthevalueinto
theOUTPUTregister.Allthishappensin1executioncycle.
InourjourneywiththeAVRwewillbeworkingonAtmega16microcontroller,whichisa40-
pinICandbelongstothemegaAVRcategoryofAVRfamily.SomeofthefeaturesofAtmega16are:

· 16KBofFlashmemory
· 1KBofSRAM
· 512BytesofEEPROM
· Availablein40-PinDIP
· 8-Channel10-bitADC
· Two8-bitTimers/Counters
 · One16-bitTimer/Counter
· 4PWMChannels
· InSystemProgrammer(ISP)
· SerialUSART
· SPIInterface
· Digitalto AnalogComparator.

Architecture of AVR

The AVR microcontrollers are based on the advanced RISC architecture and consist of 32
x 8-bit general purpose workingregisters. Within one single clock cycle, AVR can take inputs
from two general purpose registers and put them to ALU
forcarryingouttherequestedoperation,andtransferbacktheresulttoanarbitraryregister.TheAL
Ucanperformarithmeticaswellaslogicaloperations
overtheinputsfromtheregisterorbetweentheregisterandaconstant.Singleregisteroperationsli
ketakingacomplementcan also be executed in ALU. We can see that AVR does not have any
register like accumulator as in 8051 family
ofmicrocontrollers;theoperationscanbeperformedbetweenanyoftheregistersandcanbestore
dineitherofthem.
AVRfollowsHarvardArchitectureformatinwhichtheprocessorisequippedwithseparateme
moriesandbusesforProgramand the Data information. Here while an instruction is being
executed, the next instruction is pre-fetched from the programmemory.

Fig. 3: Block Diagram Of memory architecture In AVR

Since AVR can perform single cycle execution, it means that AVR can execute 1 million
 instructions per second if cyclefrequency is 1MHz. The higher is the operating frequency of the
controller, the higher will be its processing speed. We need
tooptimizethepowerconsumptionwithprocessingspeedandhenceneedtoselecttheoperatingf
requencyaccordingly.
TherearetwoflavorsforAtmega16microcontroller:

1. Atmega16:-Operatingfrequencyrangeis0–16MHz.

2. Atmega16L:-Operatingfrequencyrangeis0–8MHz.

Ifweareusingacrystalof8MHz=8x106Hertz=8Millioncycles,thenAVRcanexecute8millioninstruct
ions.

Naming Convention.!

The AT refers to Atmel the manufacturer, Mega means that the microcontroller belong to
MegaAVR category, 16 signifies thememoryofthecontroller,whichis16KB.

Fig. 4: Naming Convention Of AVR Microcontroller

Architecture Diagram:Atmega16

FollowingpointsexplainthebuildingblocksofAtmega16architecture:

· I/OPorts:Atmega16hasfour(PORTA,PORTB,PORTCandPORTD)8-bitinput-outputports.

· Internal Calibrated Oscillator: Atmega16 is equipped with an internal oscillator

for driving its clock. By defaultAtmega16 is set to operate at internal calibrated oscillator of
1 MHz. The maximum frequency of internal oscillator
is8Mhz.Alternatively,ATmega16canbeoperatedusinganexternalcrystaloscillatorwithamaximumfr
equencyof16MHz.Inthiscaseyouneedtomodifythefusebits.(FuseBitswillbeexplainedinasepara
tetutorial).

Fig. 5: Block Diagram Explaining AVR Architecture

ADC Interface: Atmega16 is equipped with an 8 channel ADC (Analog to Digital Converter)
with a resolution of 10-
bits.ADCreadstheanaloginputfore.g.,asensorinputandconvertsitintodigitalinformationwhichi
sunderstandablebythemicrocontroller.

· Timers/Counters: Atmega16 consists of two 8-bit and one 16-bit

timer/counter. Timers are useful for
generatingprecisionactionsfore.g.,creatingtimedelaysbetweentwooperations.

· WatchdogTimer:Watchdogtimerispresentwithinternaloscillator.Watchdogtimerconti
nuouslymonitorsandresetsthecontrollerifthecodegetsstuckatanyexecutionactionformoretha
nadefinedtimeinterval.

· Interrupts: Atmega16 consists of 21 interrupt sources out of which four are

external. The remaining are
internalinterruptswhichsupporttheperipheralslikeUSART,ADC,Timersetc.

· USART:UniversalSynchronousandAsynchronousReceiverandTransmitterinterfaceisavaila
bleforinterfacingwithexternaldevicecapableofcommunicatingserially(datatransmissionbitbyb
it).

GeneralPurposeRegisters:Atmega16isequippedwith32generalpurposeregisterswhichare
coupleddirectlywiththeArithmeticLogicalUnit(ALU)ofCPU.

· Memory:Atmega16consistofthreedifferentmemorysections:

1. FlashEEPROM:FlashEEPROMorsimpleflashmemoryisusedtostoretheprogramdu
mpedorburntbytheuseron to the microcontroller. It can be easily erased electrically as a
single unit. Flash memory is non-volatile i.e., itretains the program even if the power is cut-
off. Atmega16 is available with 16KB of in system programmable FlashEEPROM.

2. Byte Addressable EEPROM: This is also a nonvolatile memory used to store data
like values of certain variables.Atmega16 has 512 bytes of EEPROM, this memory can be
useful for storing the lock code if we are designing anapplicationlikeelectronicdoorlock.

3. SRAM: Static Random Access Memory, this is the volatile memory of

microcontroller i.e., data is lost as soon aspower is turned off. Atmega16 is equipped with
1KB of internal SRAM. A small portion of SRAM is set aside
forgeneralpurposeregistersusedbyCPUandsomefortheperipheralsubsystemsofthemicrocont
roller.

· ISP:AVRfamilyofcontrollershaveInSystemProgrammableFlashMemorywhichcan
beprogrammedwithoutremovingtheICfromthecircuit,ISPallowstoreprogramthecontrollerwh
ileitisintheapplicationcircuit.

· SPI:SerialPeripheralInterface,SPIportisusedforserialcommunicationbetweentwodevic
esonacommonclocksource.ThedatatransmissionrateofSPIismorethanthatofUSART.

· TWI:TwoWireInterface(TWI)canbeusedtosetupanetworkofdevices,manydevicescanb
econnectedoverTWIinterfaceforminganetwork,thedevicescansimultaneouslytransmitandre
ceiveandhavetheirownuniqueaddress.
· DAC:Atmega16isalsoequippedwithaDigitaltoAnalogConverter(DAC)interfacewhichca
nbeusedforreverseactionperformedbyADC.DACcanbeusedwhenthereisaneedofconvertingadigit
alsignaltoanalogsignal.

MegaAVR Family

VariousmicrocontrollerofMegaAVRseries:
Part Name ROM RAM EEPROM I/0 Timer Interrupts Operation Operating Packaging
Pins Voltage frequency

ATmega8 8KB 1KB 512B 23 3 19 4.5-5.5 V 0-16 MHz 28

ATmega8L 8KB 1KB 512B 23 3 19 2.7- 0-8 28

5.5 V MHz

ATmega16 16KB 1KB 512B 32 3 21 4.5- 0-16 40

5.5 V MHz

ATmega16 16KB 1KB 512B 32 3 21 2.7- 0-8 40

L 5.5 V MHz

ATmega32 32KB 2KB 1KB 32 3 21 4.5-5.5 V 0-16 MHz 40

ATmega32 32KB 2KB 1KB 32 3 21 2.7-5.5 V 0-8 MHz 40

L

AVR Microcontroller:

AVR microcontroller is an electronic chip manufactured by Atmel, which has several advantages
over other types of microcontroller.

We can understand microcontroller by comparing it with Personal Computer (PC), which

has a motherboard inside it. In that motherboard a microprocessor (AMD, Intel chips) is used
that provides the intelligence, EEPROM and RAM memories for interfacing to the system like
serial ports, display interfaces and disk drivers. A microcontroller has all or most of these features
built into a single chip, therefore it doesn?t require a motherboard and any other components.

AVR microcontroller comes in different configuration, some designed using surface

mounting and some designed using hole mounting. It is available with 8-pins to 100-pins, any
microcontroller with 64-pin or over is surface mount only.

Some mostly used AVR microcontrollers are:-

o ATmega8 microcontroller

o ATmega16 microcontroller

o ATmega32 microcontroller

o ATmega328 microcontroller

ATmega32-8 Bit AVR MicroController:

The AVR microController is based on the advanced Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
architecture. ATmega32 microController is a low power CMOS technology based controller. Due
to RISC architecture AVR microcontroller can execute 1 million of instructions per second if cycle
frequency is 1 MHz provided by crystal oscillator.

Key Features:
Consider some general features of ATmega32 microcontroller is:-

o 2 Kilo bytes of internal Static RAM

o 32 X 8 general working purpose registers

o 32 Kilo bytes of in system self programmable flash program memory.

o 1024 bytes EEPROM

o Programmable serial USART

o 8 Channel, 10 bit ADC

o One 16-bit timer/counter with separate prescaler, compare mode and capture mode.

o Available in 40 pin DIP, 44-pad QFN/MLF and 44-lead QTFP

o Two 8-bit timers/counters with separate prescalers and compare modes

o 32 programmable I/O lines

o In system programming by on-chip boot program

o Master/slave SPI serial interface

o 4 PWM channels

o Programmable watch dog timer with separate on-chip oscillator

Special Microcontroller Features:

o External and internal interrupt sources

o Six sleep modes: Idle, ADC noise reduction, power-save, power-down, standby and
extended standby.

o Power on reset and programmable brown-out detection.

o Internal calibrated RC oscillator

ATmega32 Microcontroller Pin Diagram

 For explaining the ATmega32 Microcontroller Pin diagram, consider a 40-pin Dual Inline
Package (DIP) of microcontroller integrated circuit is:

Pin Descriptions:

Port A (PA7-PA0): Port A serves as analog inputs for A/D converter. It also acts as an 8-bit
bidirectional I/O port if the A/D converter is not used internally.

Port B (PB7-PB0) and Port D (PD7-PD0): These ports are 8-bit bidirectional I/O ports. Their
output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with high source and sink capability. As
inputs, these are pulled low if the pull-up resistors are used. It also provides various special
functional features of the ATmega32.

Port C (PC7-PC0): Port C is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port. If the Joint Test Action Group (JTAG)
interface is enabled, the pull-up resistors on pins PC2 (TCK), PC3 (TMS), and PC5 (TDI) will be
activated.

Consider the interfacing of Joint Test Action Group (JTAG) using Port C of ATmega32 is:-
Vcc: Digital voltage supply

GND: Ground

RESET: It is a RESET pin which is utilized to set the microcontroller ATmega32 to its primary
value. During the beginning of an application the RESET pin is to be set elevated for two
machine rotations.

XTAL1: It is an input for the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to an internal clock
operating circuit.

XTAL2: It is an output from an inverting oscillator amplifier.

AVcc: It is a supply voltage pin for A/D converter and Port A. It must be connected with Vcc.

AREF: AREF is an analog signal reference pin for the analog to digital converter.

ATmega32 Memories

In ATmega32 microcontroller two main memory spaces i.e. the program memory and data
memory space are used. In addition it uses an EEPROM memory for data storage.

In System Programmable Flash Program Memory:

 ATmega32 microcontroller contains 32Kb of on-chip in system programmable flash memory
for program storage. Flash memory is organized as 16K X 16K structure and its memory is divided
into two sections application program section and boot program section.

Consider the ISP programmer circuit diagram is:

SRAM Data Memory:

The Register file, the internal data SRAM and I/O memory are addressed by the lower 2144 data
memory locations. The first 96 locations address the I/O memory and Register file, and the
internal data Static RAM is addressed by the next 2048 locations.

Consider the five different addressing modes for the data memory is:-

o Direct addressing modes

o Indirect addressing modes
o Indirect with displacement addressing modes
o Indirect with pre-decrement addressing modes
o Indirect with post-decrement addressing modes
SRAM data memory have 32 general purpose registers, 2048 bytes of internal data SRAM, and 64
I/O registers are accessible by using the above addressing modes.

Consider the SRAM data memory structure shown in block diagram of ATmega32 is:
EEPROM Data Memory:

ATmega32 contains 1024 bytes of data EEPROM memory. It can be used as a separate data space
in which single bytes can be read and written.

ATmega8 Microcontroller
It is an 8 bit CMOS technology based microcontroller belongs to the AVR family of
microcontroller developed in 1996. It is built on RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)
architecture. Their main advantage is it doesn?t contain any accumulator register and the result
of any operation can be stored inside any register, defined by an instruction.

ATmega8 Architecture:

Consider the block diagram representation of internal architecture configuration of ATmega8

microcontroller is:

Memory:
 ATmega8 microcontroller consists of 1KB of SRAM, 8KB of flash memory and 512 bytes of
EEPROM.

The 8KB flash memory is divided into two parts:-

o The upper part used as application flash section

o The lower part used as boot flash section

In ATmega8 microcontroller all the registers are connected directly with Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU). The EEPROM memory is used for storing the user defined data.

Input/output ports:

ATmega8 microcontroller consists of 3 I/O ports, named as B, C and D with a combination of

23 I/O lines. Port D consists of 8 I/O lines, Port C consists of 7 I/O lines, and Port B consists of 8
I/O lines.

Registers corresponding to the Input/output port X (B, C or D) are:

o DDRX: Data Direction Register of Port X

o PORTX: Data register of Port X

o PINX: Input register of Port X

ATmega8 Pin Diagram

One of the most important features of ATmega8 microcontroller is that except 5 pins, all other
pins can be used for supporting two signals.
 o Pins 9,10,14,15,16,17,18,19 are used for port B, Whereas Pins 23,24,25,26,27,28 and 1 are
used for port C and Pins 2,3,4,5,6,11,12 are used for port D.

o Pin 1 is used as Reset pin and on applying low level signal for time longer than minimum
pulse length will generate a reset signal.

o Pins 3 and 2 can also be used in serial communication for USART (Universal Synchronous and
Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter).

o Pin 5 and 4 are used as external interrupts.

o Pins 10 and 9 are used as timer counter oscillators as well as external oscillator where the
crystal is connected directly between the pins.

o Pin 19 is used as slave clock input or master clock output for Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
channel.

o Pin 18 is used as slave clock output or master clock input

o Pins 23 to 28 are used for analog to digital conversion (ADC) channels.

o Pin 12 and 13 are used as Analog Comparator inputs.

o Pins 6 and 11 are used as counter/timer sources.

ATmega8 Microcontroller Sleep Modes:

The Microcontroller operates in 5 sleep modes as given below:

o Power save Mode: It is used when Counter/Timer is clocked asynchronously. In general this
mode used for saving the operational power requirement of microcontroller.

o Idle Mode: It stops the functioning of CPU, but allows operation of ADC, TWI, SPI, and
interrupts system and Watchdog. It is achieved by setting SM0 to SM2 bits of
Microcontroller Unit register flag at zero.

o Power down Mode: It enables external interrupts, the 2-wire serial interface, and watchdog
while disabling the external oscillator. It stops all generated clocks.
 o ADC Noise Reduction Mode: It stops the central processing unit but allows the functioning
of ADC, timer/counter and external interrupts.

o Stand By mode: In this mode, only oscillator is allowed to operate by slowing all other
operation of microcontroller.

AVR I/O Port Programming

In AVR microcontroller family, there are many ports available for I/O operations, depending on
which family microcontroller you choose. For the ATmega32 40-pin chip 32 Pins are available for
I/O operation. The four ports PORTA, PORTB, PORTC, and PORTD are programmed for performing
desired operation.

The Pin diagram of ATmega32 microcontroller is shown below:

The number of ports in AVR family varies depending on number of pins available on chip.
The 8-pin AVR has port B only, while the 64-pin version has ports A to ports F, and the 100-pin
AVR has ports A to ports L.

The table showing Numbers of ports in some AVR family members is shown below:
Note: X indicates that the port is available.

The 40-pin AVR has four ports for using any of the ports as an input or output port, it must be
accordingly programmed. In AVR microcontroller not all ports have 8 pins. For example:-in the
ATmega8, Port C has 7 pins.

The Registers Addresses for ATmega32 Ports is given below:

Each port in AVR microcontroller has three I/O registers associated with it. They are
designated as PORTx, DDRx and PINx. For example: - in case of Port B we have PORTB, DDRB, and
PINB. Here DDR stands for Data Direction Registers, and PIN stands for Port Input pins.
 Each of I/O registers is 8 bits wide, and each port has a maximum of 8 pins, therefore each
bit of I/O registers affects one of the pins.

For accessing I/O registers associated with the ports the common relationship between the
registers and the pins of AVR microcontroller is used.

The relation between the Registers and the Pins of AVR is shown below:

AVR Registers

AVR is 8 bit microcontroller therefore all its ports are 8 bit wide. Every port has 3 registers
associated with it each one have size of 8 bits. Every bit in those registers configures the pins of
particular port. Bit0 of these registers are associated with Pin0 of the port, Bit1 of these registers
are associated with Pin1 of the port, and same as for other bits.

The three registers available in AVR microcontroller are as follows:

o DDRx register
o PORTx register
o PINx register

DDRx register:

Data Direction Register configures the data direction of port pins. These registers are used
for determining whether port pins will be used for input or output. On writing 1 to a bit in
DDRxmakes corresponding port pin as output, while writing 0 to a bit in DDRx makes
corresponding port pin as input.

For example:

o For making all pins of port A as output pins:

1. DDRA= 0b11111111;
o For making all pins of port A as input pins:

1. DDRA= 0b00000000;
o For making lower nibble of port B as output and higher nibble as input:

1. DDRB=0b00001111;

PINx register:

PINx register used to read the data from port pins. In order to read the data from port pin,
first we have to change the port?s data direction to input. This is done by setting bits in DDRx to
zero. If port is made output, then reading PINx register will give a data that has been output on
port pins.

There are two input modes. Either we can use port pins as internal pull up or as tri stated
inputs. It will be explained as shown below:

For reading the data from port A,

1. DDRA = 0x00; //Set port A as input

2. x = PINA; //Read contents of port a
PORTx register:

In general PORTx register can be used for two purposes:

o To output data: when port is configured as output then PORTx register is used. When we set
bits in DDRx to 1, corresponding pins becomes output pins. Now we can write the data into
respective bits in PORTx register. This will immediately change the output state of pins
according to data we have written on the ports.For example:
 To output data in variable x on port A

1. DDRA = 0xFF; //make port A as outputs

2. PORTA = x; //output variable on port

To output 0xFF data on port B

1. DDRB = 0b11111111; //set all the pins of port B as outputs

2. PORTB = 0xFF; //write the data on port

To output data on only 0th bit of port C

1. DDRC.0 = 1; //set only 0th pin of port C as an output

2. PORTC.0 = 1; //make it high signal.

To activate/deactivate pull up resistors: when port is configured as input we set the bits in
DDRx to 0, i.e. make port pins as inputs the corresponding bits in PORTx registers used to
activate/deactivate pull-up registers associated with that pin. In order for activating pull-up
resistor, set the bit in PORTx register to 1, and for deactivating (i.e. to make port as tri stated) set
it to zero.

In input mode, when pull-up is enabled, default state of the pin is '1'. So if we don't add
anything to pin and if we try to read it then it will read as 1.

Note: While using on chip Analog to Digital Converter (ADC), ADC port pins must be used as
tri stated input.

For example:

To make lower nibble of port A as output, higher nibble as input with pull-ups enabled

1. DDRA = 0x0F; // higher nib> input, lower nib> output

2. PORTA = 0xF0; //lower nib> set output pins to 0
 To make port B as tri stated input

1. DDRB = 0x00; //use port B as input

2. PORTB = 0x00; //Disable pull-ups register and make it tri state

To make port C as input with pull-ups enabled and read data from port a

1. DDRC = 0x00; //make port C as input

2. PORTC = 0xFF; //enable all pull-ups
3. y = PINC; //read data from port C pins

External Interrupts in AVR Microcontroller

Microcontrollers can accept inputs from I/O ports, interrupts are used for accepting inputs
generated by external events. Interrupt event directs the flow of program execution with a
totally independent piece of code, known as "Interrupt Sub-Routine". There are many sources of
interrupts that are available for a microcontroller. Most of them are generated by internal
modules and are called as internal interrupts.

For running an interrupt subroutine following requirements are necessary:

o The interrupt source must be activated by setting the corresponding interrupt mask/
Interrupt Enable Bit.

o The enable bit in AVR status register must be set to 1. For this the instruction named 'sei'
(Set Interrupt Enable).

o The interrupt sub routine must present. If there is no code to b e run, then an empty
subroutine must occur at particular memory spaced to that interrupt.

o Finally the event must occur, so the execution of the routine gets triggered.

Writing an Interrupt Subroutine in AVR Studio:

It is tricky to use an interrupt subroutine into a C code of a microcontroller. Therefore the AVR
GCC developers use a few symbols to represent the interrupts and macros that minimized the
code size in many programs.
 The interrupt subroutine for External Interrupt 0 and External Interrupt 1 is given below:

1. // Interrupt sub routine code starts

2. ISR(INT1_vect)
3. {
4. // Code for interrupt 1
5. }
6. ISR(INT0_vect)
7. {
8. // Code for interrupt 0
9. }
10. // Interrupt Subroutine Code Ends

Registers Associated with External Interrupts:

The table showing microcontroller unit control register is given below:

MCU Control Register- MCUCR

Bit 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Bit Name SE SM2 SM1 SM0 ISC11 ISC10 ISC01 ISC00

Initial value 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Read/Write RW RW RW RW RW RW RW RW

The table showing Interrupt Sense Control truth table is:

ISCx1 ISCx0 Interrupt Generated Upon

0 0 The lower Level of INTx pin

0 1 Any logical change inside INTx pin

 1 0 Falling edge of INTx pin

1 1 Rising edge of INTx pin

USART in AVR ATmega16/ATmega32

Introduction

AVR ATmega has flexible USART, which can be used for serial communication with other devices
like computers, serial GSM, GPS modules, etc.

Before beginning with AVR USART, we will walk through the basics of serial communication.

Serial data framing

While sending/receiving data, some bits are added for the purpose of knowing the
beginning/ending of data, etc. commonly used structure is: 8 data bits, 1 start bit (logic 0), and 1
stop bit (logic 1), as shown:

There are also other supported frame formats available in UART, like parity bit, variable data bits
(5-9 data bits).

Speed (Baud rate)

As we know the bit rate is “Number of bits per second (bps)”, also known as Baud rate in
Binary system. Normally this defines how fast the serial line is. There are some standard baud
rates defined e.g. 1200, 2400, 4800, 19200, 115200 bps, etc. Normally 9600 bps is used where
speed is not a critical issue.

Wires and Hardware connection

Normally in USART, we only need Tx (Transmit), Rx(Receive), and GND wires.

 AVR ATmega USART has a TTL voltage level which is 0 v for logic 0 and 5 v for logic 1.
 In computers and most of the old devices, RS232 protocol is used for serial communication,
where normally 9 pin ‘D’ shape connector is used. RS232 serial communication has different
voltage levels than ATmega serial communication i.e. +3 v to +25 v for logic zero and -3 v to -
25 v for logic 1.
 So to communicate with RS232 protocol, we need to use a voltage level converter like
MAX232 IC.

Although there are 9 pins in the DB9 connector, we don’t need to use all the pins. Only 2nd
Tx(Transmit), 3rd Rx(Receive), and 5th GND pin need to be connected.
 ATmega16/32 Serial Interface Connection Diagram

With a new PC and laptops, there is no RS232 protocol and DB9 connector. We have to use
serial to the USB connector. There are various serial to USB connectors available e.g. CP2102,
FT232RL, CH340, etc.

Serial to USB converter

 To see serial communication, we can use a serial terminal like Realterm, Teraterm, etc. By
selecting the serial port number (COM port in windows) and baud rate, we can open a serial port
for communication.

As stated in the datasheet ATmega 16 USART has the following features

 Full Duplex Operation (Independent Serial Receive and Transmit Registers)

 Asynchronous or Synchronous Operation
 Master or Slave Clocked Synchronous Operation
 High-Resolution Baud Rate Generator
 Supports Serial Frames with 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 Data Bits and 1 or 2 Stop Bits
 Odd or Even Parity Generation and Parity Check Supported by Hardware
 Data OverRun Detection
 Framing Error Detection
 Noise Filtering Includes False Start Bit Detection and Digital Low Pass Filter
 Three Separate Interrupts on TX Complete, TX Data Register Empty, and RX Complete
 Multi-processor Communication Mode
 Double Speed Asynchronous Communication Mode

Programming of USART in AVR

To program, first, we need to understand the basic registers used for USART

AVR basic Registers

1. UDR: USART Data Register

It has basically two registers, one is Tx. Byte and the other is Rx Byte. Both share the same UDR
register. Do remember that, when we write to the UDR reg. Tx buffer will get written and when
we read from this register, Rx Buffer will get read. Buffer uses the FIFO shift register to transmit
the data.
 2. UCSRA: USART Control and Status Register A. As the name suggests, is used for control and
status flags. In a similar fashion, there are two more USART control and status registers, namely
UCSRB and UCSRC.

3. UBRR: USART Baud Rate Register, this is a 16-bit register used for the setting baud rate.

We will see this register in detail:

UCSRA: USART Control and Status Register A

 Bit 7 – RXC: USART Receive Complete

This flag bit is set when there is unread data in UDR. The RXC Flag can be used to generate a
Receive Complete interrupt.

 Bit 6 – TXC: USART Transmit Complete

This flag bit is set when the entire frame from Tx Buffer is shifted out and there is no new data
currently present in the transmit buffer (UDR). The TXC Flag bit is automatically cleared when
a transmit complete interrupt is executed, or it can be cleared by writing a one to its bit
location. The TXC Flag can generate a Transmit Complete interrupt.

 Bit 5 – UDRE: USART Data Register Empty

If UDRE is one, the buffer is empty which indicates the transmit buffer (UDR) is ready to
receive new data. The UDRE Flag can generate a Data Register Empty Interrupt. UDRE is set
after a reset to indicate that the transmitter is ready.

 Bit 4 – FE: Frame Error

 Bit 3 – DOR: Data OverRun
 This bit is set if a Data OverRun condition is detected. A Data OverRun occurs when the
receive buffer is full (two characters) and a new character is waiting in the receive Shift
Register.

 Bit 2 – PE: Parity Error

 Bit 1 – U2X: Double the USART Transmission Speed
 Bit 0 – MPCM: Multi-processor Communication Mode

UCSRB: USART Control and Status Register B

Bit 7 – RXCIE: RX Complete Interrupt Enable

Writing one to this bit enables interrupt on the RXC Flag.

 Bit 6 – TXCIE: TX Complete Interrupt Enable

Writing one to this bit enables interrupt on the TXC Flag.

 Bit 5 – UDRIE: USART Data Register Empty Interrupt Enable

Writing one to this bit enables interrupt on the UDRE Flag.

 Bit 4 – RXEN: Receiver Enable

Writing one to this bit enables the USART Receiver.

 Bit 3 – TXEN: Transmitter Enable

Writing one to this bit enables the USART Transmitter.

 Bit 2 – UCSZ2: Character Size

 The UCSZ2 bits combined with the UCSZ1:0 bit in UCSRC sets the number of data bits
(Character Size) in a frame the receiver and transmitter use.

 Bit 1 – RXB8: Receive Data Bit 8

 Bit 0 – TXB8: Transmit Data Bit 8

UCSRC: USART Control and Status Register C

Bit 7 – URSEL: Register Select

This bit selects between accessing the UCSRC or the UBRRH Register, as both register
shares the same address. The URSEL must be one when writing the UCSRC or else data will
be written in the UBRRH register.

 Bit 6 – UMSEL: USART Mode Select

This bit selects between the Asynchronous and Synchronous mode of operation.
0 = Asynchronous Operation
1 = Synchronous Operation

 Bit 5:4 – UPM1:0: Parity Mode

These bits enable and set the type of parity generation and check. If parity a mismatch is
detected, the PE Flag in UCSRA will be set.

UPM1 UPM0 Parity Mode

0 0 Disabled

0 1 Reserved

1 0 Enabled, Even Parity

 UPM1 UPM0 Parity Mode

1 1 Enabled, Odd Parity

 Bit 3 – USBS: Stop Bit Select

This bit selects the number of Stop Bits to be inserted by the Transmitter. The Receiver
ignores this setting.

0 = 1-bit

1 = 2-bit

 Bit 2:1 – UCSZ1:0: Character Size

The UCSZ1:0 bits combined with the UCSZ2 bit in UCSRB sets the number of data bits
(Character Size) in a frame the Receiver and Transmitter use.

UCSZ2 UCSZ1 UCSZ0 Character Size

0 0 0 5-bit

0 0 1 6-bit

0 1 0 7-bit

0 1 1 8-bit

1 0 0 Reserved

1 0 1 Reserved
 UCSZ2 UCSZ1 UCSZ0 Character Size

1 1 0 Reserved

1 1 1 9-bit

 Bit 0 – UCPOL: Clock Polarity

This bit is used for synchronous mode only. Write this bit to zero when the asynchronous
mode is used.

UBRRL and UBRRH: USART Baud Rate Registers

Bit 15 – URSEL: Register Select

This bit selects between accessing the UCSRC or the UBRRH Register, as both register shares
the same address. The URSEL must be one when writing the UCSRC or else data will be written
in the UBRRH register.

 Bit 11:0 – UBRR11:0: USART Baud Rate Register.

Used to define the baud rate

Example: suppose Fosc=8 MHz and required baud rate= 9600 bps.

Then the value of UBRR= 51.088 i.e. 51.

We can also set this value by c code using pre-processor macro as follow.

#define F_CPU 8000000UL /* Define frequency here its 8MHz */

#define USART_BAUDRATE 9600

#define BAUD_PRESCALE (((F_CPU / (USART_BAUDRATE * 16UL))) - 1)

BAUD_PRESCALE is the value that we have to load in the UBRR register to set the defined baud
rate.

Timer in AVR ATmega16/ATmega32

Introduction

Generally, we use a timer/counter to generate time delays, waveforms, or to count events.

Also, the timer is used for PWM generation, capturing events, etc.

In AVR ATmega16 / ATmega32, there are three timers:

 Timer0: 8-bit timer

 Timer1: 16-bit timer
 Timer2: 8-bit timer

Basic registers and flags of the Timers

TCNTn: Timer / Counter Register

Every timer has a timer/counter register. It is zero upon reset. We can access value or write
a value to this register. It counts up with each clock pulse.

TOVn: Timer Overflow Flag

Each timer has a Timer Overflow flag. When the timer overflows, this flag will get set.

TCCRn: Timer Counter Control Register

This register is used for setting the modes of timer/counter.

OCRn: Output Compare Register

The value in this register is compared with the content of the TCNTn register. When they
are equal, the OCFn flag will get set.

Let us see Timer0 to understand the timers in ATmega16 / ATmega32

 Timer0
First, we need to understand the basic registers of the Timer0

1. TCNT0: Timer / Counter Register 0

It is an 8-bit register. It counts up with each pulse.

2. TCCR0: Timer / Counter Control register 0

This is an 8-bit register used for the operation mode and the clock source selection.

Bit 7- FOC0: Force compare match

Write only a bit, which can be used while generating a wave. Writing 1 to this bit causes
the wave generator to act as if a compare match has occurred.

Bit 6, 3 - WGM00, WGM01: Waveform Generation Mode

WGM00 WGM01 Timer0 mode selection bit

0 0 Normal

0 1 CTC (Clear timer on Compare Match)

1 0 PWM, Phase correct

1 1 Fast PWM

Bit 5:4 - COM01:00: Compare Output Mode

These bits control the waveform generator. We will see this in the compare mode of the
timer.

Bit 2:0 - CS02:CS00: Clock Source Select

 These bits are used to select a clock source. When CS02: CS00 = 000, then timer is stopped.
As it gets a value between 001 to 101, it gets a clock source and starts as the timer.

CS02 CS01 CS00 Description

0 0 0 No clock source (Timer / Counter stopped)

0 0 1 clk (no pre-scaling)

0 1 0 clk / 8

0 1 1 clk / 64

1 0 0 clk / 256

1 0 1 clk / 1024

External clock source on T0 pin. Clock on

1 1 0
falling edge

External clock source on T0 pin. Clock on

1 1 1
rising edge.

3. TIFR: Timer Counter Interrupt Flag register

Bit 0 - TOV0: Timer0 Overflow flag

0 = Timer0 did not overflow

1 = Timer0 has overflown (going from 0xFF to 0x00)

 Bit 1 - OCF0: Timer0 Output Compare flag

0 = Compare match did not occur

1 = Compare match occurred

Bit 2 - TOV1: Timer1 Overflow flag

Bit 3 - OCF1B: Timer1 Output Compare B match flag

Bit 4 - OCF1A: Timer1 Output Compare A match flag
Bit 5 - ICF1: Input Capture flag
Bit 6 - TOV2: Timer2 Overflow flag
Bit 7 - OCF2: Timer2 Output Compare match flag
Timer0 Overflow

Normal mode: When the counter overflows i.e. goes from 0xFF to 0x00, the TOV0 flag is set.

Creating Delay Using Timer0

Steps to Program Delay using Timer0

1. Load the TCNT0 register with the initial value (let’s take 0x25).

2. For normal mode and the pre-scaler option of the clock, set the value in the TCCR0 register. As
soon as the clock Prescaler value gets selected, the timer/counter starts to count, and each clock
tick causes the value of the timer/counter to increment by 1.

3.Timer keeps counting up, so keep monitoring for timer overflow i.e. TOV0 (Timer0 Overflow)
flag to see if it is raised.

4. Stop the timer by putting 0 in the TCCR0 i.e. the clock source will get disconnected and the
timer/counter will get stopped.
5. Clear the TOV0 flag. Note that we have to write 1 to the TOV0 bit to clear the flag.

6. Return to the main function.

The time delay generated by above code

As Fosc = 8 MHz

T = 1 / Fosc = 0.125 μs

Therefore, the count increments by every 0.125 μs.

In above code, the number of cycles required to roll over are:

0xFF - 0x25= 0xDA i.e. decimal 218

Add one more cycle as it takes to roll over and raise TOV0 flag: 219

Total Delay = 219 x 0.125 μs = 27.375 μs

Example

Let us generate a square waveform having 10 ms high and 10 ms low time:

First, we have to create a delay of 10 ms using timer0.

*Fosc = 8 MHz

Use the pre-scalar 1024, so the timer clock source frequency will be,

8 MHz / 1024 = 7812.5 Hz

Time of 1 cycle = 1 / 7812.5 = 128 μs

Therefore, for a delay of 10 ms, number of cycles required will be,

10 ms / 128 μs = 78 (approx)

We need 78 timer cycles to generate a delay of 10 ms. Put the value in TCNT0 accordingly.

Value to load in TCNT0 = 256 – 78 (78 clock ticks to overflow the timer)
= 178 i.e. 0xB2 in hex

Thus, if we load 0xB2 in the TCNT0 register, the timer will overflow after 78 cycles i.e.
precisely after a delay of 10 ms.

*Note - All calculations are done by considering 8 MHz CPU frequency. If you are using
another value of CPU frequency, modify the calculations accordingly; otherwise, the delay will
mismatch.

Timer Interrupt

TIMSK: Timer / Counter Interrupt Mask Register

We have to set the TOIE0 (Timer0 Overflow Interrupt Enable) bit in the TIMSK register to set
the timer0 interrupt so that as soon as the Timer0 overflows, the controller jumps to the Timer0
interrupt routine.
 Unit 4-ARM PROCESSOR
 ARM is Advanced RISC Machine, earlier known as Acorn RISC Machine.
 It was built by Acorn Computers along with VLSI technology in 1990/11.
 ARM is a 32-bit microprocessor with RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) architecture.
 RISC processors are designed to perform a smaller number of computer instructions so that
they can operate at a higher speed, performing more millions of instructions per second
(MIPS) as compared to CISC (Complex instruction set Computer) processors.
 ARM is one of the most licensed and thus widespread processor cores in the world.
 Used especially in portable devices due to low power consumption and reasonable
performance (MIPS/watt).
 ARM does not manufacture its own VLSI devices. It licenses out its core to many companies
such as TI, Philips, Intel etc.
 Because of their reduced instruction set, they require fewer transistors, which enables a
smaller die size for the integrated circuitry (IC).
 The ARM processor’s smaller size, reduced complexity and lower power consumption makes
them suitable for increasingly miniaturized devices.
 ARM7 and older versions support Von Neumann Architecture.
 ARM9 and newer versions support Harvard Architecture.
 In Von Neumann implementation data items and instructions share same bus.
 In Harvard implementation two different buses -ARM high bus (AHB) and ARM Peripheral Bus
(APB), are used for data and instructions.

ARM DATA FLOW MODEL

 Functional units are connected by Data Buses. The arrow represents the flow of data and
lines represent the buses.
 The boxes represent the either an operation unit or storage area. The figure also shows
abstract components that make ARM processor.
  The instruction decoder translates instructions. Data items are placed in the register file.
 A storage bank made up of 32-bit registers.
 Most instructions treat the registers as holding signed or unsigned 32-bit values.
 The sign extend hardware converts signed 8-bit and 16-bit numbers into 32-bit values.
 ARM instructions typically have two source registers, RnandRm, and a single result or
destination register, Rd, Source operands are read from the register file using the internal
bus.

 The ARM Processor like all processor uses a Load-store architecture

 Load instruction: copy data from memory to register
 Store instruction: copy data from register to memory
 There are no data processing instructions that directly manipulate data in memory.
 ALU and MAC (Multiply-accumulate) unit takes the register values Rn and Rm from A and B
buses and computes a result.
 Load and store instructions use the ALU to generate an address to be held in the address
register and broadcast on the Address bus.
 The register Rm can be alternatively pre-processed in the barrel shifter before it enters the
ALU.
 For load and store instructions the incrementer updates the address register before the
core reads or writes the next register value from or to the next sequential memory
location.

Registers
● General purpose registers hold either data or an address.
● All registers are 32-bit in size.
● 18 active registers
● 16 data registers – r0 to r15

2 process status registers

 ● CPSR – Current Program Status Register
● SPSR – Saved Program Status Register

● r13, r14, r15 have special functions

● R13 – stack pointer (sp) and stores the head of the stack in the current processor
mode
● R14 – link register (lr) where the core puts the return address whenever it calls a
subroutine.
● R15 – programme counter (pc) and contains the address of the next instruction to be
fetched by the processor.
● r13 and r14 can also be used as general purpose register as these registers are banked
during a processor mode change.
● The registers r0 to r13 are orthogonal. Any instruction that you can apply to r0, you can
equally apply to other registers.
● There are instructions that treat r14 and r15 in a special way.

Current Program Status Register (CPSR)

 ARM core uses CPSR to monitor and control internal operations.
 CPSR is a dedicated 32-bit register and resides in the register file.
 CPSR is divided into four fields each 8-bits wide:
1. Flags – holding instruction conditions
2. Status – reserved for future use
3. Extension - reserved for future use
4. Control – indicate processor mode, state and interrupt mask bits

State & Instruction Sets

 The state of the core determines which instruction set is being executed.
 There are three instruction sets
 ● ARM: Active in ARM state
● Thumb: Active in Thumb state
● Jazelle: Active in Jazelle state

 The Jazelle (J) and Thumb (T) bits in the cpsr reflect the state of the processor.
 Jazelle instruction set is a closed set and is not openly available.
 When both J and T bits are 0, the processor is in ARM state and executes ARM instructions.

 ARM has introduced a set of extensions to the ARM architecture that will allow an ARM
processor to directly execute Java byte code alongside exiting operating systems, middleware
and application code.
 To execute Java bytecodes, the Jazelle technology is required and a modified version of the
Java virtual machine.
 the hardware portion of Jazelle only supports a subset of the Java bytecodes and rest are
emulated in software .

State & Instruction Set Features

ARM Thumb Jazelle

Instruction Size 32-bit 16-bit 8-bit

Core instructions 58 30 Over 60% of Java : H/W

The rest : S/W

T=0 T=1

cpsr J=0 J=0 T=0, J=1

Interrupt Masks
● Interrupt masks are used to stop specific interrupt requests from interrupting the
processor.
● Two types of interrupt request
● Interrupt Request (IRQ)
● Fast interrupt request (FIQ)
● The I bit in the cpsr masks IRQ when set to binary 1
 ● The F bit in the cpsr masks FIQ when set to binary 1

Condition Flags
• Condition flags are updated by comparison and the result of ALU operations that specify
the S instruction suffix
– If a SUBS subtract instruction results in a register value of zero, then the Z flag in the
cpsr is set
• Condition flags
– N : Negative result from ALU
– Z : Zero result from ALU
– C : ALU operation Carried out
– V : ALU operation overflowed
– Q : Overflow & Saturation : In processors with DSP extensions, the Q bit
indicates overflow or saturation that has occurred in an enhanced DSP
instruction.

Processor Modes
 The processor mode determines which registers are active and the access rights to the
CPSR register itself.
 Each processor mode is either privileged or non- privileged.
 A privileged mode allows full read-write access to CPSR.
 A non-privileged mode only allows read access to the control field in the CPSR but still
allows R/W access to the condition flags.

Banked Registers
• ARM has 37 registers in the register file.
• Of those, 20 registers are hidden from a program at different times. These registers are
called banked registers (shown as shaded region).
• They are available only when the processor is in a particular mode.
• Every processor mode except user mode can change mode by writing directly to the mode
bits of the CPSR.
• All modes except system mode have a set of associated banked registers that are a subset
of the main 16 registers.
• A banked register maps one-to-one onto a user mode register.
• If we change processor mode, a banked register from the new mode will replace an
existing register.
• There is no spsravailable in the user mode.
Changing ProcessorMode
• The processor mode can be changed
– by a program that writes directly to CPSR (the processor has to be in privileged
mode) or
– by hardware when core responds to an exception or interrupt.
• Following exceptions and interrupts cause a mode change:
– Reset
– Interrupt Request
– Fast interrupt request
– Software interrupt
– Data abort
– Prefetch abort
– Undefined instruction
• Exception and interrupt suspend the normal execution of sequential instructions and jump
to a specific location.
• The processor mode changes form user mode to interrupt mode when an interrupt
request occurs due to an external device raising an interrupt to the process core.
• This change causes user registers r13 and r14 to be banked.They are replaced with
registers r13_irq and r14_irqrespectively.
• r13_irqcontains the stack pointer for the interrupt request mode.
• r14_irqcontains the return address.
• The cpsris copied to spsr_irq.
• To return back to the user mode, a special return instruction is used that instructs the core
to restore the original cpsr from spsr_irq and bank in the user registers r13 and r14.
• The register spsr can only be modified in a privileged mode. There is no spsr available in
the user mode.
 Note: cpsr is not copied into the spsr when a mode change isforced due to a program writing
directly to the cpsr. The saving of cpsr only occurs when an exception or interrupt is raised.
Mode bits & Vector Table

Exception Vector Table

• The exception vector table consists of designated addresses in externalmemory that holds
information to handle an exception,an interrupt or atypical event (e.g. reset).
• For example, when an interrupt request comes along, the processor will change the
program counter to 0x18 and begin fetching instructions from there.
• One can put a branch instruction at this location so that the processor can jump to the
interrupt handler located at some other location in the memory.
• On reset, the core jumps to address 0x0 and starts fetching instruction. We either need to
provide a reset exception handler (initialization routine) or we can begin coding at this
address.

Pipeline Concept
• The mechanism a RISC processor uses to execute instructions in parallel to speed up
execution.
• As the pipeline length increases, the amount of work done at each stage is reduced, which
allows the processor attain a higher operating frequency
– This in turn increases the performance
– This also increases the latency
 UNIT – 5
AI IN ROBOTICS
AI IN ROBOTICS: Robotic perception, localization, mapping- configuring space, planning uncertain
movements, dynamics and control of movement, Ethics and risks of artificial intelligence in robotics.
 Robotic perception

Perception is the process by which robots map sensor measurements into internal representations of the
environment. Perception is difficult because sensors are noisy, and the environment is partially observable,
unpredictable, and often dynamic. In other words, robots have all the problems of state estimation.As a rule of
thumb, good internal representations for robots have three properties:
 they contain enough information for the robot to make good decisions,
 they are structured so that they can be updated efficiently, and
 they are natural in the sense that internal variables correspond to natural state variables in the physical
world

Active perception

The most well-known instance of active perception is active vision. The term “active vision” is essentially
synonymous with moving cameras. Active vision work on Cog is oriented towards opening up the potentially rich
area of manipulation-aided vision, which is still largely unexplored. But there is much to be gained by taking
advantage of the fact that robots are actors in their environment, not simply passive observers.They have the
opportunity to examine the world using causality, by performing probing actions and learning from the response.
In conjunction with a developmental framework, this could allow the robot’s experience to expand outward from
its sensors into its environment, from its own arm to the objects it encounters, and from those objects both back to
the robot itself and outwards to other actors that encounter those same objects.
Developmental perception

The robot could reliably segment objects from the background (even if it is similar in appearance) by poking them.
It can determine the shape of an object boundary in this special situation, even though it cannot do this normally.
This is precisely the kind of situation that a developmental framework could exploit.Particular, familiar situations
allow the robot to perceive something about objects and actors (such as a human or the robot itself) that could not
be perceived outside those situations. These objects and actors can be tracked into other, less familiar situations,
which can then be characterized and used for further discovery. Throughout, existing perceptual capabilities
(“primitive features”) can be refined as opportunities arise.
Interpersonal perception

Perception is not a completely objective process; there are choices to be made. For example, whether two objects
are judged to be the same depends on which of their many features are considered essential and which are
considered incidental. For a robot to be useful, it should draw the same distinctions a human would for a given
task. To achieve this, there must be mechanisms that allow the robot’s perceptual judgments to be channeled and
moulded by a caregiver. This is also useful in situations where the robot’s own abilities are simply not up to the
challenge, and need a helping hand.

Robotics and Artificial Intelligence

Robotics is a separate entity in Artificial Intelligence that helps study the creation of intelligent robots or machines.
Robotics combines electrical engineering, mechanical engineering and computer science & engineering as they
have mechanical construction, electrical component and programmed with programming language. Although,
Robotics and Artificial Intelligence both have different objectives and applications, but most people treat robotics
as a subset of Artificial Intelligence (AI). Robot machines look very similar to humans, and also, they can perform
like humans, if enabled with AI.

What are Artificially Intelligent Robots?

Artificial intelligent robots connect AI with robotics. AI robots are controlled by AI programs and use different AI
technologies, such as Machine learning, computer vision, RL learning, etc. Usually, most robots are not AI robots,
these robots are programmed to perform repetitive series of movements, and they don't need any AI to perform
their task. However, these robots are limited in functionality.

AI algorithms are necessary when you want to allow the robot to perform more complex tasks.

What are the advantages of integrating Artificial Intelligence into robotics?

o The major advantages of artificially intelligent robots are social care. They can guide people, especially
come to aid for older people, with chatbot like social skills and advanced processors.
o Robotics also helps in Agricultural industry with the help of developing AI based robots. These robots
reduce the farmer's workload.
o In Military industry, Military bots can spy through speech and vision detectors, along with saving lives by
replacing infantry
o Robotics also employed in volcanoes, deep oceans, extremely cold places, or even in space where normally
humans can't survive.
o Robotics is also used in medical and healthcare industry as it can also perform complex surgeries that have
a higher risk of a mistake by humans, but with a pre-set of instructions and added Intelligence. AI
integrated robotics could reduce the number of casualties greatly.

Difference in Robot System and AI Programs

Here is the difference between Artificial Intelligence and Robots:

1. AI Programs

Usually, we use to operate them in computer-simulated worlds.

Generally, input is given in the form of symbols and rules.

To operate this, we need general-purpose/Special-purpose computers.

2. Robots

Generally, we use robots to operate in the real physical world.

Inputs are given in the form of the analogue signal or in the form of the speech waveform.

Also, to operate this, special hardware with sensors and effectors are needed

Localization and mapping

Localization is the problem of finding out where things are—including the robot itself. Knowledge
about where things are is at the core of any successful physical interaction with the environment. For
example, robot manipulators must know the location of objects they seek to manipulate; navigating
robots must know where they are to find their way around.

In some situations, no map of the environment is available. Then the robot will have to acquire a map.
This is a bit of a chicken-and-egg problem: the navigating robot will have to determine its location
relative to a map it doesn’t quite know, at the same time building this map while it doesn’t quite know
its actual location. This problem is important for many robot applications, and it has been studied
extensively under the name simultaneous localization and mapping, abbreviated as SLAM.

Simultaneous Localization and Mapping

SLAM is the estimation of the pose of a robot and the map of the environment simultaneously. SLAM is hard
because a map is needed for localization and a good pose estimate is needed for mapping
 Localization: inferring location given a map.
 Mapping: inferring a map given locations.
 SLAM: learning a map and locating the robot simultaneously.
SLAM problem is hard because it is kind of a paradox i.e :
 In order to build a map, we need now the position.
 To determine our position, we need a map.
It is like a chicken-egg problem.
SLAM has multiple parts and each part can be executed in many different ways:
 Landmark detection
 Data association
 State Estimation
 State Update
 Landmark Update

SLAM step by step

SLAM step 1 >SLAM step 2

SLAM step 3 SLAM step 4

 SLAM process consists of the following steps:

  In the first step, it uses the environment to update the position of the robot. We can use
Odometry but it can be erroneous, we cannot only rely directly on odometry.
 We can use laser scans of the environment to correct the position of the robot. But, it
won’t work in some environments like underwater.
 Thus, the position of the robot can be better identified by extracting features from the
environment.

Data Association

Data association or data matching is that of matching observed landmarks from different (laser) scans with each
other. There are some challenges associated with the Data Association,
 The algorithm might not re-observe landmarks in every frame.
 The algorithm wrongly associates a landmark to a previously observed landmark.
There are few approaches to perform data association, we will be discussing the nearest neighbor algorithm first:
 First, when you get the data from the laser scan use landmark extraction to extract all visible landmarks.
 After that, we associate all the extracted landmarks to the closest landmark that can be observed >N times.
 Now, we input the list of extracted landmarks and list of previously detected landmarks that are in the
database, if the landmark is already in the database then, we increase the their count by N, and if they are not
present then set their count to 1.
After the above step, we need to perform the following update steps:
 State Estimation: In this step, we use the odometer data to get the current state estimate.
 State update: In this stage, we update our new estimated state by re-observing landmarks.
 Landmarks update: In this step, we add new landmarks that are detected in current stage.

Applications of SLAM

 SLAM problem is fundamental for getting robots autonomous. It has wide variety of application where we
want to represent surroundings with a map such as Indoor, Underwater, Outer space etc.

Configuration Space
The configuration space is a transformation from the physical space in which the robot is of finite-size into
another space in which the robot is treated as a point. In other words, the configuration space is obtained by
shrinking the robot to a point, while growing the obstacles by the size of the robot.

A key concept for motion planning is a configuration: – a complete specification of the position of every point in
the system
• A simple example: a robot that translates but does not rotate in the plane: – what is a sufficient representation of
its configuration?
• The space of all configurations is the configuration space or Cspace.
 A robot configuration is a specification of the positions of all robot points relative to a fixed coordinate system

 Usually a configuration is expressed as a “vector” of parameters

 qn

q=(q1,…,
q3
qn) workspace
robot
reference direction
y 
reference point
q1
q2 x

 Space of all its possible configurations

 But the topology of this space is usually not that of a Cartesian space

3-D cylinder embedde



robot
 qy
y
1
S

q’
x 2
Rx S
1

1 1
C = S xS
 q2
q1

(S1)7xI3(I: Interval of reals)

Structure of Configuration Space

 It is a manifold, i.e., for each point q, there is a 1-to-1 map between a neighborhood of q and a Cartesian space Rn,
where n is the dimensionality of C

 This map is a local coordinate system called a chart.

 C can always be covered by a finite number of charts. Such a set is called an atlas

Metric in Configuration Space

A metric or distance function d in C is a map

d:(q1,q2)  C2  d(q1,q2) > 0
such that:

– d(q1,q2) = 0 if and only if q1 = q2

– d(q1,q2) = d (q2,q1)

– d(q1,q2) < d(q1,q3) + d(q3,q2)

Example:
• Robot A and point x of A

• x(q): location of x in the workspace when A is at configuration q

• A distance d in C is defined by:

d(q,q’) = maxxA ||x(q)-x(q’)||

where ||a - b|| denotes the Euclidean distance between points a and b in the workspace

Notion of a Path
 q0 q1

qn
q2
q4 (s)
q 3

 A path in C is a piece of continuous curve connecting two configurations q and q’:

t : s  [0,1] t (s)  C

 s’  s  d(t(s),t(s’))  0

Cell decomposition methods

The first approach to path planning uses cell decomposition—that is, it decomposes thefree space into a finite number of
contiguous regions, called cells. These regions have the important property that the path-planning problem within a single
region can be solved by simple means (e.g., moving along a straight line).

Cell decomposition methods can be improved in a number of ways, to alleviate some of these problems. The first approach
allows further subdivision of the mixed cells—perhaps using cells of half the original size. This can be continued recursively
until a path is found that lies entirely within free cells. (Of course, the method only works if there is a way to decide if a
given cell is a mixed cell, which is easy only if the configuration space boundaries have relatively simple mathematical
descriptions.) This method is complete provided there is a bound on the smallest passageway through which a solution
must pass. Although it focuses most of the computational effort on the tricky areas within the configuration space, it still
fails to scale well to high-dimensional problems because each recursive splitting of a cell creates 2d smaller cells. A second
way to obtain a complete algorithm is to insist on an exact cell decomposition of the free space.

Modified cost functions

Anyone who has driven a car knows that a parking space with one millimeter of clearance on either side is not really a
parking space at all; for the same reason, we would prefer solution paths that are robust with respect to small motion
errors.This problem can be solved by introducing a potential field. A potential field is a function defined over state space,
whose value grows with the distance to the closest obstacle.

The potential field can be used as an additional cost term in the shortest-path calculation. This induces an interesting
tradeoff. On the one hand, the robot seeks to minimize path length to the goal. On the other hand, it tries to stay away
from obstacles by virtue of minimizing the potential function.

Skeletonization methods

The second major family of path-planning algorithms is based on the idea of skeletonization. These algorithms reduce the
robot’s free space to a one-dimensional representation, for which the planning problem is easier. This lower-dimensional
representation is called a skeleton of the configuration space.

planning uncertain movements

The basic motion planning problem is a relaxed version of the motion planning problem. The robot is a single, rigid body
that can move freely and has no dynamics. It acts in a static, known environment. Due to these assumptions the problem is
simplified, limiting the practical implementations of the solutions to the problem. Therefore, to meet with the conditions of
the actual problem three extensions of the basic motion planning problem are regarded:
 planning in a dynamic environment
 planning with uncertainty
 planning with constraints
The way to deal with extensions that encompass the actual problem is called a planning approach. A planning approach
views the motion planner as a whole. So at this point the representation method and the search algorithm come together.

Planning in a Dynamic Environment

In the basic motion planning problem the environment is considered to be completely static as the robot A is the only
moving object in the environment. The environment can also be dynamic, when it contains moving objects. Another type of
environment occurs when not only the motion of the robot A, but of multiple robots Ai is to be planned (Erdmann and
Lozano-Pérez, 1986; Latombe, 1990). This case differs from an environment with moving objects, as now the motion of
more than one robots is under control.

Finally, a special case arises when manipulation (Choset, 2005; Li et al., 1989) is considered. In this case, the ability to alter
the environment during movement, by moving objects itself, must be taken into account by the motion planner. Planning
for manipulation is such a broad topic in itself that it is also been addressed with techniques that are outside the scope of
motion planning. This study will therefore not go into depth on this subject.

Planning with Uncertainty

The basic motion planning problem is based on assumptions about the robot and obstacles in the workspace. It assumes
exact knowledge of the workspace and the obstacles’ location and geometry. Furthermore, it is assumed that the planned
path is executed exactly. Such assumptions are generally not realistic and therefore uncertainty must be considered in: a
priori knowledge on the workspace; in sensor information that is acquired during the execution of planning; and in the
execution of the plan itself.

 Robust methods

Uncertainty can also be handled using so-called robust control methods (see page 836) rather than probabilistic methods. A
robust method is one that assumes a bounded amount of uncertainty in each aspect of a problem, but does not assign
probabilities to values within the allowed interval. A robust solution is one that works no matter what actual values occur,
provided they are within the assumed interval.

A fine-motion plan consists of a series of guarded motions. Each guarded motion consists of (1) a motion command and (2)
a termination condition, which is a predicate on the robot’s sensor values, and returns true to indicate the end of the
guarded move.The motion commands are typically compliant motions that allow the effector to slide if the motion
command would cause collision with an obstacle.

Dynamics and control

the notion of dynamic state, which extends the kinematic state of a robot by its velocity. For example, in addition to the
angle of a robot joint, the dynamic state also captures the rate of change of the angle, and possibly even its momentary
acceleration. The transition model for a dynamic state representation includes the effect of forces on this rate of change.
Such models are typically expressed via differential equations, which are equations that relate a quantity (e.g., a kinematic
state) to the change of the quantity over time (e.g., velocity). In principle, we could have chosen to plan robot motion using
dynamic models, instead of our kinematic models. Such a methodology would lead to superior robot performance, if we
could generate the plans. However, the dynamic state has higher dimension than the kinematic space, and the curse of
dimensionality would render many motion planning algorithms inapplicable for all but the most simple robots. For this
reason, practical robot system often rely on simpler kinematic path planners
A common technique to compensate for the limitations of kinematic plans is to use a separate mechanism, a controller, for
keeping the robot on track. Controllers are techniques for generating robot controls in real time using feedback from the
environment, so as to achieve a control objective. If the objective is to keep the robot on a preplanned path, it is often
referred to as a reference controller and the path is called a reference path. Controllers that optimize a global cost function
are known as optimal controllers. Optimal policies for continuous MDPs are, in effect, optimal controllers. Controllers that
provide force in negative proportion to the observed error are known as P controllers. The letter ‘P’ stands for proportional,
indicating that the actual control is proportional to the error of the robot manipulator. More formally, let y(t) be the
reference path, parameterized by time index t. The control at generated by a P controller has the form:

at = KP (y(t) − xt) .

Here xt is the state of the robot at time t and KP is a constant known as the gain parameter of the controller and its value is
called the gain factor); Kp regulates how strongly the controller corrects for deviations between the actual state xt and the
desired one y(t). In our example, KP = 1. At first glance, one might think that choosing a smaller value for KP would remedy
the problem.

Our P controller appears to be stable but not strictly stable, since it fails to stay anywhere near its reference trajectory.The
simplest controller that achieves strict stability in our domain is a PD controller. The letter ‘P’ stands again for proportional,
and ‘D’ stands for derivative. PD controllers are described by the following equation:

at = KP (y(t) − xt) + KD ∂(y(t) − xt) ∂t .

As this equation suggests, PD controllers extend P controllers by a differential component, which adds to the value of at a
term that is proportional to the first derivative of the error y(t) − xt over time. What is the effect of such a term? In general,
a derivative term dampens the system that is being controlled. To see this, consider a situation where the error (y(t)−xt) is
changing rapidly over time, as is the case for our P controller above. The derivative of this error will then counteract the
proportional term, which will reduce the overall response to the perturbation. However, if the same error persists and does
not change, the derivative will vanish and the proportional term dominates the choice of control.