Masterbook for

UPSC & State PSC

Mains 2023

Includes:
• UPSC Mains Strategy
• 2022 Mains GS 1 - 4 Solved Papers
• Important General Studies Notes
• UPSC Mains 10 Years Trend Analysis
• 2022 Mains Essay Solved Papers
 Masterb k for

UPSC
& State PSC
Mains 2023
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 Contents
Trend Analysis  1-2
Exam Patterns 1-2
2022 Mains Solved Paper-1 & 2 1-16
Subject Wise Resources
Unit A : General Studies -1
1. Caste and Society 1-7
2. History of Painting, Music & dance in India 8-26
3. Economic Geography of world 27-38
4. Administration and Economy under the Company Rule 39-50
5. Urbanisation and Associated Issues 51-65
6. Historiography of Modern Indian History 66-71
Unit B : General Studies -2
1. Centre- State Relations 1-10
2. India’s Foreign Policy Challenges and Opportunites 11-14
3. The Golaknath Case 15-17
4. National Food Security Act Passed 18-25
Unit C : General Studies -3
1. Agriculture in the Prevedic and Vedic Era 1-9
2. National Income of India 10-17
3. Ecosystem 18-32
4. Institutional and Policy Framework for Disaster Management in India 33-41
5. Laser and its Applications 42-53
6. Left-Wing Extremism 54-65
7. Government Welfare Schemes 66-72
8. Gene Technology 73-77
Unit D : General Studies -4
1. Emotional Intelligence 1-26
2. Case Studies 27-29
Unit E : Essays
1. Steps and Structure of Essay Writing 1-8
2. Philosophical Essays 9-15
3. 5 Practice Essays 16-26
Unit F: Mock Test 
•• Mains (Paper 1 - 4) 1-37
 1
Trend Analysis For GS Mains Paper 1-4

GSM1 Mains-Topicwise Questions since Syllabus change

Category GS Mains Paper-1 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
History Culture 20 40 25 25 10 35 10 50 10
History Freedom struggle 30 30 25 37.5 65 10 50 25 40
History World History 40 30 25 12.5 10 15 15 0 15
History Post independence 50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10
Society Religion, Region, empowerment 10 10 37.5 37.5 50 35 35 35 0
Society Poverty, Population, Development 0 10 25 12.5 0 40 0 25 15
Society Globalization Impact 10 0 12.5 12.5 0 15 15 15 40
Society Women 10 30 12.5 0 0 15 35 0 10
Geography Climate 10 20 37.5 12.5 60 10 55 10 15
Geography Disaster 10 10 0 12.5 15 0 0 0 0
Geography Urbanization 10 0 25 25 15 15 15 15 15
Geography Physical 20 20 0 0 10 20 0 20 45
Geography Resources 20 20 25 62.5 0 10 10 45 35
Geography Industrial Location 10 30 0 0 15 30 10 10 0
Total 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250

GSM2 Mains-Topicwise Questions since Syllabus change

Category GSM2 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Polity Basic Str. 10 12.5 37.5 12.5 15 10 15 0 10
Polity Comparing 0 0 0 0 0 15 10 10 15
Polity Executive 10 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Polity Legislature & Elections 10 12.5 0 12.5 40 20 30 35 30
Polity Power Sep. 10 12.5 12.5 12.5 10 15 20 15 20
Polity Fed-Local 30 12.5 25 37.5 10 30 15 40 25
Polity Bodies 20 25 25 25 15 25 25 15 15
Welfare Welfare & Protection 20 25 0 0 10 10 15 0 25
Welfare Poverty & Hunger 10 0 12.5 0 25 30 10 30 0
Welfare Edu,Health,HDI 20 25 25 37.5 10 10 10 25 10
Welfare Eco.Reform 0 12.5 0 12.5 15 10 30 0 0
Governance Accountability & E-Gov 20 0 25 25 10 25 10 20 15
Governance NGO, Pressure, IAS 20 25 37.5 25 40 0 10 10 35
IR Neighbours 50 12.5 25 12.5 10 0 0 0 25
IR Non-Neighbours & Diaspora 10 0 12.5 12.5 30 25 40 25 10
IR Inst., Group, Agreements 10 50 12.5 25 10 25 10 25 15
Total 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250
2
GSM3: Topicwise Papers since Syllabus Change
Category GSM3 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Growth 10 25 37.5 25 35 15 25 20 40
Budget 30 0 12.5 12.5 15 10 25 15 10
Economy
Liberalization 20 25 0 12.5 15 15 0 0 0
Infra, Invest 10 37.5 12.5 25 10 25 0 15 15
Land Reform 10 0 0 12.5 0 0 0 0 10
Cropping 0 0 0 37.5 15 40 45 30 25
Food MSP-PDS 20 12.5 0 0 15 10 15 0 0
E-Tech in aid 0 0 12.5 0 10 0 0 0 0
Food Processing 10 12.5 37.5 0 10 10 15 20 0
Sci.Tech 40 12.5 25 0 10 15 0 35 30
Sci.Tech (Indian) 0 25 12.5 25 25 10 25 0 0
Science
Environment 35 25 25 25 25 35 15 50 35
Disaster 10 12.5 12.5 25 15 15 35 15 25
Develop vs Exterm. 10 0 12.5 12.5 40 10 25 15 30
Border 10 62.5 25 25 0 10 15 25 10
Crime
Cyber Security 25 0 25 12.5 10 15 10 10 10
Money Laundering 10 0 0 0 0 15 0 0 10
Total 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250

GSM4: Topicwise Ethics Papers since Syllabus Change

Category Sub Topic 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Basic Theory 20 10 20 20 20 20 0 0 10

Ethics & Basics EQ 30 10 0 10 10 20 10 10 10

Thinkers 30 10 20 40 10 0 30 50 30

Family 0 30 35 30 0 0 0 0 0

Family & Society Social Influence 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 30 0

Attitude 10 10 0 0 10 0 0 10 10
Neutrality & other values 25 30 40 10 30 30 30 0 40

Job & Office Work Culture 60 60 25 0 10 0 20 0 30

Compassion 25 0 20 20 20 40 0 40 0

Theory & Dilemma 10 60 20 30 0 70 40 30 0

Code of Conduct 0 0 0 10 0 10 40 0 0

Charter 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0
Pub Org
Corruption 0 10 0 25 50 30 40 20 60

RTI 40 0 20 0 20 30 0 0 10

IR/Funding 0 0 10 0 10 0 10 40 10

Private Org. Corporate 0 20 40 45 60 0 20 20 40

Total 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250
 1

UPSC Exam Pattern IAS Main Examination

The UPSC Exam Pattern for the Mains Exam is tabulated below. The IAS Mains Exam consists of two types of papers viz quali-
fying and merit-ranking. Paper A and Paper B namely the Language paper and English paper will be qualifying in nature. The
marks obtained in these papers will not be added to marks that may determine your rank. All the other papers will be evaluated
for merit purposes.

Paper Subject Duration Total marks Time Allotted Nature of paper Type of Paper
Paper A Compulsory Indian 3 hours 300 3 hours Qualifying Descriptive
language
Paper B English 3 hours 300 3 hours Qualifying Descriptive
Paper I Essay 3 hours 250 3 hours Merit Descriptive
Paper-II General Studies I 3 hours 250 3 hours Merit Descriptive
Paper III General Studies II 3 hours 250 3 hours Merit Descriptive
Paper IV General Studies III 3 hours 250 3 hours Merit Descriptive
Paper V General Studies IV 3 hours 250 3 hours Merit Descriptive
Paper VI Optional I 3 hours 250 3 hours Merit Descriptive
Paper VII Optional II 3 hours 250 3 hours Merit Descriptive

The following points should be kept in mind while preparing for UPSC CSE Mains:

• The Mains examination constitutes the 2nd phase of the Civil Services Examination. Only after successfully qualifying in
the prelims exam would the candidates be allowed to write the IAS Mains.

•  e Mains exam tests the candidate’s academic talent in depth and his/her ability to present his/her understanding accord-
Th
ing to the requirements of the question in a time-bound manner.

• The UPSC Mains exam consists of 9 papers, out of which two are qualifying papers of 300 marks each.

• The two qualifying papers are:

•• Any Indian Language Paper
•• English Language Paper
•  e papers on Essay, General Studies and Optional Subject of only such candidates who attain 25% marks in both the
Th
language papers as a minimum qualifying standard in these qualifying papers, will be taken cognizance of, for evaluation.

• I n case a candidate does not qualify in these language papers, then the marks obtained by such candidates will not be
considered or counted.

• Hence, your score will be out of a total of 1750 marks.

•  andidates will be required to write the answers in the answer sheets provided by the UPSC. No extra sheets will be pro-
C
vided.
 2

General Studies Paper

The subjects which are covered in different General Studies Paper in the Mains Exam are mentioned as under:

General Studies I Indian Heritage and Culture, History n Geography, Society

General Studies II Governance, Constitution, Polity, Social Justice, International Relations
General Studies III Technology, Economic Development, Biodiversity, Environment, Security and Disaster
Management
General Studies IV Ethics, Aptitude, Integrity

List of Optional Subjects for UPSC Mains

Here's the list of optional subjects that can be opted for UPSC Mains:

Agriculture Animal Husbandry and Veteri- Anthropology Botany Chemistry

nary Science
Civil Engineering Commerce and Accountancy Economics Electrical Engi- Geography
neering
Geology History Law Management Mathematics
Mechanical Medical Science Philosophy Physics Political Science and
Engineering International Relations
Psychology Public Administration Sociology Statistics Zoology

The options for literature subjects are:

Assamese Bengali Bodo Dogri Gujarati

Hindi Kannada Kashmiri Konkani Maithili
Malayalam Manipuri Marathi Nepali Odia
Punjabi Sanskrit Santhali Sindhi Tamil
Telugu Urdu English
 GS MAINS 2022 PAPER-1
(Held in Sep. 2022)

1. How will you explain that medieval Indian temple sculptures represent the social life of those days? (150 words) 10
marks
Ans: During the medieval period, Indian culture gave great importance to sculpture. All the temples both in the North and South
were decorated externally and internally with sculptures. The sanctuaries and chapels contained statues dedicated entirely
to the religious cult and in the courtyards, several pavilions housed monumental effigies of divine animals such as the bull
Nandi of Shiva, the Garuda bird of Vishnu.
The styles of Bhubaneswar and Khajuraho represented the emanation and expression of a typically medieval and feudal
society. The presence of loving couple (maithuna) themes on the outer walls of the temples seem to be due to the preponderant
influence of the Kaula-Kapalika sects whose main objective of achieving mystical union with the divinity.
Temples at Halebid, Karnataka are dedicated to Shiva as Nataraja and contain a large hall for the mandapa to facilitate music
and dance. Thus, we can say that medieval Indian temple sculptures represent the social life of those days.
2. Why did the armies of the British East India Company - mostly comprising of Indian soldiers - win consistently
against the more numerous and better equipped armies of the then Indian rulers? Give reasons. (150 words) 10
marks
Ans: The Company became India’s dominant power following victories at the Battles of Plassey (1757), Wandewash (1760) and
Buxar (1764).
Each of the Company’s three ‘Presidencies’ - Bengal, Bombay and Madras - maintained its own army. The Company troops’
superior European training and weaponry enabled them to defeat Indian forces many times their size. At Buxar (1764), for
example, around 7,000 Company troops defeated nearly 40,000 enemy soldiers.
The Company was quick to combine Western weapons, uniforms and military training with Indian martial traditions. In a
society where warriors were well respected, it could always attract new recruits with the prospect of good pay, pensions,
land grants and honoured status.
During many campaigns, due to a system of subsidiary alliances, the Company’s armies were assisted by the forces of Indian
princely states. These are the reasons why the armies of the British East India Company won consistently against the armies
of the then Indian rulers.
3. Why was there a sudden spurt in famines in colonial India since the mid-eighteenth century? Give reasons.  (150
words) 10 marks
Ans: Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on a favourable southwest summer monsoon for securing water for irrigating crops.
Droughts, combined with British economic and administrative policies, periodically led to major Indian famines in colonial
India like the Chalisa famine of 1783–1784, Agra famine of 1837–1838, Great Famine of 1876–1878 and the Bengal famine
of 1943.
Colonial policies like levies for war, the expansion of export agriculture, neglect of agricultural investment exponential tax
rate, export ban and one-way trade, poor investment in Irrigation Infrastructure, etc. was the reason for the increased frequency
of famine since the mid-eighteenth century in India. Export crops displaced millions of acres that could have been used for
domestic subsistence and increased the vulnerability of Indians to food crises.
The famine of 1876–1878 caused a large migration of agricultural labourers and artisans from southern India to British
colonies. It was the direct cause of investigations that led to the establishment of the Indian Famine code.
4. Describe the characteristics and types of primary rocks. 
 (150 words) 10 marks
Ans: Any natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust is called a rock. When the molten magma cools, it becomes
solid. Rocks thus formed are called igneous rocks. They are also called primary rocks. Its chief features are:
• These rocks are hard and resistant to erosion.
• These rocks are mostly not affected by chemical weathering.
• These rocks are usually fine-grained with smooth texture or may have large crystals with coarse texture.
• Since these rocks are formed due to the cooling and solidification of the magma (lava), fossils are not found in these
rocks.
2

Types of igneous rocks:

1. The molten lava comes out of volcanoes, reaches the earth’s surface and cools down rapidly to become a solid piece of
rock. This is called extrusive rock. For example – basalt.
2. When the molten lava solidifies deep inside the earth’s crust, the rocks so formed are called intrusive rocks. For example
– granite.
5. Discuss the meaning of colour-coded weather warnings for cyclone-prone areas given by the India Meteorological
Department.
 (150 words) 10 marks
Ans: The India Meteorological Department issues four colour-coded weather warnings to provide inputs to disaster management
authorities for the management of severe weather events. These are as follows:
1. Green (All is well): No advisory is issued.
2. Yellow (Be updated): It indicates severely bad weather spanning several days. Recently, the IMD issued a yellow
weather warning for heavy rain and snowfall in Himachal Pradesh.
3. Orange/Amber (Be prepared): It is issued as a warning of extremely bad weather with the potential of disruption in
commute with road and rail closures, and interruption of power supply.
4. Red (Take action): It is issued to help people remain extra vigilant and be prepared for extraordinary measures and
follow orders given by the authorities.
The colour-coded weather warnings are good for disaster risk reduction but there is a need to issue more specific guidelines
for the public and authorities depending on the type of weather condition- rainfall, snowfall, thunderstorm, lightning, dust
storm etc.
6. Discuss the natural resource potentials of ‘Deccan Trap’.
 (150 words) 10 marks
Ans: The Deccan Trap is a thick series of late cretaceous basaltic lava flows that occupy approximately 500000 square kilometres
of peninsular India. This basaltic lava soil has been eroded step by step as a result of erosion, and it is known as the Deccan
trap.
Within the Deccan Traps, at least 95% of the lavas are tholeiitic basalts. Major mineral constituents are olivine, pyroxenes,
and plagioclase, as well as certain Fe-Ti-rich oxides. Other rock types present include alkali basalt, nephelinite, lamprophyre,
and carbonatite.
The hot spring belt of Western Ghats in Deccan traps terrain is one of the potential geothermal fields. Deccan Traps is stated
to have massive oil deposits, estimated at around 30 billion tonnes. The Mesozoic sediments below the Deccan Traps are
highly prospective because most of the oil in the world is found in Mesozoic formations.
The recent discoveries in the Deccan Traps are significant and signify that the Deccan plateau has tremendous potential for
natural resources.
7. Examine the potential of wind energy in India and explain the reasons for their limited spatial spread. (150 words)
10 marks
Ans: India has the fourth highest wind installed capacity in the world with a total installed capacity of 39.25 GW (as of 31st March
2021). The recent assessment indicates a gross wind power potential of 302 GW in the country at 100 meters and 695.50
GW at 120 meters above ground level. India can generate 127 GW of offshore wind energy with its 7,600 km of coastline.
More than 95% of commercially exploitable resources are located in seven states only. The reasons for their limited spatial
spread are:
• Less Lucrative
• Intermittent nature- Low power generation when the wind speed is low.
• Requires huge initial Capital.
• Land acquisition is another major challenge.
The wind sector dominated the RE capacity addition for almost three decades, but its share has been declining now. It is
required that the problems associated with the growth of the wind sector be addressed at the earliest so that it gets back on
track.
8. Explore and evaluate the impact of ‘Work From Home’ on family relationships (150 words) 10 marks
Ans: Many workplaces are adopting work-from-home (WFH) arrangements, especially since the COVID-19 pandemic. Work-
from-home (WFH) influences both work and life, and further impacts family relationships.
Many families in smaller homes have found conflicts and resentment arising from shared spaces. The blurred boundaries
between workspace and home, for instance, confuse younger children who make demands on their parents’ time.
 3

In some cases, Work-from-home confines the couple indoors, taking away the space and time between them, and accelerating
the process of separation. It increases the incidence of domestic abuse, both physical and emotional.
On the other hand, working from home eliminates the need for a commute to work. It enables staff to spend more time with
family.
The government has inserted a new rule — 43A (work from home) in Special Economic Zones Rules, 2006. But if this new
model has fractured bonds that were once taken for granted, it has also forced people to re-examine and re-evaluate their
relationships.
9. How is the growth of Tier 2 cities related to the rise of a new middle class with an emphasis on the culture of
consumption?
 (150 words) 10 marks
Ans: According to RBI, cities with a population in the range of 50,000 to 100,000 are classified as tier 2 cities. A new middle
class has emerged in tier 2 cities, which is unique in the sense that it is marked by the individual’s capacity to consume
global iconic objects. Consumer culture is a culture where social status, values, and activities are centred on the purchase and
consumption of goods and services. The new concept of this class is characterised not by its participation in the production
process but by its capacity to consume.
Improved economic growth, infrastructural development, enhanced connectivity, lower cost of living, and attractive real
estate prices have transformed Tier 2 cities into robust real estate destinations for homebuyers, especially the middle class
and investors.
Such a combination of the rising middle class, a shift in consumption patterns and technological innovation augur well for
tier-II and tier-III cities to emerge as growth engines of the Indian economy.
10. Given the diversities among tribal communities in India, in which specific contexts should they be considered as a
single category?
 (150 words) 10 marks
Ans: According to the 2011 Census, the Scheduled Tribes account for 104 million representing 8.6% of the country’s population.
These Scheduled Tribes are spread throughout the country largely in forest and hilly regions.
The tribal population in India, though a numerically small minority, represents an enormous diversity of groups. They vary
among themselves in respect of language and linguistic traits, ecological settings in which they live, physical features, size
of the population, livelihood pattern, level of development and social stratification.
While tribes have distinct cultures and histories, they also share commonalities, such as the lack of adequate political
representation, economic deprivation and cultural discrimination. Due to economic backwardness and insecure livelihood,
the tribals face health problems, such as the prevalence of diseases, like malaria, cholera etc.
There is a need for awareness among the non-tribal population of India to recognize the ability and dignity of tribes to ensure
the unity and integrity of the country and the spirit of brotherhood.
11. The political and administrative reorganization of states and territories has been a continuous ongoing process since
the mid-nineteenth century- Discuss with examples. (250 words) 15 marks
Ans: Before independence, India was divided into 565 princely states. At this time India had three types of states - Territories
of British India, Princely states and the colonial territories of France and Portugal. After independence, there has been a
growing demand for the reorganisation of the States based on financial, economic and administrative management and also
due to the growing importance of regional languages.
After the Indian independence, 562 princely states had nodded to join the Indian Confederation except Hyderabad, Junagadh,
Bhopal and Kashmir. The States Reorganisation Act, 1956, was enacted by the Parliament under Article 4 of the Constitution
of India. The new States formed as a result of this act are Andhra Pradesh, Bombay Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Mysore,
Punjab and Rajasthan. Thereafter the Parliament also enacted various Reorganisation Acts from time to time i.e the Bombay
Reorganisation Act in 1960; The Punjab Reorganisation Act in 1966; the State of Himachal Pradesh Reorganisation Act in
1970 and the North-Eastern States reorganisation Act in 1971. The latest in this category is the Reorganisation Acts of Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar which were enacted by the Parliament in November 2000 as well as the creation of two
Union Territories from the erstwhile Jammu and Kashmir in 2019.
It is better to allow democratic concerns like development, decentralisation and governance rather than religion, caste, language
or dialect to be the valid bases for conceding the demands for a new state. Also, the fundamental problems of development
and governance deficit such as concentration of power, corruption, administrative inefficiency etc must be addressed.
12. Discuss the main contributions of Gupta period and Chola period to Indian heritage and culture.  (250
words) 15 marks
4

Ans: The Gupta period is noted for its achievements in the arts, architecture, sciences, religion, and philosophy. On the other
hand, the Chola period saw the culmination of Dravida temple art resulting in the most sophisticated buildings of medieval
India.
Gupta period:
• Established by Chandra Gupta I in 319-20 A.D., the Gupta power reached its peak during the reign of Samudra Gupta
and Chandra Gupta II.
• This period witnessed the composition of six great systems of Hindu philosophy - Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga,
Mimansa and Vedanta.
• Poet and playwright Kalidasa created epics such as Abhijnanasakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, Raghuvansha and
Kumarsambhaba. Harishena composed Allahabad Prasasti, Sudraka wrote Mricchakatika, Vishakhadatta created
Mudrarakshasa and Vishnusharma penned Panchatantra.
• The codification of the Hindu social and family laws was done by Manu, Yajnavalkya, Narada, Brihaspati and Katyayana.
Chola period:
• Vijayalaya (850–871 CE) built the city of Thanjavur and established the Chola kingdom in 850.
• Tamil culture which includes amazing artwork, majestic architecture, lengthy inscriptions, literature, and sculpture
flourished during the Chola period.
• A philosophical system called Saiva Siddhanta was founded during this period.
• Tamil and Sanskrit languages flourished during the Chola period.
• The Grand Temple of Tanjavur, and Brihadishvarar Temple, stands as outstanding example of Chola architecture, painting,
sculpture and iconography.
The Gupta age began a period of overall prosperity and growth which came to be known as a Golden Age in India’s history.
Whereas Cholas contributed extensively to temple architecture and their rule is often referred to as a golden era of temple
construction in Tamil Nadu.
13. Discuss the significance of the lion and bull figures in Indian mythology, art and architecture-  (250 words) 15
marks
Ans: Recently, the Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi unveiled the National Emblem cast on the roof of the New Parliament
Building. The National Emblem, India’s most visible symbol of national identity, reflects the country’s reaffirmation of its
ancient ideals of peace and tolerance. Adapted from the design of the Lion Capital of an Ashokan pillar, it was officially
adopted on January 26, 1950, along with the motto “Satyameva Jayate”.
The actual Sarnath capital features four Asiatic lions standing back to back, symbolising power, courage, confidence and
pride, mounted on a circular base. It is carved with precision, showing considerable mastery in the sculptural techniques.
This pillar capital symbolising Dhammachakrapravartana (the first sermon by the Buddha) has become a standard symbol
of this great historical event in the life of the Buddha.
Lion as the crowning animal of Mauryan pillars has been found in several places such as Basarah-Bakhira, Lauriya-
Nandangarh, and Rampurva in Bihar, Sankisa, and Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh.
Nandi (Bull) is the vehicle of the Supreme lord of Hindus, Shiva. In Hindu mythology, Nandi is the bearer of truth and
righteousness. Nandi signifies strength, load-bearing capacity and virility. In temples, the bull is seated in front of the
sanctum sanctorum. The largest Nandi statues in India are found at Chamundi hills in Mysore and the Halebid Shiva Temple
in Karnataka.
A Shakti Pitha is always guarded by a lion facing its main entrance, just like a Nandi image in a Saivite Shrine. Thus, the
lion and bull figures in Indian mythology, art and architecture are very significant.
14. What are the forces that influence ocean currents? Describe their role in the fishing industry of the world. (250
words) 15 marks
Ans: An ocean current (such as California Current, Labrador Current) is a continuous, predictable, directed movement of seawater
generated by several forces acting upon the water. Ocean water moves in two directions: horizontally and vertically. Horizontal
movements are referred to as currents, while vertical changes are called upwellings or downwellings.
Ocean currents are influenced by primary and secondary forces which are given below :
Primary forces:
• Heating by solar energy causes ocean water to expand. Thus, near the equator, the ocean water is about 8 cm higher in
level than in the middle latitudes. This causes a very slight gradient and water tends to flow down the slope.
• The Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to move to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the
southern hemisphere.
 5

• Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the water to move. Friction between the wind and the water surface
affects the movement of the water body in its course.
• Gravity tends to pull the water down the pile and create gradient variation.
Secondary forces:
• Differences in water density affect the vertical mobility of ocean currents. Water with high salinity is denser than water
with low salinity.
• The temperature of the water(Warm water and cold water) also influences ocean currents.
Upwelling currents bring cold nutrient-rich waters from the ocean bottom to the surface, supporting many of the most
important fisheries in the world. These currents support the growth of phytoplankton and seaweed which provide the energy
base for fish, marine mammals, etc.
15. Describing the distribution of rubber-producing countries, indicate the major environmental issues faced by them.
 (250 words) 15 marks
Ans: Natural rubber production worldwide in 2020 amounted to almost 13 million metric tons. For decades, Thailand has been
the world’s biggest producer of rubber, growing 35% of the world’s natural rubber supply in 2019. The ten countries that
produced the most rubber in 2019 are Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, India, China, Malaysia, Philippines, Guatemala, Côte-
d-Ivoire, and Myanmar.
Tropical climates with consistent temperatures around 82°F and annual rainfall between 60 and 78 inches support healthy
rubber trees. Lateritic type, alluvial, sedimentary types, and non-lateritic red soils are best for the growth of rubber trees.
According to FAOStat 2019, India is the fourth largest producer and consumer of Rubber in the World. The quantity of
natural rubber which was exported from India accounted for over 12 thousand metric tons during the fiscal year 2020. The
All-India Rubber Industries Association is a not for profit making body serving the rubber industry.

Environmental Problems Related to Natural Rubber Production:

• In the rubber sheet drying industry, smoke particles contribute to pollution in the workplace and the neighbouring
atmosphere.
• Wastewater discharged from latex rubber processing contains high levels of BOD, COD and SS.
• The odor problem arising from ammonia used for latex preservation remains a challenge.
• Natural rubber contributes to deforestation, biodiversity loss, pollution, and more.
The government should ensure that the terms of the Free Trade Agreements benefit the MSMEs to increase rubber exports.
Also, appropriate technologies are needed in dealing with both smoke particles and wastewater problems to reduce the
deleterious effects of the chemical substances involved in the processing of rubber.
16. Mention the significance of straits and isthmus in international trade.  (250 words) 15 marks
Ans: A strait is a narrow body of water that connects two larger bodies of water while the isthmus is a narrow strip of land that
joins two land masses. The Strait of Gibraltar is the only link between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. North
America is linked with South America with a narrow strip of land called the Isthmus of Panama.
Panama Canal revolutionized shipping and travel in the 20th century, allowing for faster and more efficient transportation
of goods and people. The Panama Canal stretches 77 kilometres across the isthmus and allows cargo ships to travel from
eastern North America to western North America without having to go around South America.
The Strait of Hormuz connects the Persian Gulf and a part of the Arabian Sea called the Gulf of Oman. Great quantities of
petroleum from Middle Eastern states are shipped through the Strait of Hormuz. The strait is jointly controlled by Oman,
the United Arab Emirates, and Iran.
Maritime transport accounts for 95% of India’s international trade by volume and 65% by value, much of which passes
through the international straits located within the Indian Ocean. Straits of Malacca is the main shipping channel between
the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.
6

Control over straits and Isthmuses by a country helps it to establish good control over the connected sea and shipping lanes
of the region. Countries with control over the straits impose heavy charges on foreign ships passing through the straits. Thus,
straits and isthmus in international trade are very significant.
17. Troposphere is a very significant atmospheric layer that determines weather processes. How
 (250 words) 15 marks
Ans: Our atmosphere is divided into five layers starting from the earth’s surface. These are Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere,
Thermosphere and Exosphere. Almost all the weather phenomena like rainfall, fog and hailstorm occur in the troposphere
layer.

The troposphere is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere. Its average height is 13 km and extends roughly to a height of
8 km near the poles and about 18 km at the equator. The thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the equator because
heat is transported to great heights by strong convectional currents. This layer contains dust particles and water vapour.
The temperature in this layer decreases at the rate of 1° C for every 165m of height. This is the most important layer for all
biological activity.
Water vapour, present in the air because of evaporation from the oceans and plant transpiration, cools as it rises to form
clouds, and within the clouds, water condenses and freezes to fall back to the surface as rain and snow.
Thus, the troposphere is very important because we breathe the air in this layer of air. The troposphere contains about 85% of
the atmosphere’s total mass. Tropospheric processes, such as the water or hydrologic cycle and the greenhouse effect, have a
great influence on meteorology and the climate. The chemical composition determines the air quality. Certain components,
even if they are only present in small amounts, may harm health and vegetation. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to
understand how the activities of humans influence the troposphere.
18. Analyse the salience of ‘sect’ in Indian society vis-a-vis caste, region and religion.  (250 words) 15 marks
Ans: Sects are smaller groups of faith that may or may not have their fundamentals in traditional religions. Sects are subgroups
of a single faith or religion, such as Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, and others. For example- Hinduism has four
major sects – Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism.
 7

According to a survey by Pew Research Cente, the predominant sect among Indian Muslims is Sunni Islam (55%), while
6% of Indian Muslims identify as Shia. Sunnis, follow ‘sunnah,’ – the tradition and practices of Prophet Muhammad. Shia
Muslims believe that Ali was the true successor of Prophet Muhammad, which is different from what the Sunni Muslims
believe.
Nationally, relatively few Indians (6%) identify as Sufi, a mystical branch of Islam. Sufism is more popular in Northern
India.
Navayana is a Buddhist order native to India and inspired by the writings of B.R. Ambedkar. Today, nearly all of India’s
Buddhists belong to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes or other lower classes.
Indian Christians disproportionally identify with lower castes (74%), including 57% with Scheduled Castes or Scheduled
Tribes. While many Indian Christians identify as Catholic (37%), a variety of other denominations are present in India. For
example, 13% of Indian Christians are Baptists, 7% identify with the Church of North India and another 7% identify with
the Church of South India.
India is a land of many religions. Sects are religious organisations that differ from each other in terms of their origins and
primary deities. But there is an undercurrent of religious unity among the various religious sects in the country.
19. Are tolerance, assimilation and pluralism the key elements in the making of an Indian form of secularism? Justify
your answer. 
 (250 words) 15 marks
Ans: Indian philosophy of secularism is related to “Sarva Dharma Sambhava” (literally it means that the destination of the paths
followed by all religions is the same, though the paths themselves may be different) which means equal respect to all religions.
The term ‘Secular’ was added to the preamble of the Indian Constitution by the forty-second Constitution Amendment
Act of 1976. In S.R. Bommai vs. UOI case, it was held that Religious tolerance and equal treatment of all religious groups
and protection of their life and property and the places of their worship are an essential part of secularism enshrined in our
constitution.
Indian secularism is not an end in itself but a means to address religious plurality and sought to achieve peaceful coexistence
of different religions. Our democratic polity is pluralist because it recognizes and endorses this plurality in (a) its federal
structure, (b) linguistic and religious rights to minorities, and (c) a set of individual rights. It is this plurality that the
Constitution endowed with a democratic polity and a secular state structure.
Since centuries India has been absorbing and assimilating many religions and cultures. Sufi saints like Sheikh Muinuddin
Chishti, Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya, and Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki are revered by all Indians irrespective of their
faith. The spirit of assimilation is India’s trump card.
Yet tolerance alone is not a strong enough foundation for building an inclusive and pluralistic society. It must be coupled
with understanding and acceptance. Thus, tolerance, assimilation and pluralism are the key elements in the making of an
Indian form of secularism.
20. Elucidate the relationship between globalization and new technology in a world of scarce resources with special
reference to India.
 (250 words) 15 marks
Ans: Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments of different nations,
a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology.
Globalization 4.0 was the theme for World Economic Forum Annual Meeting 2019 held in Davos, Switzerland. Globalization
4.0 is the latest stage of globalization which involves cutting-edge new technologies like artificial intelligence that powers
forward with the explosion of information technology. These technologies shrink distances, open up borders and minds and
bring people all across the globe closer together.
Globalization has increased the pace of technological diffusion. It includes cyber-physical systems, the Internet of things,
big data analytics, cloud computing, cognitive computing, artificial intelligence, 3-D printing, autonomous vehicles etc.
The cross-border technological transfer has not only contributed to rising domestic productivity levels, especially in India,
but it has also facilitated a partial reshaping of the innovation landscape.
Globalization has improved the living standards of hundreds of millions of people but growing resource scarcity means it
risks becoming a victim of its own success. Left unaddressed, scarcity of food, energy, water, land and other key natural assets
has the potential to trigger intensifying zero-sum competition between countries. As a result, there is increasing poverty,
state fragility, economic instability, inflation, and strategic resource competition between major powers.
Technology will continue to play an integral role in supporting Globalisation. India needs to set up the required infrastructure
and technology to harness the advantages of globalization 4.0. The scarcity challenges need to be understood as an integrated
whole, not as separate issues.
8

GS MAINS 2022 PAPER-2 (Held on Sep. 2022)

1. “The most significant achievement of modern law in India is the constitutionalization of environmental problems by
the Supreme Court.” Discuss this statement with the help of relevant case laws.
 (Answer in 150 words) 10
Ans. Constitution of India through Article 21 provided that having a decent environment is the Fundamental Right. Through
Article 48 (A) it also put a duty on the state to endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forest
and wildlife of the country.
Centre come with the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 for fulfilling this objective, but to complement it as a system of
checks and balances, Judiciary took the root of judicial activism and helped in constitutionalizing the various environmental
problems. Some of the relevant cases are as follows:
(1) MC Mehta v/s Union of India:
• It is one of the important cases of environmental advocacy. In this case SC gave the judgement about the principle of
ABSOLUTE LIABILITY. Thus hazardous industriescannot absolve themselves of the responsibility.
• It was taken as the reference in Bhopal Gas tragedy.
(2) Godavarman and the WWF vs Union of India
No forest, National Park or Sanctuary can be dereserved without the approval of the Supreme Court, no non-forest activity
is permitted in any National Park or Sanctuary even if prior approval under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 had been
obtained
Wide interpretations of Article 21 by the Supreme Court have over the years become the bedrock of environmental
jurisprudence, and have served the cause of protection of India’s environment.
2. “Right of movement and residence throughout the territory of India are freely available to the Indian citizens, but
these rights are not absolute. “Comment.  (Answer in 150 words) 10
Ans. Constitution of India provides Right to Freedom under Article 19 and Article 19 1 (d) talks about to move freely throughout
the territory of India. But this Article also talks about that there can be reasonable restrictions on right to freedom.
The grounds of imposing reasonable restrictions on this freedom are two, namely, the interests of general public and the
protection of interests of any scheduled tribe.
Examples of Restriction Right to Movement:
Public Health:
• Lockdown during the Covid time is one of the most recent examples of the reasonable restriction.
• The Bombay High Court validated the restrictions on the movement of persons affected by AIDS.
Interest of Tribes:
• Entry in the tribal areas is restricted to protect the distinctive culture, language, customs and manners of scheduled tribes.
Example: Certain areas in Andaman and Nicobar Island, North East.
Inner Line Permit:
• Various areas of the states like Arunachala Pradesh require inner line permit from the outsiders to move in the restricted
areas.
Public Order:
• During curfew kind of situations for the security and safety purposes movement of the people get restricted.
• Use of Section 144 prohibits gathering of four or more people in the concerned area,
All the fundamental rights which have been provided under Indian Constitution are not absolute. For maintaining the social
harmony and creating a balance between the individual rights and social harmony reasonable restrictions on the Fundamental
Rights is needed.
3. To what extent, in your opinion, as the decentralisation of power in India changed the governance landscape at the
grassroots? 
 (Answer in 150 words) 10
 9

Ans. Decentralisation of power or decentralised governance views the process of development not as the sole responsibilities of
the state or the community, but involves collective responsibility and thus decentralise the executive, administrative and
financial powers among three tires of government.
Though India has adopted the decentralised governance since the inception of five-year plans but it got constitutionalised
after 73rd and 74th Amendment.
Decentralisation and Its Impact on Governance:
• Administrative decentralisation has improved the service delivery outcomes. Example: implementation of RTE, 2009,
direct Benefit Transfer etc.
• Introduction of the third tier of fiscal authority has met with varying degree of successes in delivering public services in
different States.
• Political decentralisationhas successfully helped in enrooting the political representation.
• Planning through Gram Sabhas helped in effective formulation of policies through bottom-up approach. Implementation
of MGNAREGA is one the best example of decentralised governance.
Problems Associated with the Decentralisation:
• It over emphasis on the process of planning.
• Local governments often suffer from weak institutional capacity and their decision-making processes are also unsystematic.
• Information asymmetries, which make it difficult for central officials to really know the position at the local level.
Even though there are some shortcomings, but local level participation has opened up spaces for new relationship between
the governments and citizens.
4. Discuss the role of the Vice –Presidents of India as the chairman of the Rajya Sabha. (Answer in 150 words) 10
Ans. The Vice-President occupies the second highest office in the country. Article 64 of the Constitution. According to the Article
64 Vice President shall be ex officio chairman of the counsel of States and shall not hold any other office of profit.
Role of Vice –Presidents of India as the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha:
• Vice president is the principal spokes person of the lower house and he represents the collective voice of the house to
the world.
• In the absence of quorum, he is empowered to adjourn the House or to suspend its sitting
• Vice President is not the member of Rajya Sabha so he does not have the ability to vote, but he can cast a vote in the
case of an equality of votes.
• When a message from the President, being received regarding any bill, Chairman,reads it to the House and gives necessary
directions in regard to the procedure.
• The Chairman determines the question as to disqualification of a member of the Rajya Sabha on ground of defection
under Tenth schedule and makes rules for giving effect to the provision,
• It is the right of the Chairman to interpret the Constitution and rules so far as matters in or relating to the House.
But there are some limitations to this post also. Yetthe Office of the Vice-President is one of the unique features of the
Constitution of India.
5. Discuss the role of the National Commission for Backward Classes in the wake of its transformation from a statutory
body to a constitutional body. (Answer in 150 words) 10
Ans. National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC) was set up in 1993. But 102nd Amendment Act of 2018 conferred a
constitutional status to the Commission. Thus, after the amendment it ceased to be a statutory body and became a constitutional
body
Benefits of transforming NCBC from Statutory body to a Constitutional body.
• It made the NCBC, on the par with that of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes Commission, and give powers to Parliament
to designate castes as OBCs.
• Under the old NCBC Act, the Commission merely has the power to recommend inclusion or exclusion of communities
in the OBC list now it has become more powerful.
• NCBC has helped the backward classes people fight atrocities against them and ensure quick justice to them, as it has
given the power of civil court.
• The new act has acknowledged that in addition to reservations, BCs also need development
While giving NCBC constitutional status is a step in the right direction, However, it will not be enough to improve the
socio-economic condition of the OBC community and along with this number of other steps are required such as:
10

• Proper representation of backward classes of the deprived sections to join the national mainstream.
• Caste census and implementation of reservation accordingly.
6. The Gati-Shakti Yojana needs meticulous coordination between the government and the private sector to achieve
the goal of connectivity. Discuss. (Answer in 150 words) 10
Ans. Gati Shakti yojana emphasize on connectivity
• PM GatiShakti is a new vision for integrated planning, synchronised time bound implementation. PM Gati Shakti is an
approach for growth accelerating trustworthy infrastructure through synchronized, holistic, integrated and comprehensive
planning based on knowledge, technology and innovation.
Public private coordination
• Public transport platforms such as the Indian Railways, Metro Trains, Regional Rapid Transit System (RRTS), Interstate
Buses, Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) as well as Aviation can no longer operate in isolation and must come together to provide
integrated and seamless connectivity to commuters.
• This needs to start with integrated planning for implementation of efficient interchanges.
• There are huge contribution from private players in these projects and time bound manner has been assigned to these
projects.
Private sector has taken up great task of building infrastructure in the country through providing assistance in the Gati shakti
programme.
7. The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 remains only a legal document without intense sensitisation of
government functionaries and citizens regarding disability. Comment. (Answer in 150 words) 10
Ans. Constitution of India promotes equality through various articles such as Artcle14, 41, 38, 51(A). Even Preamble also talks
about the social justice. To implement the objective of UNCRPD Indian Parliament passed the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities Act, 2016.
Positives of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016.
• The Act lays Responsibility on the appropriate governments to take measures and ensure that PWDs enjoy equal rights.
• The types of disabilities have been increased from 7 to 21. The Central Government will have the power to add more
types of disabilities.
• Additional benefits such as reservation in higher education, government jobs, in allocation of land, poverty alleviation
schemes. have been provided for persons with benchmark disabilities and those with high support needs.
• All children with benchmark disabilities between 6 and 18 years shall have the right to free education.
Problems with the Act:
• There are schemes and initiatives launched by the governments but there is a lack of implementation and the process is
very slow.
• Certifying authorities often demand the person to be physically present in order to issue the certificates,
• During Covid time too no schemes were introduced for the person with disabilities.
• Budgetary allocation for the welfare of PwDs has been declining in last years.
• Absence of any commitment to the political uplift of persons with disabilities.
The goal of this act is, of inclusivity, accessibility and empowerment and it cannot be achieved without sensitisation,
awareness and political inclusion.
8. Reforming the government delivery system through the Direct Benefit Transfer Scheme is a progressive step, but it
has its limitations too. Comment.  (Answer in 150 words) 10
Ans. Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) is a Government of India Scheme to improve subsidy. administration.DBT envisages a switch
from the present electronic transfer of benefits to bank accounts of the beneficiary to transfer of benefits directly to Aadhaar
seeded bank accounts of the beneficiaries.
Why a Progressive Step?
• Accurate Targeting
• De-duplication
• Reduction of fraud and corruption.
• Process re-engineering of schemes for simpler flow of information and funds.
• Greater Accountability
 11

• Elimination of wastes in subsidy transfer.

• Promoting Economic justice.
Limitations of DBT:
• There are many rural & tribal areas, which don’t have banking facility and road connectivity still.
• Even today, many people continue to avoid paying income tax. This will be a hurdle the government needs to overcome
in order to identify deserving beneficiaries for the subsidies. Thus, creating an issue of inclusion and exclusion.
• Targeting of BPL (Below Poverty Line) population is still improper.
• Some of the schemes arewidows’ pensions and scholarships, PAHAL etc.
• Illiteracy of our population is a challenge to efficiency of scheme.
• Money provides could be used wrongly.
• In some states DBT has been started using as electoral freebies and creating problem of fiscal deficits.
Even though DBT has been able to arrest some leakages in system and helping to achieve the Sustainable Development
Goals, but in diverse country like India one size cannot fit for all.
9. India is an age-old friend of Sri Lanka.’ Discuss India’s role in the recent crisis in Sri Lanka in the light of the
preceding statement.
 (Answer in 150 words) 10
Ans. India’s role in Sri Lankan crisis
• India has played a significant role in the IMF as well as in the regional and plurilateral organisations in encouraging other
countries to support Sri Lanka in dealing with the post-COVID normalization of economic activity, which has been well
acknowledged and appreciated by the island nation.
India’s bilateral assistance to Sri Lanka to deal with the economic crisis can be divided into two broad categories:
• Assistance to meet the immediate requirements and
• Assisting Sri Lanka in its effort to revive the sectors which got affected due to the global pandemic and foreign reserves
crisis.
To meet the immediate requirements, the Government of India has provided food, health and energy security package as
well as foreign reserves support amounting to more than US$ 3.5 billion including a concessional loan of US$ 1 billion to
the Government of Sri Lanka.
10. Do you think that BIMSTEC is a parallel organisation like the SAARC? What are the similarities and dissimilarities
between the two? How are Indian foreign policy objectives realized by forming this new organisation?
(Answer in 150 words) 10
Ans. In recent years, BIMSTEC has gained popularity among South Asian countries as a platform for regional cooperation. It
connects the littoral countries of the Bay of Bengal and the Himalayan ecologies.
Similarities and Dissimilarities between BIMSTEC and SAARC
• BIMSTEC’s primary focus is on economic and technical cooperation among the countries of South Asia and South East
Asia.
BIMSTEC v/s SAARC:
• Strategic value of BIMSTEC is driven not by the Pakistan factor alone, rather the BIMSTEC as a neighbourhood forum
presents its own strengths and weaknesses for India, independent of Pakistan and the SAARC.
• Framing the diplomatic move by hyphenating SAARC and BIMSTEC to mean one’s gain is another’s loss does more
harm to both the groupings.
India’s strategic interests in the Bay of Bengal sub region present its own specific opportunities and challenges for India to
be leveraged to its advantage. This also applies to other India’s neighbourhoods such as the Middle East, Central Asia or the
Indian Ocean region.
11. Discuss the procedures to decide the disputes arising out of the election of a Member of the Parliament or State
Legislature under The Representation of the People Act, 1951. What are the grounds on which the election of any
returned candidate may be declared void? What remedy is available to the aggrieved party against the decision?
Refer to the case laws.  (Answer in 250 words) 15
Ans. RPA Act, 1951 provides for the conduct of elections of the Houses of Parliament and to the House or Houses of the Legislature
of each State, the qualifications and disqualifications for membership of those Houses, and remedies of disputes in connection
with such elections.
Procedures to decide the disputes:
12

• An Election petitions are filed in the High Court of the particular state in which the election was conducted.only the High
Courts have the original jurisdiction on deciding on election petitions
• Election petition can be filed by any candidate, or an elector to the authorized officer of the High Court within the time
period of forty-five days from the date of declaration of results.
Grounds on which the election of any returned candidate may be declared void
(1) Conviction in certain offences such as: Section 8
• A person convicted of an offence punishable under certain acts of Indian Penal Code, Protection of Civil Rights Act 1955,
Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act 1967, Prevention of Corruption Act 1988, Prevention of Terrorism Act 2002 etc.
• Abhiram Singh v/s E.D. Commachen case related to promotion of feelings of enmity or hatred between different classes.
(2) The convicted person is sentenced to — (i) only fine, for a period of six years from the date of such conviction; (ii)
imprisonment, from the date of such conviction and shall continue to be disqualified for a further period of six years since
his release. (Lily Thomas Case)
Remedies available against disqualification
• The person in question can file a petition in high court and subsequently in Supreme court to challenge the verdict
of disqualification.
• Election results can also be challenged by signing an election petition if a voter or a candidate suspects some malpractices.
• Section 11 of RPA Act, 1951 authorizes and empowers the Election Commission (EC) to remove or reduce any
disqualification except the conviction is held under section 8A.
• The Election Commission has been given the power of a civil court in case of any inquiry related to it.
• Any candidate disqualified under the section 8A, that is, on the grounds of corrupt practices may submit a petition of
appeal to the President for removal of such conviction and disqualification.
12. Discuss the essential conditions for exercise of the legislative powers by the Governor. Discuss the legality of re-
promulgation of ordinances by the Governor without placing them before the Legislature.
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
Ans. State legislature comprises two (or three) wings. Article 213 of the Constitution provides him the power of promulgation of
ordinances, when the condition arises.
Essential conditions for exercise of the legislative powers by the Governor:
• He can promulgate an ordinance only when both (where no council, only assembly will be considered) the Houses of
State Legislature are not in session or when either of the two Houses of State legislature is not in session.
• He can promulgate an ordinance only when he is satisfied that circumstances exist which render it necessary for him to
take immediate action.
• His ordinance-making power is co-extensive with the legislative power of the state legislature. This means that he can
issue ordinances only on those subjects on which the state legislature can make laws.
• He can promulgate or withdraw an ordinance only on the advice of the council headed by the chief minister
Legality of re-promulgation of ordinances by the Governor without placing them before the Legislature
• An ordinance issued by him ceases to operate on the expiry of six weeks from the reassembly of the state legislature. It
may cease to operate even earlier than the prescribed six weeks, if a resolution disapproving it is passed by the legislative
assembly and is agreed to by the legislative council.
• He can re-promulgate the ordinance but with the conditions said in the D.C. Wadhawa Case.
• The SC ruled that successive repromulgation of ordinances with the same text without any attempt to get the bills passed
by the assembly would amount to violation of the Constitution and the ordinance so repromulgated is liable to be struck
down.
• It held that the exceptional power of law-making through ordinance cannot be used as a substitute for the legislative
power of the state legislature.
13. While the national political parties in India favour centralisation, the regional parties are in favour of State
autonomy.” Comment.
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
Ans. Federalism is one of the basis structures of our Constitution, under which in normal circumstances powers have been divided
between the Centre and State. This federalism has brought political unity, but emotional unity is yet to be achieved.
In various circumstances Centre is more powerful than the state, that skewed up the relationship among Union and State.
Examples are:
 13

Centralisation Tendencies:
• States have less financial autonomy and more dependency on the centre for financial assistance apart from constitutional
controls.
• Centre is resorting more towards ordinance route for making laws rather than doing the healthy discussions in the
Parliament.
• Infringement in the area where states have some autonomy especially in the area of residuary powers, state lists.
• Use of Article252 and 256(President Rule) most often and issuing of directives under the same.
• Appoint of Governors and misuse of the office of Governor.
• Power to make laws with respect to state lists also being taken by the Centre.
• Provision of planning commission, quasi-federal nature and division of power are inclined towards centralisation.
• Centre has started making schemes in the area of health too which may not fit for all the states. This creating a case of
confrontational federalism rather that cooperative federalism.
These are the reasons which are giving upthrust to the demand of state autonomy.
Regional parties which are being seen mushrooming favours State autonomy because:
• National Parties are less vocal about local issues.
• Most often national parties try toweakenthe state party aspirations and create factionalism.
• For the development of the local regions.
Thus arise of regional parties not only changing the face of federalism from cooperative to confrontational and competitive
but it will going to the change the political representation in the lower houses too, which will going to help in constructive
development of polity as well as the country.
14. Critically examine the procedures through which the Presidents of India and France are elected of. (Answer in 250
words) 15
Ans. Article 54 of the Constitution deals with the procedure of election of President in India.
Procedure through which President of India is being elected:
• Nomination: The nomination of a candidate for election to the office of President must be subscribed by at least 50
electors as proposers and 50 electors as seconders.
• Indirect Election: President of India is elected indirectly by the members of electoral college.
• Electoral College. Electoral college consists of elected members of Houses of Parliament; legislative assemblies of the
states and legislative assemblies of the Union Territories of Delhi and Puducherry.
• Mode of Election: It is held in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single
transferable vote and the voting is by secret ballot.
Problems with the Procedure:
• Proportional representation’ in the case of presidential election is a misnomer, it is good for the system takes place where
two or more seats are to be filled.
• Indirect election for the President is undemocratic as said by members of Constituent Assembly.
• Single transferable vote’ is not in real sense is single vote rather every voter has plural votes.
• Although we are a democratic country but people are not directly involved in election of the president
Presidential Election of France:
• Nominations: Candidates must be nominated by at least 500 elected representatives.
• Mode:The President is elected by direct universal suffrage:under which all French citizens aged 18 and over can vote,
whether residing in France or not
• Direct Vote: Mode votes are directly attributed to the candidates and President is directly elected by two round system
(TRS) also known as round off voting.
• Second Round:In the second round only top 2 contenders participate and candidate with the absolute majority of votes
cast is finally elected.
• Final: The president is elected following the announcement of the results by the Constitution Council within 10 days.
Problems with the French Presidential Election:
• The French believe that more round of voting weakens the bond between the nation and its supreme representative.
• If there is no top two then more rounds need to be conducted, so more time and money get invested.
14

15. Discuss the role of the Election Commission of India in the light of the evolution of the Model Code of Conduct.
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
Ans. Originated in 1960, MCC is a set of guidelines issued by the Election Commission to regulate political parties and candidates
prior to elections, to ensure free and fair elections.
Evolution of Model Code of Conduct:
• MCC was first introduced in the state assembly elections in Kerala in 1960.
• In the 1962 general elections to the Lok Sabha, the MCC was circulated to recognised parties, and state governments
sought feedback from the parties.
• The MCC was largely followed by all parties in the 1962 elections.
• In 1979, the Election Commission added a section to regulate the ‘party in power’ and prevent it from gaining an unfair
advantage at the time of elections.
• In 2013, the Supreme Court directed the Election Commission to include guidelines regarding election manifestos, which
it had included in the MCC for the 2014 general elections.
Role of ECI and Model Code of Conduct:
• The Election Commission ensures MCC observance by political parties in power, for elections to the Parliament and the
State Legislatures.
• Election commission ensures that official machinery for electoral purposes is not being misused.
• It ensures that electoral offences, malpractices and corruptpractices such as impersonation, bribing and inducement of
voters,threat and intimidation to the voters are prevented by all means.
• In case of violation, appropriate measures are taken by ECI throughmechanisms like: joint task forces of enforcement
agencies and flying squads.
• cVIGImobile app has been introduced by the Election Commission through which audio-visualevidence of malpractices
can be reported.
• EC has power to ban politicians who breach MCC in advertisement, campaigning etc. Example: Criticism of Telangana
government advertisement when MCC was functional, heavily criticized by EC.
• Strictest of punitive actions under the MCC was taken by the EC during the Lok Sabha elections of 2014.
16. Besides the welfare schemes, India needs deft management of inflation and unemployment to serve the poor and the
underprivileged sections of the society. Discuss.  (Answer in 250 words) 15
Ans. Being a welfare state, India promotes the idea of economic and social justice through Preamble and articles of DPSC. For
completing this goal government has launched various welfare schemes such as MGNREGA, Mudra Loan Scheme, PM
JAY Scheme etc.
Need of Welfare Scheme:
• Without state help, some section of society will have to face many disadvantages and will not be able to avail fair and
equal life choices.
• The objective of inclusive growth will remain unfulfilled.
• Protect the poor and disadvantaged and equip the labour force in the lower rungs of the skill/economic welfare thus
enabling them to better participate in the process of accelerating economic growth.
• Vulnerable sections will always be at a disadvantage which will lead to lower quality of life and choices enjoyed by
them, which will lead to resentment and friction in the society.
Why India Needs Deft Management of Inflation and Unemployment?
• According to Oxfam India’s report unemployment rate in rural India nearly doubled immediately after the Covid lockdown.
It went up to 7.91 per cent in December 2021 from 6.3 per cent in 2018-2019.
• Unemployment is more in the urban areas as compared to the rural areas.
• Unemployment among women is higher than men, both in urban as well as rural areas.
• Inflation is also soaring and leading to the various disbalances in the society such as:
• Poor families are not able to spend more money on nutrition, education etc.
• Fertiliser and diesel became so expensive that many sections of society are not able to sustain.
• High inflation changes consumer behaviour such as if prices are rising fast, it makes sense to buy things today rather
than wait for .
• Increasing inflation also hampers Human Development Indexes.
 15

• Higher inflation only going to make is vicious cycle by deterring the investment and as a result development and
unemployment.
Thus, welfare schemes are necessary to create an equitable and welfare state and for achieving the sustainable development
goal but at the same time a check on it need to be there.
17. Do you agree with the view that increasing dependence on donor agencies for development reduces the importance
of community participation in the development process? Justify your answer. 
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
Ans. Donor agencies are an important financial help when the projects that have been developed shall be carried out to meet the
strategic objectives.Donor Funded Projects (DFPs) are conceived as developmental projects meant to complement government
developmental initiatives to its populace.
Community participation is perceived to be an essential component in implementing development projects since people’s
needs are addressed best through participation
Why donor agencies for development are not reducing the importance of community participation in the development
process?
(1) Means Related to Community
• Donor funded projects reach the communities through various meanswhich include International Financial Institutions
(IFIs), United Nations (UN) Agencies thatprovides grants through government, UN institutions, non-governmental
organizations (NGOs),Community Based Organizations (CBOs) to initiate programs in the society.
(2) Community Essential Ingredient:
• Donors consider community participation in projects as an essential ingredient of development and eventually their
sustainability after the project cycle from the donor perspective.
(3) Goals consider the priorities of recipient:
• Development strategies must be developed by recipient countries (including governments and people) and they must
reflect the priorities of the recipients rather than those of donors.
(4) Sustainability of project depends on community empowerment
• Community mobilization and empowerment are important in donor funded projects and for its sustainability.
• For any donor funded project to succeed, it must link not only planning with action but also the aspect that community
stakeholders must demonstrate their ownership in the plan.
18. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 remains inadequate in promoting incentive-
based system for children’s education without generating awareness about the importance of schooling. Analyse
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
Ans. The Right to Education Act 2009, also known as the RTE Act 2009, was enacted by the Parliament of India on 4 August
2009. It describes modalities of the importance of free and compulsory education for children aged between 6-14 years in
India under Article 21 (A) of the Constitution of India.
Main provisions of the act are:
• Every child between the ages of six to fourteen years shall have the right to free and compulsory education in a neighbourhood
school, till completion of elementary education.
• The appropriate government and local authority shall establish a school, if it is not established, within the given area in
a period of three years from the commencement of this Act.
• The Central and the State Governments shall have concurrent responsibility for providing funds for carrying out the
provisions of this Act.
Problems with the Implementation:
• low teacher accountability and appraisal,
• Under the RTE Act, children are enrolled in the class that corresponds to their age, irrespective of their learning levels.
• The act allows only children between the ages 6-14 to get the privileges. 0 to 6 years is considered to be the delicate and
formative years in children’s upbringing and stopping at 14 means leaving the task half way Education up to the age 14
is not at all sufficient for a person to lead a minimum decent life.
• counseling of parents and community leaders are critical to retain girls in schools.preventing drop out of girls will have
generational impact. It also suggested that the family constraints predominantly cause girls dropping out, 32.5% at
secondary level.
• The Right to Education Act, 2009 has no provision to take education to children with disabilities
16

• A vital issue is that the relevant authorities have not kept traceable records of the 25% children, despite the RTE Act
prescribing it. This has made knowing the precise number of poor kids in private school difficult.
there are no prescribed penalties if the government authorities fail in discharging their respective duties.
19. How will I2U2 (India, Israel, UAE and USA) grouping transform India’s position in global politics?(Answer in 250
words) 15
Ans. The I2U2 Group is a grouping of India, Israel, UAE and US.I2U2 was initially formed in October, 2021 following the
Abraham Accord, to deal with issues concerning maritime security, infrastructure and transport.
The I2U2 bloc will focus on joint investments in six mutually identified areas such as water, energy, transportation, space,
health, and food security.
IMPORTANCE OF I2U2 IN INDIA’S RESPECT:
(1) India to play a prominent role in the geopolitics of West Asia
• India is the only country in the group that enjoys cordial relations with Iran. India could prove to be a vital link between
Iran and its adversaries. Thus, India would look forward to a greater role in the strategic and economic landscape of West
Asia.
(2) India to be the global hub of alternate supply chain
• Decision of the group to build the 300MW hybrid renewable energy project in Gujrat supplemented by a battery energy
storage system going to alter the supply chain. In long run it will make India alternative renewable energy hub and
diversify the supply chain mechanism.
(3) An impetus to the Indian agricultural system
• The investment in food parks will give an impetus to the Indian agricultural system as it will help in more agricultural
output with cooperation from the Israel-UAE state and private sector.
• The investment will enhance food security in the Gulf region, with India getting space to negotiate on energy security.
(4) I2U2
I2U2 will boost India’s project along with UAE and Saudi Arabia to build a connectivity corridor that runs from India to
the Arabian gulf across the Arabian Peninsula to Israel, Jordan and from there to the European Union.
(5) An impetus to entrepreneurial innovation
The investments in start-ups and their linkages with other countries will provide an impetus to entrepreneurial innovation
and the creation of more such ventures. Apart from the food security and start-up-oriented investment, the grouping also
benefits India with its Clean Energy initiative.
India should continue to diplomatically engage with West Asia to continue its multilateral approach to international relations
while also focusing on building more people-to-people contacts.
20. Clean energy is the order of the day.’ Describe briefly India’s changing policy towards climate change in various
international fora in the context of geopolitics. (Answer in 250 words) 15
Ans. India ranks 3rd in renewable energy country attractive index in 2021 and 3rd largest energy consuming country in the
world. India is becoming a strategically important actor in global climate negotiations. This reflects not only its rising economic
and geopolitical importance, but also a greater level of recent engagement by Indian representatives with international efforts
to reach a climate agreement.
India’s Changing Policy Towards Climate Change in various international fora
• Domestic policy action under the 2008 National Action Plan on Climate Change has been driven primarily by development
objectives, not least concerns about energy security and access. The 8 Missions under it shows how it is moving toward
Sustainable Development Goals.
• Indian climate diplomacy is now being woven into wider foreign policy objectives, particularly its strategically important
relationships with the United States and China.A desire to foster these relationships has motivated India to introduce
some flexibility to its previously fixed negotiating positions.
• India has aligned itself with the G20 mitigation strategies and becoming the voice of all the developing countries.
• The emergence of the BRICS, is an interesting new feature in the climate politics landscape. Though decision to align
with the other four carries some risk for India, But BRICS participation makes sense if seen in the context of India’s
wider foreign policy goals (i.e, building international status and cementing important economic relationships).
 Unit A : General Studies-1

101
Caste and Society
1.1 Caste Conflict

This topic is essentially a sociological topic. It may not be as important a topic as it used to be
earlier. However, even in the new age India, caste violence is a reality. Even if you do not get
a question directly on caste violence or conflict, an understanding of the subject will help you
analyze related questions on caste or society in India.

Caste-related violence it means duty) is generally accepted to be more

than 3,000 years old.
According to a report by Human Rights
Watch, discriminatory and cruel, inhuman, and Caste system and social stratification
degrading treatment of over 165 million people
Varna may be translated as “class,” and refers to
in India has been justified on the basis of caste.
the four social classes which existed in the Vedic
Caste is descent-based and hereditary in nature. It
society, namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas
is a characteristic determined by one's birth into a
and Shudras.
particular caste, irrespective of the faith practiced
by the individual. Caste denotes a traditional Jāti may be translated as caste, and refers to
system of rigid social stratification into ranked birth. The names of jātis are usually derived from
groups defined by descent and occupation. Caste occupations, and considered to be hereditary and
divisions in India dominate in housing, marriage, endogamous, but this may not always have been
employment, and general social interaction- the case. The jātis developed in post-Vedic times,
divisions that are reinforced through the practice possibly from crystallisation of guilds during its
and threat of social ostracism, economic boycotts, feudal era.
and physical violence.
All across India's densely populated north, an
Crimes against Dalits increased by 6% from 2009 emotional debate over affirmative action is
to 2018.The report, titled ‘Quest for Justice’ was igniting ancient hatreds over caste, the countless
released by the National Dalit Movement for separate social classes into which Hindus are born
Justice (NDMJ) – National Campaign for Dalit that affect virtually all aspects of their lives. The
Human Rights. The report also flagged the rise debate began in erudite courtrooms and political
in violence against Dalit and Adivasi women. halls but now threatens to trigger mass violence.
According to the Annual Crime in India Report
Conflicts involving caste issues, mainly concerning
2019 published by the National Crimes Records
the lowest caste rights, pervade modern Indian
Bureau, a crime against Schedule Castes and
society. Caste affiliation, being rigorously
Schedule Tribes has been recorded an increase of
enforced by the society, is an official contemporary
over 7% and 26% respectively in the year 2019.
reality. Although caste identity is a major social
The caste system divides Hindus into rigid discrimination, it also serves as a necessary
hierarchical groups based on their karma (work) condition for affirmative action like reservation
and dharma (the Hindi word for religion, but here policy. In this article, we perform an original
1
2

and rigorous analysis of the discourse involving based on statistical distributions and two-layer
the theme “caste” in India newspapers. To this neural networks, to detect the relevant topics
purpose, we have implemented a computational in the news and characterize their linguistic
analysis over a big dataset of the 2016 and 2017 context. We concluded that there is an excessive
editions of three major Indian newspapers to association between lower castes, victimization,
determine the most salient themes associated with and social unrest in the news that does not
“caste” in the news. We have used an original mix adequately cover the reports on other aspects
of state-of-the-art algorithms, including those

Opposition of Supreme Court Judgement

• The court had said that the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, popularly
known as the SC/ST Act, had been "misused" in the past but the order sparked massive outrage and the
federal government asked the court to review its decision
• Tens of thousands of Dalits recently took to the streets to protest against a Supreme Court ruling - they said
it sought to weaken a law that was designed to protect them.
• The exhibition's organisers say they chose these stories in response to the court's decision in the hope that
the law would not be diluted further. They say these cases - all from the western state of Maharashtra - show
that "the victims are ready to fight but there was no mechanism to help them".
• Despite the laws to protect Dalits, more than 40,000 crimes against lower castes were reported in 2016
alone, according to official statistics. In the past, conflicts between Dalits and upper castes were restricted
to fights over land, wages, water, housing and the practice of untouchability.
• However, according to activists, rising aspirations among young Dalits have fuelled violence against them
by upper-caste community members who are unable to accept this.

Caste Related Issues between lower castes, victimization, and social

unrest in the news that does not adequately cover
Conflicts involving caste issues, mainly concerning
the reports on other aspects of their life and
the lowest caste rights, pervade modern Indian
personal identity, thus reinforcing conflict, while
society. Caste affiliation, being rigorously
attenuating the vocality and agency of a large
enforced by the society, is an official contemporary
section of the population. From our conclusion,
reality. Although caste identity is a major social
we propose a positive discrimination policy in the
discrimination, it also serves as a necessary
newsroom.
condition for affirmative action like reservation
policy. In this article, we perform an original According to Humans Rights Watch, in 2016,
and rigorous analysis of the discourse involving although having taken some important strides
the theme “caste” in India newspapers. To this with legal reforms with respect to the treatment
purpose, we have implemented a computational of vulnerable populations, the Indian government
analysis over a big dataset of the 2016 and 2017 failed to implement laws to protect Dalits and
editions of three major Indian newspapers to tribal groups from discrimination and violence.
determine the most salient themes associated with Despite a right to education law that mandated
“caste” in the news. We have used an original mix free and compulsory elementary education for
of state-of-the-art algorithms, including those all children, discrimination against children from
based on statistical distributions and two-layer Dalit, tribal and Muslim communities led to high
neural networks, to detect the relevant topics in the dropout rates among these children. Violence and
news and characterize their linguistic context. We conflict are frequent between castes. Violence
concluded that there is an excessive association against lower castes and outcastes is rendered
2
 3

banal by being woven into the fabric of everyday view of the lower 25% of the Indian population
life, it is also conducted through spectacular acts. are unlikely to be known. Much less is broadcast
Dalits are raped and murdered for daring to aspire or written about. Dalits and lower caste have a
to land, electricity, drinking water and to non-Dalit problem of agency and self-expression within
partners. mainstream media. They may appear as violated
or humiliated but their voice, will and hope, does
The 2016 report of the National Crimes Record
not exist because newsrooms do not have SC/ST
Bureau depicts crimes against SC/ST that are
representatives.
those registered under SC/ST Prevention of
Atrocities Act (PoA Act). The report concerning Caste Related Issues
19 large cities with population over 2 million, not
Conflicts involving caste issues, mainly concerning
only rural areas where caste conflict are known as
the lowest caste rights, pervade modern Indian
more common, shows that urban caste violence is
society. Caste affiliation, being rigorously
not negligible. In many cases government officials
enforced by the society, is an official contemporary
usually are not held accountable and impunity
reality. Although caste identity is a major social
persists for police and other security personnel
discrimination, it also serves as a necessary
who are shielded by laws.
condition for affirmative action like reservation
Indian Constitution and Caste System policy. In this article, we perform an original
and rigorous analysis of the discourse involving
The Indian Constitution imposes equal treatment
the theme “caste” in India newspapers. To this
for every citizen irrespective of caste or creed,
purpose, we have implemented a computational
however the most important part of the lives of as
analysis over a big dataset of the 2016 and 2017
much as one-quarter of the population belonging
editions of three major Indian newspapers to
to the lower caste do not exist on the news. Very
determine the most salient themes associated with
frequently, as audience demands it, news media
“caste” in the news. We have used an original mix
report passionates episodes involving violence
of state-of-the-art algorithms, including those
and conflict associated with caste and religious
based on statistical distributions and two-layer
fights, eventually with some political tone and
neural networks, to detect the relevant topics in the
usually, they vocally signals the existence of social
news and characterize their linguistic context. We
discrimination. However stories reporting the
concluded that there is an excessive association
individuality, the normal life or any autonomous
between lower castes, victimization, and social
view of the lower 25% of the Indian population
unrest in the news that does not adequately cover
are unlikely to be known. Much less is broadcast
the reports on other aspects of their life and
or written about. Dalits and lower caste have a
personal identity, thus reinforcing conflict, while
problem of agency and self-expression within
attenuating the vocality and agency of a large
mainstream media. They may appear as violated
section of the population. From our conclusion,
or humiliated but their voice, will and hope, does
we propose a positive discrimination policy in the
not exist because newsrooms do not have SC/ST
newsroom.
representatives.
much as one-quarter of the population belonging
to the lower caste do not exist on the news. Very
frequently, as audience demands it, news media
report passionates episodes involving violence
and conflict associated with caste and religious
fights, eventually with some political tone and
usually, they vocally signals the existence of social
discrimination. However stories reporting the
individuality, the normal life or any autonomous
3
 02
1.2 Role of Caste in Politics

Caste continues to play a dominant role in politics even today. Understanding of this topic will
enable students to handle the analysis of questions on Indian politics. The students of sociology
and political science optional paper will find this topic useful in the exam.

Influence of Caste on Politics use caste as a means for securing votes in elections.
BSP banks upon the support of Scheduled Castes
Different caste groups have their loyalties behind
while the BJP largely banks upon its popularity
political parties and their ideologies. Right from
among caste Hindu and the trading community.
birth an Indian citizen inherits a caste and grows up
as a member of a particular caste group. He belongs Caste based Pressure Groups
either to one of the high castes or to scheduled
There are so many caste based pressure groups in
castes. In the process of picking up his political India which try to promote and protect the interest
orientations, attitudes, and beliefs, he naturally of particular caste and for this purpose they keep
comes under the influence of caste groups and putting pressure on governments the pressure groups
casteism. Caste values and caste interests influence like scheduled caste federation, Arya Samaj Sabha,
their socialization and consequently their political Sanatan Dharam Sabha etc, are such pressure groups
thinking, conscience, and participation. He bets on Who work for the protection of the interests of a
caste solidarity to occupy and play a leadership particular community.
recruiting role. Caste Influences Leadership
Recruitment Process. This is particularly true of The caste factor is an important determinant of
caste-conscious people of States like Haryana, electoral politics in India. While nominating
Tamil Nadu, Bihar, and Andhra Pradesh. In Andhra their candidates from different constituencies
Pradesh Reddys, Karmas and Valamas, provide the political parties keep in mind the cast of
state leaders. candidate and cast of the voters in that particular
constituency. As a result of this candidate is sure
Caste factor and Indian party system to get the votes of voters of his caste. In electoral
The caste factor is a component of the Indian party constituencies dominated by Muslims, Muslim
system. In India, there are so many caste-based candidates are deployed and in areas dominated by
political parties that try to promote and protect Jats, Jat candidates are deployed. Even secularist
the interest of a particular caste. The regional parties like Congress, Janata Dal, CPI, and CPM
political parties, in particular, stand predominantly take into consideration caste fact in selecting their
influenced by the caste factor. DMK and AIADMK candidates.
are non-Brahmin and non-Brahmin political Election campaigns and Caste
parties from Tamil Nadu. In Punjab, Akali Dal has
a community identity. It stands influenced by the In the election campaigns, votes are demanded
issue of jats vs. nonjats. All political parties in India in the names of caste. Caste groups are tapped
 5

for committed support N.D. Palmer has rightly Caste in local self-government
observed that Caste considerations are given
The role of caste in the working of Panchayati Raj
great weight in the selection of candidates and in
and other institutions of local self-government has
the appeals to voters during election campaigns.
been recognized reality. Castebased factionalism
In elections, caste is the most important political
in rural areas of India has been the most major
party. The Candidates asked for votes in the name
hindering factor in the organization and effective
of caste and they raise thecaste-based slogan like
working of Panchayati Raj. In the rural Indian
“jat ki beti jat ko, jat ki vote jat ko”. Such slogans
context, the caste was a mobilization of the
do have an effect on voters and they cast their vote
communication channel, representation, and
in favour of the candidate belonging to their caste.
leadership and a link between the electoral process
Caste acts as a dividing and cohesive force and the political process.
in Indian politics It provides a basis for the
Caste-based violence
emergence of several interest groups in the Indian
Political System each of which competes with all Caste-based violence often finds its way into
other groups in the struggle for power. At times politics. The traditional differences between
it leads to an unhealthy struggle for power and higher and lower castes become vigorous and have
acts as a divisive force however, it is a source of turned into a violent and fierce struggle for power
unity among the members of groups and acts as in society. The growing terrorization of the lower
a cohesive force. In rural India, where the social castes by the higher or even intermediary castes
universe of the rural power is limited to an area has been becoming a part of rural India’s political
of 15 to 20 km, caste acts as unifying forces. It is reality. In states like Maharashtra, Bihar, Gujarat
the only social group they understand. Existence and U.P caste violence has raised its head even in
of caste groups also leads to factionalism. Caste some urban areas. However, until today most of
as such is a factor in Indian politics and it acts as the castebased violence continues to characterize
cohesive as well as a divisive factor. rural politics.
As caste is an important characteristic of Indian The provisions of the reservation made in the
society and acts as a dominant factor in various constitution have proved counterproductive also as
political processes, it also plays a key role in the non-scheduled castes, have also started putting
decision making. Even the issue of reorganization pressure on the government to make provisions of
of State was handled with an eye upon the reservation for them.
prevention of undue predominance of a caste group
The provisions made for the protection of interests
in a particular territory. The caste factor affects
of scheduled castes have also disturbed the social
state government policies and decisions. The
harmony in the Indian society and have created so
ruling party tries to use its decision-making power
many social and political tensions. The society has
to win the favour of major caste groups. Congress
got divided into lower caste and higher caste.
has always tried to nurture people belonging to
Scheduled Castes as its vote banks. Regional The bureaucracy also gets influenced by the
political power for furthering the interests of the caste as mostly, the postings, transfers, and
caste groups which support or can support their appointments of public officials get influenced by
regimes. The constitution of India provides for a the caste considerations. In these days the interest
single unified electorate and advocates the spirit of a particular caste are kept in mind while running
of caste free politics and administration. However, the administration.
the caste factor always acts as a determinant
Conclusion
of people’s voting behaviour, their political
participation, the party structure and even of the Lastly concluding, there is a close relationship
governmental decision-making. between caste and politics in India and both
influence each other. Caste is an important
5
6

component of the social system in India has made from the marginalized communities. People want
its special place in the Indian political system at development and want their voices to listen.
various levels. Casteism is the biggest challenge The political leaders will have to democratize
for Indian democracy. Democracy and Casteism themselves and try their best to fulfill the basic
are opposed to each other. India has adopted the needs of the common man American political
liberal democratic system, which is mainly based experts I. Rudolf and S.H. Rudolf in their book
on equality, freedom, and justice. Caste stands for “Modernity ofTradition” hold the view that
inequality based on birth. Caste loyalties other caste politics in India hasreduced the divergence
ethnic factors really divide the Indian political among caste and has brought about political non-
parties and but not the ideological differences. discrimination among the members of different
castes. Our education system must inculcate the
Election campaigns are conducted along caste
values of equality and fraternal bonds among all
lines and violence in polls is usually caste-based
the citizens. It is essential for nation-building. The
violence. Politics has become caste-ridden and
government should ensure that the operation of
castes have got politicized. Caste groups use
political practices and system are just and equal to
politics as the means to secure their benefits. The
all groups, regions, and communities.
democratization process will bring new leaders

6
 2 History of painting music &
dance in iNdia

Introduction

Art is a visual documentary, as an artist consciously or unconsciously represents the age in which he lives. Marx and Engels
have rightly emphasised that man’s aesthetic sense is not an inborn but socially acquired quality, and art is the form of social
consciousness. Various art forms, including pictorial art, which are based on the living traditions, should be considered as an
important source of information of contemporary life style. Art is the visual language and expresses the world around us. It is
a sort of conversation with the society. It does not mean that literary evidences are of no use.
They are certainly valuable but they cannot give us completely, authentic information of the distant past. They may contain
poetic fancies and imaginative descriptions, laudatory expression or exaggerated accounts but archaeological evidences do
enable us to visualise them more critically and therefore generalisations made from these findings are relatively more precise
and authentic than those based on literary material alone.

Culture plays an important role in the development of any Ancient Indian Paintings
nation. It represents a set of shared attitudes, values, goals and •• Ancient Indian art has seen the rise of the Bengal
practices. Culture and creativity manifest themselves in almost School of Art in 1930s pursued by a lot of forms of
all economic, social and other activities. A country as diverse experimentations in European and Indian styles. With the
as India is symbolized by the plurality of its culture. development of the economy the forms and styles of art
India has one of the world’s largest collections of songs, also undergo many changes.
music, dance, theatre, folk traditions, performing arts, rites •• Monuments of the exceptional value are Bhimbetka
and rituals, paintings and writings that are known, as the Rock Shelters, here, more than 500 smaller rocks and
‘Intangible Cultural Heritage’ (ICH) of humanity. caves contains thousands of paintings. Some of the oldest
Indian Painting paintings here are more than 15,000 years old, and in
some cases it is 30,000 years old.
Painting as an art form has flourished i–n India from very •• The prehistoric art from is spread all over India from
early periods as is evident from literary sources and from the snow covered Himalayas to south of Tamil Nadu.
remnants that have been discovered. Numerous paintings or •• Indian Cave Paintings are regarded as the earliest
Patas are mentioned in the Mudrakshaka. There are isolated evidences of Indian paintings which are made on cave
paintings like the Yama–pata; isolated framed drawings walls and palaces while miniature paintings are small-
like Cauka–patas and the Dighala–patas or long scroll of sized colourful, intricate handmade illumination.
paintings, representing a complete legend. In another book •• This starts from prehistoric cave painting of Bhimbetka
Vishnudharmottara, the section Chitrasutra describes the basic and flourishes through cave paintings of Ajanta caves,
tenets of painting. The six limbs of painting are: variety of Ellora caves and Bagh.
form, proportion, infusion of emotions, creation of luster and
iridescence, portrayal of likeness and colour mixing to produce Medieval Indian Paintings
the effect of modelling. •• During the Medieval period, India observed important
development in the field of art of painting. The Medieval
 9
India is the part of Indian history between the 8th century •• Stories are drawn in sections on palm leaf as etchings or
and the 18th century AD. as paintings on paper and silk.
•• The Persian tradition of miniature painting was also first •• Modern developments have encouraged them to paint on
introduced by the local rulers. It was during Akbar’s wooden boxes, picture frames etc. for contemporary use.
supremacy that the painting was organized by a grand •• Paintings are based on Hindu Mythology and specially
concern which brought jointly Hindu and Muslim painters inspired by Jagannath and Vaishnava cult.
and artisans from diverse parts of India, particularly, from •• Paintings are done on small strips of cotton cloth. The
regions like Gujarat and Malwa where manuscripts and canvas is prepared by coating the cloth with a mixture
miniature paintings had developed. of chalk and gum made from tamarind seeds. Women
Mughal Paintings mainly describes Indo-Islamic design of traditionally make this gum and application.
painting and flourished in the ateliers of Mughal emperors •• The master hand, mostly the male member, draws the
including Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Tanjore Paintings initial line and gives the final finishing.
are classical South Indian form of painting which evolved in •• The painting is held over a fire-place so that the back
the village of Thanjavur. of the painting is exposed to heat. On the surface of the
Rajasthani paintings are miniature paintings of the finest painting fine lacquer is applied.
quality, which are made both on paper and on large pieces of •• Natural colours are used.
cloth. A number of famous schools of painting are Mewar, •• Tala Pattachitra is one variant of this form, drawn on palm
Hadoti, Marwar, Kishangarh, Alwar and Dhundhar. It is also leaf.
known as Rajput Paintings and has clear influence of Mughal Bengal Painting
paintings though it is quite unique in its own way. Pahari
•• The Bengal School of Art was an influential style of art
Painting is the miniature painting evolved in the hilly states
that flourished in India during the British Raj in the early
of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir during the
20th Century.
period of Rajputs. These paintings have beautiful scenes of
•• It was associated with Indian nationalism, but was
Himalaya as the backdrop.
also supported and promoted by many British art
Modern Indian Paintings administrators.
Glass painting in India is a new concept and is extremely •• The Bengal School’s influence in India declined with the
wonderful for its clarity and richness of colours. Patachitra spread of modernist ideas in the 1920s.
flourished in the state of Odisha and is made on cloth with •• The indigenous art from belongs to Bengal and very
extremely vivid colours and mythology-based subject. interestingly it depicts spoof on retrograde social
Kalighat pots are another form, which are made on earthen practices, thus attempting to highlight them for change.
pot or cloth. These are mainly used as wall hangings. Marble •• Artists use dye that are made of spices, earth, soot etc. and
painting is also a type of modern Indian painting which is made particularly red, indigo, green , black and ochre colours
on exquisite marble stones. Marble paintings are mainly used are seen widely in such painting.
for decorative purpose, especially on tabletop, furniture and Madhubani Painting
flower vases. The Indian artists adopted Indian Oil painting as •• Madhubani painting originated in a small village
a unique technique of art and Raja Ravi Verma was considered known as Maithili of Bihar. Initially, the women folk
to be the pioneer who made this new medium popular in India. of the village drew the paintings on the walls of their
The tradition of painting has been carried on in the Indian home, as an illustration of their thoughts, hopes and
subcontinent since the ancient times. Standing as a testimony to dreams.
this fact are the exquisite murals of Ajanta and Ellora, Buddhist •• The brush used for Madhubani paintings of Bihar was
palm leaf manuscripts, Mughal and Kangra schools of miniature made of cotton, wrapped around a bamboo stick.
Indian paintings, etc. In fact records have been found that indicate •• The artists prepare the colours that are used for the
the usage of paintings for decorating the doorways, guest rooms, paintings. Black color is made by adding soot to cow
etc. Some traditional Indian paintings, like those of Ajanta, Bagh dung; yellow from combining turmeric (or pollen or
and Sittanvasal, depict a love for nature and its forces. lime) with the milk of banyan leaves; blue from indigo;
With time, Indian classical paintings evolved to become a sort red from the kusam flower juice or red sandalwood; green
of blend of the various traditions influencing them. Even the from the leaves of the wood apple tree; white from rice
folk painting of India has become quite popular amongst art powder and orange from palasha flower.
lovers, both at the national as well as the international level. •• No space is left empty: gaps are filled in with paintings of
Most of the folk paintings reflect a heavy influence of the flowers, animals, birds and geometric designs.
local customs and traditions. In the following lines, we have •• Artists use natural dyes and pigment extracted from
provided information on the famous paintings of India. leaves, herbs and flowers.
Famous Indian Paintings Miniature Painting
Patachitra •• Miniature paintings are handmade paintings, which are
quite colourful, but small in size.
•• The patachitra of Orissa depicts stories from the famous
•• The peculiarity of these paintings is the intricate and
poem, the Geet Govind, and devotional stanzas by ancient
delicate brush work, which lends them a unique identity.
poets, singers and writers.
 10
•• The Palas of Bengal were the pioneers of miniature •• Every scene is surrounded by floral decorative patterns.
painting in India. •• These paintings are made on cloth. They are very durable
•• The highlight of these paintings is the intricate and and flexible in size and made according to theme.
delicate brushwork, which lends them a unique identity. •• The artists use a bamboo or date palm stick pointed at one
•• The colours are handmade, from minerals, vegetables, end with a bundle of fine hair attached to the other end to
precious stones, indigo, conch shells, pure gold and silver. serve as brush or pen.
•• The most common theme of the Miniature painting of •• The kalamkari dyes are obtained by extracting colours
India comprises of the Ragas i.e., the musical codes of from plant roots, leaves, along with salts of iron, tin,
Indian classical music. There were a number of miniature copper, alum etc.
schools in the country, including those of Mughals, Warli Paintings
Rajputs and the Deccan.
•• Warli folk art has its origins in Maharashtra.
•• The Ragamala paintings also belong to this school, as
•• It is widely practised in the Northern Sahyadri region by
does the Company painting produced for British clients
the Adivasis (tribes).
under the British Raj.
•• Elements of nature are the focal points of Warli folk
Tanjore Painting paintings. A mixture of rice paste, gum and water is used
•• Tanjore Painting is one of the most popular forms of as paint by the warlis. A bamboo stick is used as the brush.
classical South Indian painting. •• It is vivid expression of daily & social events of Warli
•• It is the native art form of Thanjavur (also known as tribe, used by then to embellish the walls of village houses.
Tanjore) city of Tamil Nadu. The dense composition, Women are mainly engaged don’t depict mythological
surface richness and vibrant colors of Thanjavur Paintings character/images of deities but depict social life.
distinguish them from the other types of paintings. Then, •• It uses very shapes: a circle, a triangle and a square.
there are embellishments of semi-precious stones, pearls The circle represents the sun and the moon, the triangle
and glass pieces that further add to their appeal. derived from mountains and pointed trees, the square
•• The relief work gives them a three dimensional effect. indicates a sacred enclosure or a piece of land.
Tanjore Painting of India originated during the 16th •• Painted on austre mud base using one color. In this sax to
century, under the reign of the Cholas. see straight line.
•• Vishnu, Shiva & Krishna favorite of artist •• Human and animal bodies are represented by two triangles
•• Made for ritual & worship and not for display joined at the tip; the upper triangle depicts the trunk and
•• Paintings were made on Jack wood posted with the lower triangle the pelvis. Their precarious equilibrium
unbleached cloth brilliant colour schemes, jewellery with symbolizes the balance of the universe.
stones and copper glasses & remarkable gold leaf work to Gond Art
which a mixture of list, chalk, gum honey are applied in
•• Gond art encompasses life as the central theme of art. It is
layers on a sketch of the icon.
practised by “Gondi” tribe of Central India.
•• Background always painted Red/Green.
•• The art form celebrates life i.e., hills, streams, animals,
•• Baby Krishna is white but as an adult blue.
birds etc. The tribes traditionally painted on the mud
•• Outlines of figures are in a dark reddish brown.
walls of their house.
•• Belong to Maratha Period them mythological.
•• Produced by the Santhals in India.
Kalamkari Painting •• Mainly found in Gond tribe of the Godavari belt.
•• Kalamkari or “pen craft” of Srikalahasti, is executed with •• Highly sophisticated and abstract form of Art works.
a kalam or pen, used for free hand drawing of the subject Basholi Paintings
and filling in the colours, entirely by hand. Paintings are
•• Basholi is a small town in Kathua district of Jammu and
usually hand-painted or block-printed on cotton textile.
Kashmir. It was founded by Raja Bhupat Pal in circa 1635
•• This style grew around temples and had a distinctly
and is renowned for a special and vibrant style of Pahari
religious identity - scrolls, temple hangings, deities and
miniature paintings.
scenes from the great Hindu epics.
•• Basholi Paintings are considered the first school of Pahari
•• The Machilipatnam style tends to have more block
paintings. This style evolved into the much prolific
printing. However, both use only vegetable colours.
Kangra paintings school by mid-eighteenth century. It is
•• These paintings are made in Andhra Pradesh.
marked by bold stokes of primary colours and deep set
•• It is hand painted as well as block printing with vegetable
facial patterns.
dyes applied on cloth.
•• Basohli Paintings Geometrical patterns, bright colors and
•• Vegetable dyes are used for colour in the Kalam Kari
glossy enamel characterize Basohli paintings.
work.
•• The style developed under the patronage of Raja Kripal
•• A small place Sri-Kalahasti is the best known centre of
Pal and was truly unconventional, rich and highly
Kalamkari art.
vigorous.
•• This art is mainly related to decorating temple interiors
•• It is endowed with intricate geometrical designs,
with painted cloth panels, which was developed in the
monochrome background, gloss finishes and dramatic
fifteenth century under the patronage of Vijaynagar rulers.
compositions with imposing figures with decorative attire,
 11
a special focus on eyes, use of beetles wings for showing •• In these paintings, the faces of women in profile have the
diamonds in ornaments, narrow sky and red border. nose almost in line with the forehead, the eyes are long &
•• The wondrous paintings have also given shape to narrow, & chin is sharp.
many illustrations of Hindu Gods viz. Radha-Krishna; •• There is, however, no modelling of figures and hair is
Madhava-Malti and even themes from Bhagvata Purana. treated as a flat mass.
Bundi Paintings •• Paintings of the Kangra style are attributed mainly to the
Nainsukh family
•• The Bundi style of painting is very close to the Mewar
style, but the former excels the latter in quality. Kishangarh (Banithani) Painting
•• Bundi School Concentrated on court scheme, many scenes •• Offshoot of Jodhpur school, rose around the personality
of nobles, lovers & ladies in palaces were produced. of Raja Samant Singh (1748-64)
•• The peculiar characteristics of the Bundi painting are the •• Popular subject loves of ‘Radha & Krishna’
rich and glowing colors, the rising sun in golden colour, •• Nihalchand developed ‘Mannerist’ style which
crimson-red horizon, overlapping and semi-naturalistic exaggerated the slender curves and almond eyes of his
trees. figures the facial type, though idealized, is extremely
•• The Mughal influence is visible in the refined drawing of lyrical in the beauty contest.
the faces and an element of naturalism in the treatment •• The painting is marked by delicate drawing, fine
of the trees. The text is written in black against yellow modelling of the human figures and cows and the broad
background on the top. vista of landscape showing a stream, rows of overlapping
•• Prominent features → Rich and glowing colours, the trees, and architecture.
rising sun in golden colour, crimson-red horizon, border •• The artist has displayed a masterly skill in the grouping of
in brilliant red colour (in Rasikpriya series) many figures in the miniature. The painting has a golden
•• Notable examples → Bhairavi Ragini (Allahabad inner border.
Museum), illustrated manuscript of the Bhagawata Purana •• Distinguished by its individualistic facial type and its
(Kota Museum) & a series of the Rasikapriya (National religious intensity
Museum, Delhi) •• Men and women are drawn with pointed noses and chins,
Kalighat Painting deeply curved eyes, and serpentine locks of hair
•• Their action is frequently shown to occur in large
•• Patua painters from rural Bengal came and settled in panoramic landscapes
Kalighat to make images of gods and goddesses in the
early 19th century Rajput Painting
•• They evolved a quick method of painting on mill-made •• The art of the independent Hindu feudal states in India
paper •• Unlike Mughal paintings which were contemporary in
•• Used brush and ink from the lampblack style, Rajput paintings were traditional & romantic
•• Has five distinctive styles – Bharni, Katchni, Tantrik, •• Rajput painting is further divided into Rajasthani painting
Godna and Gobar and Pahari painting (art of the Himalayan kingdoms)
•• Bharni, Kachni and Tantrik style were mainly done Mysore Painting
Brahman & Kayashth women, who are upper caste •• Mysore Painting is a form of classical South Indian
women in India and Nepal painting, which evolved in the Mysore city of Karnataka.
•• Godna & Gobar style is done by the Dalit & Dushadh •• During that time, Mysore was under the reign of the
communities Wodeyars and it was under their patronage that this school
•• These paintings on paper made with water colours of painting reached its zenith.
comprise clear sweeping line drawings using bright •• Quite similar to the Tanjore Paintings, Mysore Paintings
colours and a clear background. Subjects are images of of India make use of thinner gold leaves and require
Kali, Lakshmi, Krishna, Ganesha, Shiva, and other gods much more hard work. The most popular themes of these
and goddesses. paintings include Hindu Gods and Goddesses and scenes
•• This painting form has its roots in the culture upheavds of from Hindu mythology.
19th century colonial Bengal. •• The grace, beauty and intricacy of Indian Mysore
•• Kalighat paintings became the best mirror of this cultural Paintings leave the onlookers mesmerized.
and aesthetic shift. •• Indian Mysore School of paintings exists in Mysore, Bangalore,
Kangra Painting Narasipura, Tumkur, Sravanabelagola and Nanjangud.
•• The Kangra style is developed out of the Guler style & Mughal Painting
possesses its main characteristics, like the delicacy of •• Mainly confined to miniature illustrations on the books or
drawing & naturalism as single works to be kept in an album
•• The Kangra style continued to flourish at various places •• Mughal paintings were a unique blend of Indian, Persian
namely Kangra, GuIer, Basohli, Chamba, Jammu, Nurpur (Safavi) and Islamic styles
and Garhwal etc. •• Marked by supple naturalism → Primarily aristocratic
•• However, Named as Kangra style as they are identical in and secular
style to the portraits of Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra
 12
•• Tried to paint the classical ragas and Seasons or baramasa •• Experiments on rich colour schemes and varied
•• Tuti-nama - first art work of the Mughal School. expressions happened during this period.
•• Akbar’s reign (1556–1605) ushered a new era in Indian •• Hamza-nama (illustrations on cloth)- more developed and
miniature painting. refined than Tuti-nama.
•• At Zenith under Jahangir who himself was a famous •• Akbar was the first monarch to establish an atelier in
painter India under the supervision of two Persian master artists,
•• Jahangir encouraged artists to paint portraits and durbar Mir Sayyed Ali & Abdus Samad. More than a hundred
scenes. painters were employed, most of whom were Hindus
•• Shah Jahan (1627–1658) continued the patronage of from Gujarat, Gwalior and Kashmir, who gave a birth to
painting. a new school of painting, popularly known as the Mughal
•• Aurangzeb had no taste for fine arts. School of miniature paintings.
•• Most significant are Hamza Nama, Razm-Nama or “The Mural Painting
Book of War”, Akbar Nama
•• Mural is inherently different from all other forms of
•• Finest example of this school includes Hamzanama
pictorial art & is organically connected with architecture.
series, started in 1567 & completed in 1582
•• Mural is the only form of painting that is truly three-
•• Hamzanama → Stories of Amir Hamza, illustrated by Mir dimensional, since it modifies and partakes of a given space.
Sayyid Ali •• Mural paintings are applied on dry wall with the major
•• 1200 paintings on themes of Changeznama, Zafarnama use of egg, yolk, oil, etc.
& Ramayana •• A mural artist must conceive pictorially a theme on
•• The paintings of the Hamzanama are of large size, 20” × the appropriate scale with reference to the structural
27” and were painted on cloth. exigencies of the wall & to the idea expressed.
•• They are in the Persian safavi style with dominating •• The history of Indian murals starts in ancient & early medieval
colours being red, blue and green times, from 2nd century BC to 8th – 10th century AD.
•• Indian tones appear in later work, when Indian artists
•• Notable examples → Ajanta Caves, Bagh Caves,
were employed.
Sittanavasal Caves, Armamalai Cave (Tamil Nadu),
•• Akbar and Jehangir encouraged the illustration of epics
Kailasa temple (Ellora Caves)
and histories, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Akbarnama and
•• Murals from this period depict mainly religious themes of
Hamzanama.
Buddhist, Jain and Hindu.

Paintings Themes
Ajanta Paintings The themes of most of these paintings revolve around the life and teachings of Lord Buddha. This
includes the Jataka stories related to the various lives and incarnations of Buddha.
Ellora Paintings The rock paintings of Ellora were painted in two different series. The first series, which
were done when the caves were carved, revolve around Lord Vishnu and Goddess Lakshmi.
The second series, painted centuries later, illustrate procession of Shaiva holy men, Apsaras, etc. It
also included Jataka tales and Jain text
Bagh Paintings Paintings are both secular and religious (Buddhism is main inspiration ). Painting style is influenced
by Ajanta.
Sittanavasal Paintings The themes of these paintings include animals, fish, ducks, people collecting lotuses from a pond, two
dancing figures, etc. Apart from that, one can also find inscriptions dating back to the 9th and 10th
century. Jainism is main inspiration.
Badami Paintings Petronised by Chalukyas. It was inspired by Vaishaivism. Paintings in this cave depict palace scenes.
Pandyas paintings Jains texts, female figures, etc.
Pallavas paintings Beautiful lotus pond and flowers, dancing figures, lilies, fish, geese, buffaloes and elephants.
Chola paintings The paintings celebrate Lord Shiva.
Vijayanagara Paintings The paintings about the life and times of the Vijayanagara court.
Nayaka Paintings Depicting the story of Mucukunda, a legendary Chola king

Kolam Painting •• Kolam marks festivals, seasons and important events

•• Kolam is a ritualistic design drawn at the threshold of in a woman’s life such as birth, first menstruation and
households and temples. marriage.
•• It is drawn everyday at dawn and dusk by women in •• Kolam is a free-hand drawing with symmetrical and neat
South India. geometrical patterns.
 13
Phad Painting •• The main themes of the phad paintings depict the deities
•• Phad is a type of scroll painting. and their legends and the stories of erstwhile Maharajas.
•• This type of painting is a most famous painting of •• The unique features of phad paintings are the bold lines
Rajasthan, mainly found in the Bhilwara district. and a two dimensional treatment of figures with the entire
composition arranged in sections.

Personalities of Indian Painting

Rabindranath Tagore 1861 -1941 He started painting from 1893 onwards and emerged as a creative exponent of graphic
art in 1928. Tagore’s best known painting, Bharat Mata, depicted a young woman,
portrayed with four arms in the manner of Hindu, deities, holding objects symbolic
of India’s national aspirations
Abanindranath Tagore 1871 -1951 His first expression of paintings was Radhakrishna series. His set of paintings called
Krishnalila (1896) is a synthesis of the Indian and European styles. His Arabian
Nights series (1930) is among his most renowned works. He established the Indian
Society of Oriental Art in 1907.
Nandlal Bose 1882 -1966 He was the student of Abanindranath Tagore. He was influenced by the Upanishads,
Ajantha Paintings, Mughal Miniatures. He focused on the different levels of
individual creativity and created a new conceptual base for Indian Art. His work
Suttee won him a prize in the exhibition of Indian Society of Oriental Arts.
Jamini Roy 1887 -1972 He was greatly impressed by the kalighat paintings. His pictures are bold and statre.
He used mineral and vegetable dyes popularly used in the villages to identify with
the village ethos. He used cloth, wood and other materials in place of the canvas. He
is the recipient of the Padma Bhushan Award (1955).
Amrita Shergil 1913 -1941 She was one of India’s first modernist painters. Her work showed the fusion of the
Eastern and Western style. Her painting shows her concern for poverty. She used real
models and monochromatic colour at times for her paintings. Some of her famous
paintings are Bride’s Toilet, Hill women, Siesta, Nudes, Brahmacharis etc. She died
at the age of 28.
S.H. Raza 1922-2016 Syed Haider Raza is an eminent Indian Artist who has lived and worked in France
since 1950. His works are mainly abstracts in oil or acrylic, with a very rich use of
colour. He was awarded the Padmashree and Fellowship of the Lalit Kala Academy
in 1981 and Padma Bhushan in 2007.
M.F. Hussain 1915-2011 He is considered as India’s leading artist. He paints in black social environment,
often using distorted human figures, horses and objects. A times he uses highly
violent distortions in form and colour to display emotions
Tyeb Mehta 1925 -2009 He was a famous Indian painter. His noted works were the ‘Diagonal Series’
Santiniketan, Kali, Mahishasura etc. He was part of the noted Bombay progressive
Artists Group
Satish Gujral 1925 He is a painter, sculptor, muralist and architect in one. He works with several mediums
like paint, clay, ceramic, wood, glass and metal. His dynamic social - realistic paints
can be seen in the paintings of partition (revolution) which shows influence of
Mexican grotesque distortion. He was awarded Padma Vibhushan in 1999.
Raja Ravi Varma 1848 - 1906 He introduced oil painting in India. Ravi Varma is particularly noted for his paintings
depicting episodes from the story of Dushyanta and Shakuntala, and Nala and
Damayanti, from the Mahabharata. His paintings are considered to be among the
best examples of the fusion of Indian traditions with the techniques of European
academic art.

Indian Music Narada introduced the art of music to the earth and the sound
that pervades the whole universe, The ‘Samaveda’ is believed
Origin And History of Indian Music to contain all the seven notes of the raga ‘karaharapriya’.
Indian music has a very long, unbroken tradition and is an The earliest reference to musical theory is found in
accumulated heritage of centuries. It is believed that sage ‘Rikpratisakhya’ (400 B.C,). Bharata’s ‘Natya Shastra’ (4th
 14
century A. D.) contains several chapters on music and it is Hindustani Music
probably the first work that clearly elaborated the octava and •• The Hindustani music originated in North India in the
divided it into twenty two keys. Saranga Deva in his work 13th and 14th century. The Hindustani music has elements
‘Sangeeta Ratnakara’ defined almost 264 ragas and described of ancient Hindu tradition, Vedic philosophy and Persian
the various ‘microtones’. The other significant works on tradition as well.
Indian music include Matanga’s ‘Brihaddesi’ (9th century •• It is based on Raga system. The Raga is a melodic scale
A.D.), Narada’s ‘Sangeeta Makaranda’ (11th century A.D.), comprising of basic seven notes. Hindustani Music is
Ramamatya’s ‘Swaramela Kalanidhi’ (16th century A.D.) and vocal-centric.
Venkatamakhi’s ‘Chaturdandi-prakssika’ (17th century A.D.). •• The major vocal forms associated with Hindustani
Raga & Tala Concept in Indian Music classical music are the Khayal, Ghazal, Dhrupad,
In the Indian Classical Music, Raga is the basis of Dhammar, Hori, Tarana, Tappa, Chaturang, Ragasagar
melody and Tala is the basis of rhythm. Ragas involve and Thumri.
several important elements. The first element is sound – •• Medieval period: Hindustani music prevalent in North
metaphysical and physical, which is referred to as nada. India & Carnatic music in South India
There are two types of nada, anahata nada or un-struck •• Traced back to Delhi Sultanate → Amir Khusrau (AD
sound and ahata nada or struck sound. The next element of 1253-1325) invented Sitar and Tabla, invented new Ragas
raga is pitch, relegated into swara (whole and half tones), like Ghora & Sanam evolved Qawwali mixing Indian &
and sruti (microtones). Raga also involves the production Iranian music
of emotional effects in the performer and listener, which are •• New music instruments such as Sarangi & Rabab were
known as rasa. The aim of raga is to elicit emotional and introduced in this period
psychological responses from the listener. There are nine •• Most of the Hindustani musicians trace their descent to Tansen
rasas. Love (Shringar), Humour (Hasya), Pathos (Karuna), •• Prominent Styles → Dhrupad, Dhamar-Hori, Khayal,
Anger (Rudra), Heroism (Vir), Terror (Bhayanaka), Disgust Tarana, Sargam, Thumri & Ghazal
(Veebhatsa) and Wonder (Abdhuta). (A) Dhrupad
Raga is the basis of classical music. It is based on the principle •• Dhrupad is the oldest and perhaps the grandest form of
of a combination of notes selected out the 22 note intervals Hindustani vocal music. Dhrupad is essentially a poetic
of the octave. There are 72 ‘melas’,or parent scales, on which form incorporated into an extended presentation style
Ragas are based. Every Raga is derived from some Thaat or marked by precise and orderly elaboration of a raga.
Scale. •• The exposition preceding the composed verses is called
Ragas are placed in three categories: (a) Odava or pentatonic, alap, and is usually the longest portion of the performance.
a composition of five notes, (b) Shadava or hexatonic, a Dhrupad is in decline since the 18th century.
composition of six notes and (c) Sampoorna or heptatonic, a
(B) Khayal
composition of seven notes.
Every Raga must have at least five notes, starting at Sa, The •• Khayal literally means ‘a stray thought’, ‘a lyric’ and ’an
speed of a raga is divided into three parts: Vilambit (slow), imagination’.
Madhya (Medium) and Drut (fast). •• This is the most prominent genre of Hindustani vocal
Another aspect of the ragas is the appropriate distribution in music depicting a romantic style of singing.
time during the 24 hours of the day for its performance, i.e. •• Khayal is dependent to a large extent on the imagination
the time of the day denotes the type of the raga to be sung. of the performer and the improvisations he is able to
Based on this, the ragas are divided into four types: Sandi– incorporate.
prakash ragas or twilight ragas, Midday and Midnight •• Khayal is also composed in a particular raga and tala and
ragas, Ragas for the first quarter of the morning and night has a brief text. The Khayal texts range from praise of
and Ragas for the last quarter of the day and night. All the kings or seasons, description of seasons to the pranks of
ragas are divided into the broad groups -- Poor Ragas and Lord Krishna, divine love and sorrow of separation.
Uttar Ragas. •• There are six main gharanas in khayal: Delhi, Patiala,
Another division of ragas is the classification of ragas under six Agra, Gwalior, Kirana and Atrauli-Jaipur. Gwalior
principal ragas -- Hindol, Deepal, Megh, Shree and Maulkauns. Gharana is the oldest and is also considered the mother of
Tala: Tala is the rhythmical groupings of beats. These rhythmic all other gharanas.
cycles range from 3 to 108 beats. It is the theory of time (C) Thumri
measure and has the same principle in Hindustani and Carnatic •• Thumri originated in the Eastern part of Uttar Pradesh,
music, though the names and styles differ. There are over a mainly in Lucknow and Benares, around the 18th century
100 Talas, but only 30 Talas are known and only about 10–12 AD.
talas are actually used. The most commonly encountered one •• It is believed to have been influenced by hori, kajri and
is the one with sixteen beats called the teentaal. The Laya is the dadra.Thumri is supposed to be a romantic and erotic
tempo, which keeps the uniformity of time span. The Matra is style of singing and is also called “the lyric of Indian
the tempo, which keeps the uniformity of time span. The Matra classical music”. The song compositions are mostly of
is the smallest unit of the tala. love, separation and devotion.
 15
•• Its most distinct feature is the erotic subject matter •• These compositions have 8 to 12 different ragas and the
picturesquely portraying the various episodes from the lyrics indicate the change of the ragas.
lives of Lord Krishna and Radha. •• The peculiarity of this style depends on how smoothly the
•• A Thumri is usually performed as the last item of a musical passages change along with the change of ragas.
Khayal concert. There are three main gharanas of thumri (H) Tarana
-- Benaras, Lucknow and Patiala.
•• Tarana is a style consisting of peculiar syllables woven
(D) Dadra into rhythmical patterns as a song.
•• Dadra bears a close resemblance to the Thumri. The texts •• It is usually sung in faster tempo.
are as amorous as those of Thumris. (I) Chaturang
•• The major difference is that dadras have more than one
•• Chaturang denotes four colours or a composition of a
antara and are in dadra tala. Singers usually sing a dadra
song in four parts:
after a thumri.
•• Four parts are: Fast Khayal, Tarana, Sargam and a “Paran”
(E) Dhamar-Hori of Tabla or Pakhwaj.
•• These compositions are similar to Dhrupad but are chiefly (J) Ghazal
associated with the festival of Holi. Here the compositions
•• The ghazal is mainly a poetic form than a musical form,
are specifically in praise of Lord Krishna.
but it is more song-like than the thumri.
•• This music, sung in the dhamar tala, is chiefly used in
•• The ghazal is described as the “pride of Urdu poetry”.
festivals like Janmashthami, Ramnavami and Holi.
The ghazal originated in Iran in the 10th Century AD.
•• The compositions here describe the spring season. These
•• The ghazal never exceeds 12 shers (couplets) and on an
compositions are mainly based on the love pranks of
average, ghazals usually have about 7 shers.
Radha-Krishna.
•• The ghazal found an opportunity to grow and develop
(F) Tappa in India around 12th Century AD when the Mughal
•• The tappa is said to have developed in the late 18th influences came to India, and Persian gave way to Urdu
Century AD from the folk songs of camel drivers. Tappa as the language of poetry and literature.
literally means ‘jump’ in Persian. •• It developed and evolved in the courts of Golconda and
•• They are essentially folklore of love and passion and are Bijapur under the patronage of Muslim rulers.
written in Punjabi. The 18th and 419th centuries are regarded as the golden
(G) Ragasagar period of the ghazal with Delhi and Lucknow being its main
centres.
•• Ragasagar consists of different parts of musical passages
in different ragas as one song composition.

Personalities of Hindustani Music

Bhimsen Joshi He was on Indian vocalist in the Hindustani classical tradition. He was the member of the Kirana
Gharana. He is famous for Khyal form of singing. He enriched the kirana gharana by adding
his own distinctive style and adopting characteristics from other gharanas.He was the recipient
of s evera l prestigi ous awards including Padma Shri , Padma Bhushan and Padma Vibhushan.
Bhimsen Joshi is renowned for his unique style and mastery over ragas.

Mallikarj un Mansur He was an Indian Hindustani classical singer of the Khyal style in the Jaipur- Atrauligharana. He
had received many awards including Padmabhushan, Kalidas Summan etc.

Pandit Jasraj He is the exponent of the Mewati Gharana of Hindustani classical music. Pandit Jasraj’s greatest
contribution to Indian music is his conception of an unique and novel jugalbandhi based on
the ancient system of moorchanas, between a male and a female vocalist, each singing in their
respective scales and different ragas at the same time. Pandit Jasraj is the recipient of several
honors and awards.
Begum Parveen Sultana She is a Assamese Hindustani classical singer of the Patiala Gharana. She is among the foremost
classical vocalist in India. She is known as Queen of Classical Vocal. She was confer red the
Padmashri in 1976.
Kumar Gandharva He was a Hindustani classical singer, famous for his unique vocal style. He did not follow any
kind of Gharana. He experimented out his own styles. He was awarded the Padma Vibhushan in
1990.
 16

Siddheswari Devi She was a Hindustani singer from Varanasi. She sang Khyal, Thumri and short classical forms as
dadra, chaiti, Kajri etc. Siddheswar’s music had all the salient features of the Banaras style such
as simple charm, intensity of feeling and effective expression of emotions.
Girija Devi She was an Hindustani classical singer of the Banaras gharana. She sings different general of
Hindustani vocal music like Khyal, Thumri, Dadra, Chaiti and Kajri. But her forte lies in singing
the poorab and Thumri. So she is called the Queen of Thumri.
Gangubai Hanga He was an Indian Hindustani musical singer of the Khyal genre. She belonged to the Kirana
Gharana. She was famous for her deep and powerful voice.
Musical Instruments and its Exponents Indian Music
Musical Instruments Exponents

Mridangam Palakkad Mani Iyer, T.R. Murthy, Guruvayoor Doraiswami, Karaikudi R.Mani, Umayalpuram
Shivaraman, Velloor A. Ramabhadran, Mavelikara Krishnan Kutty Nair.

Sitar Pt. Ravi Shankar, Mushtaq Ali Khan, Vilayat Khan, Uma Shankar Mishra, Nikhil Banerjee,Raiz
Khan, Harashankar Bhattacharya , Budhaditya Mukherjee, Abdul Halim Jaffer Khan.

Sarod AmjadAli Khan, Ali Akbar Khan, Rajiv, Taranath

Violin V.G. Jog, Lalgudi Jayaraman, T.N. Krishnan,Yehudi Mennuhin, M.S.Gopala krishnan,Kunnukkudi
Vaidyana than, Kalyana Krishna Bhaga vatar , L.Subr amaniam, Chandayya, Kantha Devi,
Gajannan Rao Joshi (Hindustani), Zubin Mehta (Western).

Santoor Shiv Kumar Sharma , Tarun Bhattacharya, Bhajan Sopperi.

Flute N.Ramani, Hariprasad Chaurasia, T.R. Mahalingam, Pannalal Ghosh, T. S. Shankaran, Sikkil
Sisters

Mandolin U. Srinivas, S.Balamurali Krishna.

Piano Surojeet Chatterji, Kaikhoshha purji , Sorabjee.

Shehnai Bismillah Khan , Bagheshwari Gamar, Bade Gulam Ali.

Tabla Al la Rakha , Zakir Hussian, Shankar Ghosh, Aba d Mistry, Rimba Shiva , Santha Prasad,
Sheikh Dawood, Sharafat Ahmed Khan, Kishan Maharaj , Ahmed, Tirkuva, Pt. Samta Prasad.

Veena Chitti Babu, Mysore Doraiswami Iyankar, Azad Ali Khan (Hindustani), Badik Ali Khan,
Kumara Swami Iyer (Carnatic), Kalpakkom Swaminathan, Ka lya na K ris hna Bhaga vata r, S.
Balachander.

Sarangi Pandit Ram Narayan, Sultan Khan, Sabri Khan.

Clarnet Sheikh Mohammed Arif.

Carnatic Music of the city by the Muslims, the entire cultural life of the
city took shelter in the Carnatic Empire of Vijayanagar
•• The Tamil classic of the 2nd century A.D. titled the
under the reign of Krishnadevaraya. Thereafter, the music
Silappadhikaram contains a vivid description of the
of South India came to be known as Carnatic Music.
music of that period. The Tolkappiyam, Kalladam and the
•• In the field of practical music, South India had a succession
contributions of the Saivite and Vaishnavite saints of the
of brilliant and prolific composers who enriched the art
7th and 8th centuries A.D. also serve as resource material
with thousands of compositions. After Purandaradasa,
for studying musical history.
Tallapakam Annamacharya Narayana Tirtha, Bhadra-
•• It is said, that South Indian Music, as known today,
chalam Ramdasa and Kshetranja made contributions to
flourished in Deogiri the capital city of the Yadavas in
the wealth of compositions
the middle ages, and that after the invasion and plunder
 17
•• The birth of the Musical Trinity - Tyagaraja, Muthuswami has ample opportunities of displaying his or her creative
Dikshitar and Syama Sastri - at Tiruvarur between the talents, imaginative skill, and musical intelligence.
years 1750 to 1850 A.D. ushered in an era of dynamic Tanam : This is a branch of raga alapana. It is raga alapana in
development in Carnatic music. Madhyamakala or medium speed. There is perceptible rhythm
•• Outstanding feature of Carnatic music is its raga system & in this. The rhythmical flow of music, flowing in fascinating
highly developed and intricate tala system. Though clear patterns, makes tanam singing the most captivating part of
cut demarcations in the style of musical presentation, raga exposition.
similar to the gharanas of Hindustani music are not seen
in Carnatic music, yet, we do come across different styles INDIAN VOCALISTS
in rendering compositions.
•• The ancient musical forms like Prabandhas, etc. gradually
Devotional Music Of India
gave away to the different musicals forms that are in use •• India is a land of diverse faiths and beliefs and is bound
in present day music, though the basic elements of the by a common thread of music. Indian earlier classical
ancient Prabandhas are still retained in the modern forms. music ‘Prabandh Sangeet’ and ‘Dhruvapada’ were all
The following musical forms offer interesting study: devotional in character.
Gitam : Gitam is the simplest type of composition. Taught to •• Later other forms of devotional music like ‘bhajans’,
beginners of music, the gitam is very simple in construction, ‘kirtans’, ‘shabads’ and ‘qawalis’ came into being.
with an easy and melodious flow of music. Bhajan
Suladi :Very much like the gitam in musical structure and •• Bhajans belong to the Bhakti Movement, it is a popular
arrangement, the Suladis are of a higher standard than the form of devotional singing prevalent in north India. Stories
gitam. and episodes from the ‘Ramayana’ and ‘Mahabharata’ are
Varnam : The Varnam is a beautiful creation of musical popular themes for bhajans.
craftsmanship of a high order, combining in itself all the •• Bhajan singing is usually accompanied by musical
characteristic features of the raga in which it is composed. instruments like ‘jhanj’, ‘manjira’, ‘daphli’, ‘dholak’ and
Practice in Varnam singing helps a musician to attain mastery ‘chimta’.
in presentation and command over raga, tala and bhava. •• Meera Bai, Kabir, Surdass, Tulsidas, guru Nanak and
Svarajati : This is learnt after a course in gitams. More Narsi Mehta are some of the most significant names in
complicated than the gitas, the Svarajati paves the way for the bhajan singing.
learning of the Varnams. The theme is either devotional, heroic Shabad
or amorous.
Jatisvaram : Very similar to the svarajati in musical structure, •• Shabads are devotional songs of the Sikhs originated as a
this form- Jatisvaram-has no sahitya or words. The piece is musical composition around the 17th century AD.
sung with solfa syllables only. •• Guru Nanak and his disciple Mardana are credited with
Kirtanam : The Kirtanam had its birth about the latter half the development and popularity of shabad.
of the 14th century. It is valued for the devotional content of •• Besides the shabads, these are twenty two ‘vars’ or
the sahitya. Clothed in simple music, the kirtanam abounds in ballads, which are mentioned in the Guru Granth Sahib.
Bhakti bhava. It is suited for congregational singing as well as Qawwali
individual presentation. •• Quawwali is a devotional form of music, prevalent among
Kriti : The Kriti is a development from the Kirtana. It is an the sufis. The lyrics are in praise of Allah.
highly evolved musical form. The highest limit of aesthetic •• It is written in Persian, Urdu and Hindi is composed in a
excellence is reached in the Kriti composition. The raga bhava specific ‘raga’. Originally it was sung to the beat of the
is brought out in all the rich and varied colours in this form. ‘daff’.
PADA : Padas are scholarly compositions in Telegu and Tamil. •• Amir Khusro (1254–1325 AD) is believed to have
Though they are composed mainly as dance forms, they are incorporated meaningful words into the ‘qaul’. Which
also sung in concerts, on account of their musical excellence over a period of time developed into qawwali.
and aesthetic appeal. The music is slow-moving and dignified. Kirtan
Javali :A javali is a composition belonging to the sphere of
light classical music. Sung both in concert programmes and •• Kirtan is an ancient folk tradition of musical meditation
dance concerts, the javalis are popular because of the attractive was transformed into song and dance congregations by
melodies in which they are composed. In contrast to the padas Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.
which portray divine love, javalis are songs which are sensuous •• Kirtans are of two types ‘Nama-Kirtana’ and ‘Lila-
in concept and spirit. Kirtana’.
Tillana : The Tillana, corresponding to the Tarana of Hindustani Abhangs
music, is a short and crisp form. It is mainly a dance form, but •• These are also referred as ‘Vittala’ and ‘Vittoba’ in
on account of its brisk and attractive music, it sometimes finds Maharashtra. These are devotional songs sung in praise
a place in music concerts as a conclusion piece. of Lord Krishna.
Pallavi: This is the most important branch of creative music. These were popularised by renowned saints like
It is in this branch of manodharma sangeeta, that the musician Gnaneshwar, Eknath and Tukaram.
 18
Bhatiyali Gharanas Of Hindustani Music
•• These songs are sung mainly by the East Bengal boatmen The Gharana or family is a school of a particular style of
while boating on the rivers. singing or playing instruments. The following are the important
Tevaram Gharanas of Hindustani vocal music.
•• These are the devotional hymns sung by Oduyars and
others in South India.

Gharana's Name Founders Exponents

Agra Gharana Haji Sujan Khan, Ustad Ghagge Khuda Bakhsh Faiyyaz Khan, Latafat Hussain Khan
Benaras Gharana Pandit Gopal Mishra Rajan Mishra and Sajan Mishra
Bhendi Baza Gharana Ustad Chajju Khan Aman Ali Khan Shashikala Koratkar
Delhi Gharana Ustad Mamman Khan Chand Khan, Nasir Ahmed Khan
Gwalior Gharana Ustad Hassu Khan, Ustad Haddu Khan Balakrishna Bura Ichalkaranjikar, Vinayakrao
Patwardhan
Indore Gharana Ustad Amir Khan
Jaipur Atrauli Gharana Ustad alladiya Khan Kesarbai Kerkar, Mogubai Kurdikar
Patiala Gharana Ustad Fatch Ali Khan Ustad Ali Bakhsh Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, Munawar Ali Khan

Indian Dance Indian Folk and Tribal Dances

India is a land of varied cultures and traditions. Indian folk
An Introduction and tribal dances are product of different socio-economic set
•• In India dance is considered to be divine in origin. Shiva’s up and traditions. Indian folk and tribal dances are simple and
cosmic dance. Tandava, is belived to encompass creation, are performed to express joy. In India we have festivals and
preservation and destruction. celebrations virtually every day. This has added to the richness
•• The common root of all classical dance forms can be of Indian culture.
traced to Bharata’s Natyashastra,. According to the
Natyashastra, Brahma, the creator and the first of the Various dance forms
Hindu Triad, was asked to create a part time by the gods. Dance Forms Origin Lagends
•• For creating drama, Brahma took pathya (words) from
the Rigveda, abhinaya (gesture) from the Yajurveda, geet Odissi Odissi is believed to Kelucharan
(music and chant) from Samaveda and rasa (sentiments be the oldest form of Mohapatra Sonal
and emotions) from Atharvaveda to form the fifth Veda, Indian dance from Mansingh Mayadhar
Natyaveda. the state of Odisha, Raut, Jhelum
•• Indian dance is divided into nritta – the rhythmic elements, (Odisha) It is considered a Paranjape, KumKum
nritya – the combination of rhythm with expression and dance of love, joy Mohanty, Madhumita
natya – the dramatic element. and intense passion, Raut, Aloka
•• Nritya is usually expressed through the eyes, hands and pure, divine and Kanungo, Ileana
facial movements. Nritya combined with Nritta makes up human. It divides the Citaristi
the usual dance programmes. body into three parts,
•• There are four strong elements of the classical dance head, bust and torso
form:shastra sculpture, folk tradition and ancient
literature. Bharat Bharatnatyam is Alarmel Valli, Yamini
Natyam more popular in Krishnamurthy,
Indian Classical Dances South Indian states. Rukmini Devi, Padma
India has thousands of year old tradition of fine arts and classical This dance is almost Subramanyam,
and folk music and dances. Some of the world-famous dance (Tamil Nadu) 2,000 years old. This Yamini
forms that originated and evolved in India are Bharatnatyam, dance flourished in Krishnamurthy,
Kathak, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Manipuri, Mohiniattam and the Hindu temples of Mrinalini Sarabhai,
Odissi. All these dance forms use basically the same ‘mudras’ South India. Meenakshi Sundaram
or signs of hand as a common language of expression and were Pillai, Padma
originally performed in the temples to entertain various Gods Subramanyam,
and Goddesses. Balasarswati
 19
Kuchipudi It presents scenes Bhavana Reddy, Chhattisgarh Goudi, Karma, Jhumar, Pali, Tapali,
from Hindu Epics Yamini Reddy, Raja Navrani, Diwari, Mundari.
(Andhra and mythological & Radha Reddy, Andhra Pradesh Kuchipudi (classical), Ghantamardala,
Pradesh) tales through dance- Kaushalya Reddy Otttam Thedal, Mohiniattam, Kummi,
dramas combining
Siddhi Madhuri, Chhadi.
music, dance and
acting. Arunachal Mask dance (Mukhauta Nritya), War
Kathak This north Indian Pandit Birju Pradesh dance.
dance form is Maharaj, Kumudini Himachal Pradesh Jhora, Jhali, Charhi, Dhaman, Chhapeli,
(North India inextricably bound Lakhiya, Sitara Devi, Mahasu, Nati, Dangi, Chamba, Thali,
(Lucknow- with classical Shovana Narayan, Jhainta, Daf, Stick dance etc.
Banaras- Hindustani music, Malabika Mitra,
Goa Mandi, Jhagor, Khol, Dakni etc.
Jaipur)) and the rhythmic Kumudini Lakhiya,
nimbleness of the Kartik Ram - Kalyan Assam Bihu, Bichua, Natpuja, Maharas,
feet is accompanied Das, Manisha Kaligopal, Bagurumba, Naga dance,
by the tabla or Gulyani Khel Gopal, Tabal Chongli, Canoe,
pakhawaj Jhumura Hobjanai Pojapali etc.
Kathakali It literally means Kalamandalam West Bengal Kathi, Gambhira, Dhali, Jatra, Baul,
story play and is Krishna Prasad, Marasia, Mahal, Keertan etc.
(Kerala) an elaborate dance Kavungal Chathunni Kerala Kathakali (Classical), Ottam Thulal,
depicting the victory Panicker, Kavungal Mohiniattam, Kaikottikali, Tapptikali,
of truth over false- Chathunni Panicker, Kali Auttam.
hood Kalamandalam
Ramankutty Nair, Meghalaya Laho, Baagla etc.
Kalamandalam Manipur Manipuri (Classical), Rakhal, NatRash,
Kesavan Namboodir, MahaRash, Raukhat etc.
Kottakkal Sivaraman,
Kalamandalam Gopi Nagaland Chong, Khaiva, Lim Nuralim etc.
Odisha Odissi (Classical), Savari, Ghumara,
Mohiniyattam It is a very graceful Smitha Rajan, Sunanda
Painka, Munari, Chhau, Chadya
dance meant to be Nai, Jayaprabha Menon,
Dandanata etc.
(Kerala) performed as a solo Pallavi Krishnan, Gopika
recital by women. Varma, Vijayalakshmi Maharashtra Lavani, Nakata, Koli, Lezim, Gafa,
Dahikala Dasavtar or Bohada, Tamasha,
Manipuri The most striking Poushali Chatterjee
Mauni, Powara, Gouricha etc.
part of Manipur , Rajkumar Singhajit
(Manipur) dance is its colorful Singh, Sohini Ray, Guru Karnataka Yakshagan, Huttari, Suggi, Kunitha,
decoration, lightness Nileswar Mukharjee, Karga, Lambi
of dancing foot, Guru Bipin Singha
Gujarat Garba, Dandiya Ras, Tippani Juriun,
delicacy of abhinaya
Bhavai.
(drama), lilting
music and poetic Punjab Bhangra, Giddha, Do, Dhaman etc.
charm Rajasthan Ghumar, Chakri, Ganagor, Jhulan Leela,
Yakshagana It is a classical dance Jhuma, Surisini, Ghapal, Panihari,
drama popular in the Ginad etc.
state of Karnataka.
This theater art Jammu & Rauf, Hikat, Mandjas, Kud Dandi nach,
involves music, Kashmir Damali.
song, dance, acting, Tamil Nadu Bharatnatyam, Kumi, Kolattam, Kavadi
dialogue, story and
unique costumes. Uttar Pradesh Nautanki, Raslila, Kajri, Jhora,
Chappeli, Jaita.
States and their Folk Dances
Bihar Jata-Jatin, Bakho-Bakhain, Panwariya,
Jharkhand Chhau, Sarahul, Jat-Jatin, Karma, Sama-Chakwa, Bidesia, Jatra etc.
Danga, Didesia, Sohrai, Paika, Bheja
Haryana Jhumar, Phag Dance, Daph, Dhamal,
Uttarakhand Gadhwali, Kumayuni, Kajari, Jhora, Loor, Gugga, Khor, Gagor etc.
Raslila, Chappeli, Bhotia
 20
Theatres and Films •• Traditionally, Koodiyattam is presented by Chakyars,
a temple caste of Kerala, and Nangiars, the woman of
Theatre in India Nambiar caste.
•• India has a longest richest tradition in theatre going back •• Koodiyattam was traditionally a part of the temple rituals,
to at least 5000 years. performed as a kind of visual sacrifice to the deity and is
•• Bharata’s Natya Shastra (2000 BC to 4th century AD) normally performed in koothambalams or temple theatres.
was the earliest and most elaborate treatise in dramaturgy •• All the main characters in Koodiyattam enact Nirvahana,
written anywhere in the world. a recollection of past events in the story.
•• In Natya Shastra, Bharata Muni described ten Puppetry in India
classifications of drama. •• Puppet Theatre is found in all parts of the world, it is a
•• Hindu theorists from the earliest days conceived of plays form of entertainment. In India, the roots of the puppet
in terms of two types of production : lokadharmi (realistic), theatre lie in a dancer’s mask.
which involved the reproduction of human behaviour •• There are four kinds of puppets–glove, string, rod and
on the stage and the natural presentation of objects and shadow. The glove puppet in Orissa is called Kundhei
natydharmi (Conventional), which is the presentation of a Nacha. and Pava koothu in Kerala.
play through the use of stylized gestures and symbolism •• String puppets are found in Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan,
and was considered more artistic and realistic. Odisha, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
Sanskrit Theatre State – Puppet Show Name
•• It is difficult to determine the precise origins of the Rajasthan – Kataputali
Sanskrit drama. The earliest phase of Sanskrit. Theatre Orissa – Sakhi Kundhei
was based almost entirely on the rules, regulations and Assam – Putla Nach
modifications laid down in the Natya Shastra. Maharashtra – Malasutri Bhaulya
•• One of the earliest plays written was sariputra prakarana Tamil Nadu – Bommalattam
by Asvaghosa. Karnataka – Gombeyatta
•• Shudraka, Harsha, Visakhadatta, Bhasa, Kalidasa and Post–Independence Theatre in India
Bhava bhuti were the six outstanding Sanskrit playwrights •• Indian theatre and drama got a new footing, when Sangeet
who have contributed in a great measure. Natak Akademi was started in January 1953.
•• There are ten types of Sanskrit plays : Nataka Prakarma, •• Lather, the National School of Drama under the
Anka, Vyayoga, Bhana, Samvakara, Vithi, Prahasana, directorship of Ebrahim Alkazi promoted much modern
Dima, and Ithamgra. Indian theatre.
Koodiyattam or Koothiyattam •• The year 1972 turned out to be a landmark for the Indian
•• It is considered to have been introduced in India by theatre when Vijay Tendulkar’s Marathi play ‘Ghashiram
Aryans. It is derived from the sanskrit word kurd meaning Kotwal’ produced waves by its brilliant use of traditional
to “to play”. folk forms in modern contemporary theatre.
•• It is widely believed that Kulasekhara Varma cheraman •• Munjula Padmanabhan was the first Indian to earn
Perumal, an ancient king of Kerala, was the creator of international acclaim with her play ‘Bitter Harvest’.
Koodiyattam in the present form.

Some of the Important Theatres of Modern India

Name Founder Year and Place of People Associated with it
Establishment
National School of Drama Ministry of Culture, 1959, New Delhi Naseeruddin Shah, Irrfan Khan, Anupam
(Deemed University) Government of India. Kher, Nawazuddin Siddiqui, Pankaj Kapur,
Himani Shivpuri and many more
Bhartendu Academy of Dramatic Padma Shri Raj 1975, Lucknow, Rajiv Jain, Raajpal Yadav, Anupam Shyam
Arts Bisaria.
Theatre Arts Workshop (TAW) Raj Bisaria 1966, Lucknow

Hindi Films Dadasaheb Phalke, is known as the first silent feature film
made in India. The first Indian sound film, Ardeshir Irani’s Ara
Bollywood is the Hindi Language film industry which is (1931), was a major commercial success. In 1937, Ardeshir
based in Mumbai, Maharashtra. They are one of the largest Irani, of Alam ara fame, made the first colour film in Hindi,
film producers in India and one of the largest centres of film Kisan Kanya.
production in the world. Raja Harishchandra (1913), by
 21
Festivals of India much to offer to travelers and tourists. It is a land of hills,
rivers, plateaus, plains, beaches, deltas and deserts. Some of
India, ‘A Land of Festivals’ is a Multi religious and multi– the major tourist destinations in India are the Himalayas, Agra,
lingual country. It is but natural to find festival of all major Jaipur,Goa, Kerala, Delhi, Odisha and Maharshtra.
religions in the world being celebrated in India.
Famous Tourist Destination in India
Religious Festivals of India
Akshardham Temple
Hindu Festivals of India
The 108 feet tall temple was built on 2nd, November 1992 in
Diwali, Durga Puja, Dussehra, Ganesh Chaturthi, Holi,
memory of Pramukh Swami in Gandhinagar district of Gujarat.
Janmashthami, Karwa Chauth, Navaratri, Ram Navami,
Skanda Shashthi, Vasant Panchami. Ajmer Sharif
Buddhist Festivals of India It is sufi shrine dedicated to the sufi saint Moinuddin Chishti. It
is situated Ajmer, Rajasthan. The Dargah attracts people from
•• Buddha Purnima, Losar, Tseschu Festival.
different faith who come and worship here.
Christian Festivals of India
Amarnath Cave
Christmas, Easter, Good friday, St. Francis Xavier’s Day,
It is situated in Jammu and Kashmir and is one of the ancient
The Goa Carnival.
pilgrimages in India. It is famous for the Linga which is created
Jain Festivals of India naturally by ice every year. The Amarnath Yatra is an annual
Mahavir Jayanti, Paryushana, Maha mastak Abhishek. event taken up by Hindu pilgrims who reach the temple after a
Jewish Festivals of India rigorous trek to the cave temple.
Feast of Passover, Purim or festivals of Lots. Ajanta and Ellora Caves
They contain a cluster of Hindu and Jain temples along with
Muslim Festivals of India
cave monuments. Ajanta along with Ellora caves are one of
Eidal–Fitr, Eidal–Adha, Miladun-Nabi, Muharram, the major tourist attraction of Maharastra, Primariy for their
Shab–e–Barat. cave paintings.
Parsi Festivals of India Beaches of Goa
Jamshed Novroz, Zarthost No Deeso, Khordad Sal. Goa is famous for its beautiful beaches, wonderful churches,
Sikh Festivals of India wildlife sanctuary, goan cuisine, water sports and most
Gurupurabs, Holla Mohalla. happening night life. The well-known beaches of Goa are
Sindhi Festivals of India Baga Beach, Aguada Beach, Arambol Beach, Palolem Beach,
Calangute Beach, Butterfly Beach, Colva Beach etc and the
Cheti Chand, Teejri, Thadri Utraan. magnificent churches are Basilica of Bom Jesus, Rachol
Cultural Festivals of India Seminary and Church, St. Alex Church, Church of St Francis
•• Gadwad Festival. of Assisi, Immaculate Conception Church, Se Cathedral.
•• Ladakh Festival. Bandipur Wildlife Sanctuary
•• Thyagaraja Festival. Established in 1947 Bandipur Wildlife sanctuary is well known
•• Khajuraho Festival of Dances. for its tiger reserve. The entire area constitute the vast Nilgiri
•• Vijaynagra Hampi Festival. Biosphere Reserve which comprises the tracts of protected forest.
Languages In India Badrinath
•• There are 418 languages listed for India. Of those, 407 are It is located in the Chamoli district in Uttarakhand. It is the most
living languages and 11 are extinct. important of the four sites in India’s Char Dham pilgrimage. It
•• Now, India has 22 officially recognised languages which is also gateway to several mountaineering expeditions headed
are mentioned in the Eight Schedule of the Constitution. to mountains like Nilkantha.
•• Hindi in the Devanagari script is the official language of Bodhgaya
the Union of India. It is one of the most important and sacred Buddhist pilgrimage
•• English is the second official language and is also the center in the world situated in Gaya district in Bihar. It is
authoritative, legislative and judicial language. famous as the place where Gautama Buddha is said to have
•• Broadly the Indian languages can be put into six groups : obtained Enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree.
(1) Indo-Aryan, (2) Dravidian, (3) Sino-Tibetan, Dwarkadhish Temple
(4) Negroid, (5) Austric and (6) Others. The temple is situated on the bank of river Gomti and dedicated
•• The VIII Schedule originally contained 15 languages. By the to lard Krishna, The temple is constructed of limestone which
71st Amendment of the constitution, Konkani, Manipuri and is still in immaculate condition.
Nepali have been added to the Schedule in 1992.
Dal Lake, Ladakh
Tourism The enchanting lake of Jammu and Kasmir bordered by ice
India has become a popular tourist destination with thousands covered mountains from three sides is famous for its gardens,
of people visiting different parts of India each year. It has shikara rides and house boat stay.
 22
Golden Temple Konark Sun Temple
A symbol of brotherhood and equality the Harmandir Sahib It is situated in Odisha. The iconic temple is in the form of a
Gurudwara, is commonly called as Golden Temple is located gigantic chariot, built in the 13th century. It also features on the
in Amritsar is famous for its sanctity and is the main pilgrimage list of seven wonders of India.
of sikh community but it welcomes a large no. of tourists every Lotus Temple
years despite of their religion caste and creed.
It is located in New Delhi, is a Bahai House of Worship
Gateway of India constructed in 1986.
It is a crude jetty made by British People in the year 1914 in Mahabaleshwar
Mumbai which is a basalt arc and having a height of 26 feet.
It is a vast magnificent plateau located at a distance of 120 km
Haji Ali Dargah south west of Pune with an average height of 1353 meters. It
The very famous dargah (tomb) is located on an islet of the is bound by valley from all sides and having some beautiful
coast of Worli in the Southern part of Mumbai built in 1431 high rise peaks. The highest peak is known as Wilson or Sunset
in the memory of a wealthy merchant Sayyed Peer Haji Ali Point.
Shah Bukhari, who gave up all his worldly possessions before Mathura
making a pilgrimage to Mecca.
It is known as the birthplace of Lord Krishna located 50 km
Hemkund Sahib North of Agra in Uttar Pradesh. The Krishna Janbhoomi
It is a Sikh place of worship situated in Chamoli district, temple is visited by a large number of devotees throughout
Uttarakhand, India, devoted to Guru Gobind Singh Ji, the tenth the year. During Janmashtami the town becomes overcrowded
Sikh Guru. The scenic beauty of the place is astounding as this with devotees from all over India.
shrine is located amidst lofty hills that are covered with snow.
Rishikesh
Haridwar
It is the starting point of the chardham pilgrimage situated
It is one of the most ancient cities located on the banks of river
in the Uttarakhand. The city is regarded as one of the holiest
Ganga in the state of Uttarakhand. The Kumbha Mela which
places to Hindus and also referred as the Yoga Capital of
happens once in every 12 years attracts millions to the city
the World. It has innumerable Hindu temples and the heavy
with devotees thronging the place all year round.
settlement of yoga centers.
Jagannath Temple, Puri
The Great Rann of Kutch
It is a sacred Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Jagannath
It is a seasonal salt marsh is spread over an area of 7,505.22
situated in Odisha and is one of the char dham pilgrimages that
square kilometers (2,897.78 sq mi) in Thar Desert. It is the land
every Hindu intends to visit.
of various well known sanctuaries such as Wild Ass Sanctuary,
Jama Masjid bird-rich Nawa Talao lake, Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary.
It is situated in Delhi and is one of the largest mosques in India.
Somnath Mahadev Temple
It was built by Shah Jahan between 1644 and 1656.
Adding to the beauty of western ghat the famous Somnath
Kerala Backwaters
Mahadev Temple of Prabhas Patan is believed to be the first
A chain of brackish water lagoons lying parallel to the Malabar among twelve Jyotirling of Shivas. The age old temple was
Coast of Kerala in southern part of India which is a large web initially built in the 11th century by Solanky rajput . but it was
of water bodies i.e. five large lake interconnected natural and rebuilt in 1951.
manmade canals and fed by 38 rivers.
Siddhivinayak Temple
Kanyakumari
It is one of the richest Hindu temple built in the heart of
The southernmost part of Tamilnadu which was formerly Mumbai city on 19 November, 1801 built by Laxman Vithu
known as Cape Comorin and famous for place of tourist and Debubai Patil.
interests like Vivekananda Rock Memorial, Thiruvalluvar
Taj Mahal
Statue, Our Lady of Ransom Church, Tsunami Memorial Park.
It is a white marble mausoleum located on the southern bank
Kaziranga National Park
of the Yamuna river is Agra, Uttar Pradesh. It was built by
This national park was established in the year 1904 in Golaghat Shah Jahan in 1632 in the memory of his loving wife Mumtaz
and Nagaon districts of the state of Assam are famous for the Mahal.
heavy population of one-horned rhinoceros. Among the other
Tirumala Venkateswara Temple
specialties of this national park tall elephant grass, marshland,
and dense tropical moist broadleaf forests, river crisscross of It is an iconic vaishnavite temple located in Tirumala at
four major rivers, including the Brahmaputra, and the park Tirupati in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh. It is one of the
includes numerous small bodies of water are well-known. most visited Hindu temples in India with a footfall of 60,000
pilgrims each day.
Khajuraho Group of Monuments
Valley of flowers
It is a group of Hindu and Jain temples situated in Madhya
Pradesh. The temples are famous for the nagara style A national park situated in West Himalayas and renowned for
architecture and erotic sculptures. its meadows of endemic alpine flowers and the variety of flora.
 23
Vaishno Devi Temple, Jammu Kashmir Textiles
The temple is recognized as one of the “Shakti Peeths” of •• In the 13th century, Indian silk was used as baster for
goddess Durga. The holy shrine is situated in the folds of spice from the western countries:
mighty ‘Tirkuta’ Hills’ which attracts lakhs of devotees from •• In the end of the 17th century, the British East India
all parts of India and abroad. company had begun export of the famous fine Muslin
Varanasi cloth of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
It is one of the most popular pilgrimages for the Hindus. It •• Before the introduction of mechanized means of spinning
houses one the Shakti Peethas and one of the twelve Jyotir in the early 19th century, Indian cottons and silks were
Linga sites in India. The Ganga Arti performed ritualistically hand spun and hand woven.
every morning and evening at the Ganga ghats which enhances •• Kanchipuram, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad, Varanasi,
its divinity. Jaipur, Chanderi, Paithan, Gadhwal, and Kashmir were
important centres of textiles from ancient times.
Top Ten States/UTs of India in Number of •• In the 19th century, Benaras silk manufacturers used
foreign Tourist Visits in 2019 vegetable and animal forms which were derivations of
the Mughal tradition.
Rank State/UT Foreign Tourist Visits in 2019
•• The Paithani Saris, produced in Paithan near Aurangabad,
Number Percentage (% share) are made of silk in rich, vivid colours with gold
1 Tamil Nadu 6866327 21.86 embroidery.
2 Maharashtra# 5528704 17.6 •• The finest textures of northern parts of the country are the
Maheshwari and Chanderi saris of Madhya Pradesh and
3 Uttar Pradesh 4745181 15.1 Jamdani of Tanda and Benaras in Uttar Pradesh.
4 Delhi# 2983436 9.49 •• List of different fabrics related to their states is given
5 West Bengal 1656145 5.27 below :–
6 Rajasthan 1605560 5.11 Fabric Related states/Places
Tangail cotton West Bengal
7 Kerala 1189771 3.78
Tusar silk Bihar
8 Punjab 1101343 3.50 Sambalpuri and Vichitrapuri Orissa
9 Bihar 1093141 3.48 Saris
10 Goa 937113 2.98 Kasavumundu and Karalkuda Kerala
Total of Top 10 27706721 88.22 Kancheepuram Silk Tamil Nadu
Telia Rummals Telengana
Others 3701945 11.78
Irkali Saris Bijapur
Total 31408666 100 Paithani Saris Paithan near Aurangabad
Source: State/ Union Territory Tourism Departments. Himroo Shawls Aurangabad
# : Estimated by applying all India growth rate •• Sanganer, near Jaipur, is famous for the finest hand –
black printing and design, dyeing and Ornamentation.
Arts & Crafts of India •• Bagru prints are famous for floral designs.
•• India has the widest variety of crafts anywhere in •• Barmer prints are famous for floral designs.
the world. Handicraft items that were patronized by •• Barmer prints called ‘ajrakh’ are known for their bold
the Mughal royalty show a remarkable refinement of geometric patterns.
workmanship. •• Shawl wearing flourished in Kashmir under the patronage
•• Historically speaking the discovery of the Indian arts of the Mughals. The pashmina and shahtoosh shawls of
and crafts by the officers of the East India company and Kashmir are woven out of the fleece of the Tibetan Goat.
the British Raj and their subsequent display at the Indian Ivory Works
Museum in East India House around the first half of the
19th century was a remarkable event. •• According to history, king Soloman acquired Indian
Ivory in 10th Century B.C. Brahmins used Khadaon or
Clay Crafts the sandals made of ivory in India.
•• Clay pottery is an ancient art form in India dating back to •• India is known for craft on tusks of elephants. The
well over 10,000 years. Ivory carvers produce objects such as the ambari hathi
•• The clay objects are found at the excavation sites of the or processional elephant, models of bullock, carts,
Indus Valley Civilisation. palanquins and frames for the European market.
•• Jhuker Pottery was related with the people of the Harappa Glass Work
and the Red ware was the most popular type of pottery
during the late vedic period. •• In the epic Mahabharata literary evidences point towards
•• Terracotta is a porous and brittle material formed by the the existence of glass in India from ancient times.
low heat of a traditional Indian kiln. •• Hyderabad is renowned for the Sonabai bangles and the
churi ka jodas.
 24
•• Varanasi specializes a type of very thin glass called tikuli. Wood Work
•• Saharanpur is an important centre for making beautiful •• The Kashmiri wooden architecture, made from walnut
toys filled with Coloured liquid called Panchkora. and deodar wood, has flourished from the 11th century
Leather Work AD.
•• Leather tanning as an art form reached its zenith in India •• The elegant tharavad homes of Kerala, corresponding to
by 3000 BC. the havelis of Gujarat, are brilliant pieces of architecture
•• India’s extremely comfortable and fashionable kolhapuri in deep brown teakwood.
chappals are made in Maharashtra. •• Raktachandan, a red sandalwood of Andhra Pradesh, is
•• Mojadi or Jutti is an attractive footwear items of Rajasthan. traditionally being used to Carve figure of deities and
•• Kupi, a bottle made of camel hide to keep oil or ‘attar’ dolls.
(perfume), is a speciality of Bikaner. •• The wood carving of he Northeastern tribes are executed
•• In the Manoti art, articles like lamps and lampshades are in wood, which is generally known as kumisyng.
made out of camel hides. •• Assam is noted for its special styles and object like the
namghar or kirtanghar (a wooden house), hukkas, sandals
Metal Work and book-rests.
•• Copper and tin were the earliest non– ferrous metals, •• Wood lacquer work is popular in Rajasthan, Kashmir,
later were mixed to form an alloy called bronze. The Karnataka and Maharastra.
Matsyapurana describes various methods of casting
Stone Work
bronze images.
•• Tamil Nadu is one of the famous bronze producing •• A major tradition of stone carving seems to be focused
regions where the artisans or ‘stapathis’ produce stylish around temples in India.
images of Pallava, Chola and Nayaka periods. •• The glory of stonework is truly revealed in sculptures of
•• The statues of Shiva’s tandava dance described as the the Mauryan period, Buddhist carvings at Bharhut and
gaja tandava is the production of Kerala. Sanchi and the rock – cut caves of Ajanta and Ellora and
•• Orissa is known for its Dhocra casting and Silver filigree Khajuraho.
work. •• Agra is famous for its Marble work. The white Makrana
•• Hyderabad is famous for silver objects like paandaan, marble (sange malmal) of Rajasthan has a great demand
ugaldaan and itardaan. as a building and decorative stone.
•• Marwar in Rajasthan is famous for it zinc–pots called India has got international acclamation in terms of its beautiful
badla. and creative handicrafts. Given below are the states with
•• Moradabad has become famous for khudai or metal diversified crafts.
engraving work done in nakashi style. The kammalas of State Handicrafts
Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu are famous for metal encrusting Odisha Weaving craft, palm leaf writing, patachitra-
work. the chitrakar’s foray, applique, stone carving,
•• Koftagiri mostly practised in Alwar and Jaipur is a metal craft,
technique of inlaying a light metal on a dark one. Delhi Zardozi, lacquer work, clay and paper made
•• Delhi and Jaipur are known for meenakari In bidri work, dolls
practised in Bidar in Karnataka, silver inlay work is done
against dark metal backgrounds. Maharastra Paithani saris, sawantwadi crafts, warli
paintings, kolhapuri chappals, narayan peth
•• Mohras, a unique metal craft of Himachal represents a
deity. West Artistic leather craft, brass & bell metal,
Bengal pottery, mat making, dhokra metal casting,
Indian Jewellery cane & bamboo, fine arts, clay dolls, horn
•• Ornaments made of gold, silver and copper have been work, jute products, shell & conch shell,
discovered in civilizations as ancient as the Harappa and sholapith, famous handloom sarees like dhakai
Mohenjodaro. jamdani, tangail etc
•• Traditional Indian literature records sixteen nodes of Gujrat Bead-work, jewellery, inlay work, embroidery,
female adornment described as the Solah Shringaar . wood carving, cloth printing, dyeing, patola
•• Jaipur is the centre for gold kundan work and diamond fabric, zari work
and emerald cutting. Rajasthan Tie-and-dye textiles, hand block printing,
•• The Thewa jewellery of Rajasthan is an extremely fine quilting, jewellery, gems and stones, blue
work in gold leaf depicting scenes from rasalila episodes. pottery, leather craft, woodcarving
•• Orissa is famous for its silver anklets called painri and Himachal Jewelry, leather craft, woodcarving,
paijam and silver knitted ornaments called gunchi. Pradesh architecture, kangra paintings
•• The thali, an essential component of the marriage Goa Pottery & Terracotta, Brass metal ware,
ceremony of many communities, is a gold necklace Crochet & Embroidery, Bamboo Craft, Fiber
consisting of numerous emblems, usually a phallic Craft, Jute Macrame Craft, Coconut Mask
symbol, which hangs in the centre. carving, sea shell craft
 25
Andhra Priceless Pearls •• Several terms for the female upper garment were used
Pradesh in Sanskrit and Prakrit literature including uttarasanga,
uttariyavasan uttariyavasa, udaramsbuka, samvyana,
Karnataka Woodcarving, Ivory carving stanam sbuka and Stanottariya.
Jharkhand Wood craft, paitkar paintings, metal work, •• The lower garment worn by women were also described
stone carving, ornaments, toy making by a variety of names like ambara, amsbuka, antariya,
Manipur Wood carving, textile weaving, stone-carving, jaghanamsbuka, nivasana, paridbana, vasana, vastram,
block printing, kauna (water reed) mat, hand- vasas and sauli.
embroidery •• First Indian first fashion show was held in 1958. Jeannie
Jammu & Carpets, basket weaving, namdas, pashmina Naoroji wins credit for initiating the first wave of fashion
Kashmir shawls, papier-mchie, leather and fur, wood shows in India.
carvings •• Several institutes like National Institute of Fashion
Technology (NIFT), Indian Institute of Fashion
Fashion in India Technology (11FT) and other fashion academis have been
•• In Indian History the kinds of costumes and accessories established where the students are taught to translate their
worn can be seen to fulfill two criteria : simplicity and creativity into dresses and fabric designs.
opulence. •• Today the fashion designers from India have created a
•• Amarakosha and the Brihat–kalpa–sutra ancient works lasting impression on the world market. Ravi Bajaj, Ritu
mention a range of subjects including textiles and Beri, Gitanjali Kashyap, Rohit. Bal have designed various
garments. fashion lines.
 History of painting music
& Dance in iNdia

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 3 economic geography of
the world

Introduction

The demographic data for each country in each region NCERT TOPICS Covered
of India indicate the region’s human geography. Urban
percentages, family size, income levels, and the other data
CLASS 8 & 12
that can indicate the lifestyle or development level are •• Primary activities
acutely helpful in understanding the trends in India. The •• Agriculture
index of economic development illustrates the dynamics •• Subsistence Agriculture
and conditions that exist in the realm. The data indicate the •• Intensive Subsistence Agriculture
•• Plantation Agriculture
consistency of economic and development trends across
•• Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation
Africa. The data does not, however, indicate differences
•• Mixed Farming
in cultural dynamics and uniqueness in the ways that local
•• Dairy Farming
people live. The interesting part of studying India is the •• Mediterranean Agriculture
many ethnic and cultural groups in each country that bring •• Market Gardening and Horticulture
to the surface a wide array of global diversity in our human •• Co-operative Farming
community. •• Factors Affecting Mining Activity
Within each and every country are microcosms of •• Secondary activities
human societies that hold particular customs that may be •• Manufacturing
thousands of years old. Globalization and technological •• Classification of Manufacturing Industries
advancements challenge every cultural group to adapt and •• Transport
innovate to make a living yet provide continuity in their •• Modes of world transportation(Land,Water,Air)
heritage. The remote cultural groups of India are most •• Railways
susceptible to the volatile nature of globalization, which •• Sea Routes and inland waterways.
threatens their current way of life.

Economic geography deals with the economic activities of Secondary Activities refer to the process of the value addition
human beings based upon the location, distribution and spatial to natural resources by transforming the raw materials
organization as parts of Human Geography. Human activities into essential finished product. Hence secondary activities
meant for earning livelihood are known as economic activities. are basically manufacturing, processing and construction
On the basis of resources and techniques used for performing industries.
these activities, they are divided into primary, secondary and Tertiary Activities involve the third level of human activities
tertiary activity. such as exchange of manufactured products i.e. trade and
Primary activities are the direct interaction of human with commerce.
environment that refers to the utilisation of earth’s resources With the advancement of new interventions these categorization
such as land, water, vegetation, building materials and minerals. has given rise to specialized services which can be termed as
Agriculture, pastoral farming, fishing, forestry, mining and Quaternary and Quinary services.
quarrying etc. are categorized into primary economic activity.
 28
Primary Activities West Indies, Spanish and Americans introduced coconut and
sugarcane plantation in Philippines.
Agriculture Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation is practiced for
It is the process of producing food, feed and fiber through the wheat mainly followed by other crops such as corns, barley,
cultivation of plants, and rearing livestock and is also known oats, rye. The farming is fully mechanized as the farms are
as farming. About 50% of the world’s population is engaged comparatively larger than the regular farms. This type of
in agriculture. In India as the land and climatic conditions are agriculture is profoundly done in the European Steppes,
favorable for carrying out agricultural activities more than Canadian Prairies, and Argentinean Pampas, the Velds of
2/3rd of the population is dependent on agriculture for their South Africa and Australian Down and Canterbury Plains of
livelihood. The land utilized for agriculture is known as arable New Zealand.
land. Mixed Farming is usually done for the farms of medium size.
The system of agriculture varies based on the method of Wheat is again the primary crop followed by barley, oats, rye,
farming, type of crop grown, cropping season etc., and they maize, fodder and root crops. The crops are being grown in
are as follows. rotation and intercropping plays an important role in maintaining
Subsistence Agriculture is the localized agricultural practice soil fertility. Both crop cultivation and animal husbandry have
where the agricultural products are taken up by the producers given equal importance. One of its important characteristics is
or farmers only. It can be of two types: its high capital expenditure on farm machinery and building and
Primitive Subsistence Agriculture is the-age old practice of the other is the extensive use of chemical fertilizers. This kind of
farming where people used to burn or slash large vegetative farming is done usually in the developed countries of the world
coverage and made them usable for agriculture. After a period such as North Western Europe, parts of Eurasia and the temperate
of two to three years when the land started losing its fertility latitude of southern continents.
they shifted to some other area and usually repeat the same Dairy Farming is the advanced level of farming in the
procedure. Hence, it is also called as Shifting Cultivation categories of milch animals. These are also capital intensive
(Jhum cultivation). This process was adopted by the nomads farming mainly facilitates animal shedding, storage of fodder,
or tribes of tropics, mainly in Africa, South and Central feeding and mulching machine, cattle breading health care and
America and South East Asia. In different parts of the world veterinary services etc. There is no off season for this type of
it has been named differently such as Jhum in North Eastern farming. These are extensively performed in north Western
state of India, Milpa in Central America and Mexico, Ladang Europe, Canada and South Eastern Australia, New Zealand
in Indonesia and Malaysia. and Tasmania
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture is generally monsoon Mediterranean Agriculture is highly specialized type of
driven agriculture and mainly practised in Asia. It is further agriculture generally practiced in the countries on the either
divided into two categories. They are: side of the Mediterranean sea in Europe and in north Africa,
•• Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by wet from Tunisia to Atlantic Coast, South California, Central
paddy where the dominant crop is rice. This is generally Chile, south western part of South Africa and Australia. This
practised in the areas of comparatively large population Kind of farming generally emphasizes on the production of
and the farm yard manure is used to maintain the fertility Citrus fruits.
of the soil. Viticulture is otherwise known as the cultivation of Grapes
•• Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by crops especially in the Mediterranean region. These high quality
other than paddy where the relief, climate and soil along grapes are used for the production of best quality wines with
with geographical location plays a major role in crop distinctive flavor and the inferior quality grapes are dried to
growth. Hence these factors are all together responsible produce raisins and currants. Olives and figs are also cultivated
for growing of crop other than paddy, such as wheat in in these regions. These crops are grown normally in winters
western India. Wheat, sorghum, barley, soyabean in and therefore in great demand in European and North America
northern China, Manchuria, North Korea and North market. It is very useful for wine production.
Japan.
Market Gardening and Horticulture are the specialized crop
Plantation Agriculture is the farming which is being practised
production of high value where vegetables, fruits and flowers
in comparatively large estates with the support of huge capital
are exclusively grown for urban market. This can be grown
investment, advance managerial and technical aids, scientific
in small farms which are well connected with urban centers.
methods of cultivation, cheap labour and well-connected
The essential factors of this practice are better irrigation
market. Some of the major crops of plantation agriculture are
facility, High Yield Variety of seeds, fertilizers, insecticides,
tea, coffee, cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, banana, and pineapple.
greenhouses and artificial heating in cold regions. This kind
Plantation farming was introduced in European colonies of farming is famous in densely populated industrial district
situates over tropics. Later on the French introduced coffee of north western Europe, north eastern United States and
and cocoa in Africa, British set up tea plantation in India and Mediterranean region. The world famous Tulip is being grown
Srilanka, rubber in Malayasia and sugarcane and banana in in Netherlands and flown to all major cities of Europe,
 29
The kind of specialized farming being done in the area of growth without hampering the land or the farming practice.
vegetable farming is known as Truck Farming as it is named These movement were originated a centuries ago and has
after the distance that a truck can cover over night for supplying been implemented in European countries such as Denmark,
vegetables. Belgium, Sweden, Italy.
Co-operative Farming is meant to pull in the resources of the
society more efficiently and use them as the capital for crop

Rank of countries in Agricultural production

Product First Second Third
Barley Russia France Germany
Buckwheat China Russia France
Maize (corn) United States China Brazil
Millet India Niger Sudan
Oats Russia Canada Spain
Rice( paddy) China India Indonesia
Rye Germany Poland Russia
Sorghu United States Nigeria Sudan
Tritical Poland Germany France
Wheat China India Russia
Lettuce and chicory China United States India
Dry Bean India Myanmar Brazil
Onion (dry) China India United States
Cabbage and other brassicas China India Russia

Green bean China Indonesia India

Chickpea India Australia Myanmar
Pulses (total) India Poland Mozambique
Cauliflowers and Broccoli China India United States
Eggplant China India Egypt
Potato China India Russia
Spinach China United States Japan
Cassava (yuca) Nigeria Brazil Thailand
Soybean Brazil United States Argentina
Carrots and turnips China Uzbekistan Russia
Cucumber China Russia Turkey
Ginger India Nigeria China
Pumpkin, squash and gourd China India Russia
Rapeseed Canada China India
Safflower Kazakhstan Russia Mexico
Yams Nigeria Ghana Ivory Coast
Sugar cane Brazil India Thailand
Sweet potato China Nigeria Tanzania
Sesame Tanzania Myanmar India
 30
Okra India Nigeria Sudan
Apricot Turkey Uzbekistan Iran
Olive Spain Italy Morocco
Pear China United States Italy
Banana India Brazil China
Coconut Indonesia Philippines India
Fig Turkey Egypt Morocco
Grapes China Italy United States
Oranges Brazil China India
Apple China United States Poland
Pineapple Costa Rica Brazil Philippines
Strawberry China United States Mexico
Milk (cow) United States India Russia
Milk (buffalo) India Pakistan China
Milk (goat) India Sudan Bangladesh

Mining km from the shore of Lake Superior. The Great Lakes

provide cheap mode of transport.
Mining is associated with the exploration of new land with II. Alabama Region: Ore is mined in the Red mountains and
enormous of mineral resources. The improvement of mining Birmingham Valley in this region. These fields lie to the
has begun with period of industrial revolution and since then Southern end of the Appalachian Mountains. Haematite
its importance is continuously increasing. and magnetite ore are mined here.
Distribution of Major Minerals Resources in the World III. Others: Northern New Jersey, the states of Utah, Nevada,
Montana, California.
Iron Ore CANADA: There are 3 main areas of iron ore in Canada
Iron ore is the raw material used to make pig iron, which is which are located in Lake Superior region i.e. Ontario, Quebec
one of the main raw materials to make steel. 98% of the mined and New foundland / Belle Isle. The main centres being
iron ore is used to make steel. Indeed, it has been argued that Schefferville and wabush city.
iron ore is “more integral to the global economy than any other FRANCE: Lorraine fields are important.In France Iron
commodity, except perhaps oil”. ore mining is also being done in Normandy, the Pyrenees
Iron is the sixth most abundant element in the Universe, and Mountains and scattered fields of the Central massif.
the most common refractory element. It is estimated that the GERMANY: Ore of Germany is poor in iron content. Iron ore
earth has iron to the tune of 5% of its weight. is mined at Volgelsberg, Sudetanland, West Phalia, Saxony and
There are four main types of ores in the world: Salzgitter region South east of Hanover.
1. Magnetite: Iron content upto 72%, It is black mineral SPAIN: Spain has large deposits of Iron ore in the North West
found in igneous or metamorphic rocks. It has excellent part of the country near Bilbao on the Bay of Biscay. Santander
magnetic qualities. and Oviedo are other regions from where haematite is mined.
2. Haematite: Iron content upto 68%. They are red ore Iron ore content is 50% The Cantabrian region produces most
derived from sedimentary rocks and occur in crystalline of output of Spain.
or in powdery form. UK: Iron ore mining in the UK is carried on in Cleveland,
3. Limonite: Iron content upto 60%. This is brown ore
Midland and Scottish fields.
occurring in thick beds in sedimentary rock sequence or
in swamps or lakes. AUSTRALIA: Important iron ore fields in Western Australia
4. Siderite: Siderite with 40-50% of iron content is of most are located at Mt. Goldsworthy, Mt. Whaleback, Mt. Bruce,
inferior quality. Mt. Tom Price.
Regional Distribution Japan: Japan has small quantity of iron ore in the islands of
Honshu and Hokkaido.
U.S.A: Major iron ore producing region of U.S.A. can be
Brazil: Districts of Minas Gerais and Itabira.
discussed under 3 heads:
I. Lake Superior Region: In this region Mesabi is by far AFRICA: Africa accounts for nearly 10% of the world output
the most outstanding. It lies in the Minnesota State 100 of iron ore. Northern countries like Algeria, Tunisia, Liberia
and Mauritania are important iron ore producing region. The
 31
West African countries like Sierra Leone and Guinea have also Bihar, Jharkhand, MP, Andhra Pradesh, and Rajasthan.
Iron ore. •• Jharkhand State: Hazaribagh and Singhbhum
CHINA: China has large iron ore deposits, of which the •• Andhra Pradesh: Agnigundal
Manchurian deposits at Anshan are the most important. Other •• M.P.: Malanikhand in Balaghat district
ore regions are the Lower Yangtze at Anshan and Tayeh, the •• Rajasthan: Dariba and Khetri
Chungking area, and around Taiyuan. Gold
INDIA: Iron ore is located in a number of states of India like It is a dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal with a bright
Orissa, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, yellow colour and lustre. It is one of the least reactive chemical
Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. elements, solid under standard conditions.
Odisha: Here Iron ore deposits are located at Mayurbhanj,
Distribution
Keonjhar, Cuttack, Koraput, Sundergarh district.
BIHAR AND JHARKHAND: Noamundi and Gua are SOUTH AFRICA: South Africa is the largest producer of
important areas of ore deposits. Gold. The Witwatersrand is the leading gold producing
centre of the world. The main gold producing areas in South
MADHYA PRADESH AND CHHATTISGARH: Haemitite
Africa are:
deposits are found in the Durg and Bastar districts.
•• Rand Fields:- These fields are located in Southern
MAHARASHTRA: Iron ore deposits are in the Chandrapur Transvaal; The Western mines of Kimberlay, Bird Reefs
and Ratnagiri districts. and the Livingston Reefs; The others are Cape of Good
ANDHRA PRADESH: Warrangal Kurnool districts. Hope, Natal and Orange Free State.
Copper CANADA: Canada is the second largest producer. Canadian
Shield is the most important gold mining area. Red lake in
It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical
western Ontario, Quebec, British Columbia and North Western
conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; a freshly
Territory are major gold producing areas.
exposed surface has a reddish-orange colour. It is used as a
conductor of heat and electricity, a building material, and a USA: California, Arizona, Dakota, Colorado, Idaho, Montana
constituent of various metal alloys. It does not occur free in and Alaska are important gold producing areas in USA.
nature. It is found mixed with Gold, Silver, Lead and Zinc. CHINA : Main gold producing regions in China are Dazuhohan
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. region and Shandong province. Other like Laizhon-Zhaoyuan
region of northwest Jiaodong peninsula is also a major gold
Regional Distribution
producing region.
90% of copper reserves are concentrated in the five regions of AUSTRALIA : Regions in Australia are Cadia Valley in New
the world: South Wales, Saddleback greenstone belt. Victoria state and
South Central Africa, Chile, Western USA, Kazakhstan and Kalgoorlie. Boulder in Western Australia.
Canada Sudbury district. RUSSIA : Russia’s gold resources are found in the Country’s
CHILE: Copper mining is done in Northern Chile. The main eastern region and Siberia. Kransno Yarsk region in Eastern
area is Chuquicamata. Other important centres are El Teniente, Siberia, Irkutsk Oblast region of South-eastern Siberia
Potrerillos and Brader. The ore is of excellent quality. Chukotka region of Far East Russia and northern Pacific Coast
USA: Copper is mainly produced in Western States of USA. in the Magadan region are main gold producing regions in
Important states of copper mining are Utah, Nevada Arizona, Russia.
Miami, Globe, Montana, New Mexico. INDIA: India is a minor producer of gold. Gold mines of
CANADA: Copper is mined in the Sudbury (Ontario), Flin Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh states have a near monopoly
Flon (Manitoba), Noranda (Quebec), Princeton (British of gold production. In Karnataka Kolar gold fields and
Colombia). Hutti mines and in Andhra Pradesh Ramgiri in Anantpuram
ZAIRE AND ZAMBIA: The richest area for copper ore district and Chigargunta mines in Chitoor district are
mining is Katanga in Africa. important areas.
KAZAKHSTAN: The exploitation of copper is done near Silver
Lake Balkash. The main centers are Kounrad, Nikolayvesk
A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it possesses the highest
and Zhezkazgan (Dzhezkazgan).
electrical conductivity of any element and the highest thermal
RUSSIA: There are two important copper areas Ural and Kala
conductivity of any metal.
Peninsula and Norilsk.
MEXICO: The main centers are Santa Rosalia, Around Regional Distribution
Chihuahua and Northern part of Mexico. Mexico: Major production comes from mines in Pachuca in
EUROPE: In Europe copper is exploited in Spain, the state of Hidalgo and the state of Chihuahua.
Germany(Mansfield), Norway, and Sweden ( Falun mine) . USA: Idaho,Arizona, Utah and Montana.
INDIA: The main states known for Copper production a re Kazakhshtan western Siberia.
 32
Myanmar: The Bawdwin and Namtu area of Myanmar make Bauxite
it the largest producer in Asia.
Bauxite is the ore from which Aluminium is refined. It is used
India: Its production comes from Zawar mines in Rajasthan. for manufacturing aircrafts, automobiles, rail wagons, coaches,
Platinum machinery.
Canada is the largest producer (60%) with mining centres in Distribution and Production
Ontario and British Columbia. Russia has the largest reserves These are bauxite rich areas:
of platinum in the world but comes second in production (20%). Western and Central Africa (mostly Guinea), South Africa
Other major producers are South Africa, USA and Australia. (Brazil, Venezuela, Suriname), the Caribbean (Jamaica),
Manganese Oceania and Southern Asia (Australia, India), China,the
Mediterranean (Greece, Turkey) and the Urals (Russia).
It is used in the production of steel. The important producers
Australia is the leading producer in the world. Jamaica and
of manganese are Russia, India, South Africa, Ghana, Brazil
Brazil are other leading producers.
and USA.
Bauxite is mostly mined in tropical regions but Aluminium
The Nikopol and tokmak in Ukraine and Chaitura district in
is manufactured in developed countries where cheap electric
Georgia supply about 90% of the region’s total production of
energy is abundantly available.
manganese ore. Other mining regions in CIS are Urals, Usa in
Kuzbas and Jashno-Chingan near Amur River. •• In Australia, bauxite is mined from Weipa lying east of
the Gulf of Carpentaria.
India is the second largest producer of manganese in the world.
•• In USA it is mined from Arkansas.
Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Maharashtra, Goa, Jharkhand, Tamil •• China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Turkey and India are leading
Nadu and Karnataka are major manganese deposit states. bauxite producing countries in Asia.
Brazil has deposits near Lafayette district in the Minas Gerais. •• In India, Jharkhand, M.P., Chattisgarh, Maharashtra,
South Africa has deposits near Postmasburg in Cape Provinces. Tamil Nadu and Karnataka are the major bauxite
Chile has manganese ore mined near Coquimbo. producing states.
Ghana also has deposits of high grade manganese. Aluminium Production: USA, Canada, Japan, China and
Norway have cheap electricity and they have many smelters
Tungsten producing Aluminium.
It is used because it retains hardness and toughness even at
Lead
high temperature. It is almost essential in modern metallurgy,
particularly in making of alloy steels. When mixed with tin, it forms a rust resisting coating for steel.
China (31%): Kiangsu and Kwantung provinces. Its resistance to corrosion makes it exceptionally valuable for
plumbing fixtures, storage batteries and for cable.
Russia (19%): Tyrnyauz in the Caucasus; Majchura north of
Duschambe and Bogutin; east of Alma Ata. The countries producing lead are Australia, USA, Mexico,
Canada and Peru.
USA: Nevada, Utah and Idaho.
In India, the Zawar mines in Udaipur district of Rajasthan is
Chromium the major producer of lead ore in India.
Chromium is essential for steel manufacturing. One of the Zinc
common use of chromium is in plating other metals. It is hard,
silvery metal with bluish and metallic lustre. It is found in association with presence of other metals,
especially lead. So zinc producing districts coincide with lead
Distribution producing areas.
South Africa is the leading producer in the world. USA, Canada, Australia, Mexico and Japan are the main zinc
The reserves are in the Central Ural Mountain area and in producing countries in the world.
the northwest in the Perm area known as Saranoy district. In Europe, zinc ore is mined on a fairly large scale in Germany,
Chromtay in Urals also has Chromium. Poland, Italy and Kosovo.
Other producers are Turkey, Kazakhstan, Finland, Philippines, In India, its production comes from the Zawar mines in
India and Brazil. In India its deposits lie in Karnataka, Udaipur district of Rajasthan and Arcot district of Tamil Nadu.
Maharashtra.
Tin
Nickel It is used for coating thin sheets of steel as it is corrosion
It is used in making stainless steel and for electroplating and resisting. It is also used in the canning industry and as an alloy
also in making armaments. with copper in bronze.
Indonesia is the leading producer of the world production. Malaysia is the leading producer in the world accounting for
Main production regions are sulawesi region, and Maluku. 20% of world total output. Kinta valley alone accounts for the
In India, it is found in the Cuttack and Mayurbhanj districts half of Malaysian output.
of Odisha. Russia is the second largest producer while Indonesia is the third.
 33
In China tin is produced in Yunnan and Guangxi. Secondary Activities
Nigeria and Congo are the main suppliers in Africa.
Manufacturing is the process of transforming natural
Bolivia in South America is an important producer of tin ore. resources to usable finished product as some of the raw
Mica material cannot be used in its crude form.
It is flexible, tough and resilient. It is non conductor and hence Classification of Industries
makes an ideal electrical insulator. Manufacturing industries can be classified on the basis of
India supplies about 80% of the world’s output. Gaya- their size, input or raw material, output/product and ownership.
Hazaribagh belt in Jharkhand, Nellore in Andhra Pradesh and
1. Industries based on Size
Rajasthan are the principal areas of production. Jharkhand
accounts for 50% of India’s total production of mica. •• Cottage or Household industries are the smallest
manufacturing units producing finished products using
China, USA, Japan, France and Germany are the principal
localized raw materials and simplest manufacturing tools.
buyer’s of India’s mica.
The finished products are being sold in the local market only.
Asbestos •• Small scale industries are the unit which provide finished
It is used in the manufacture of fireproof safes and vaults. It is product using local raw materials but sometimes these are
manufactured by simple power driven machinery with
also a good insulator of electricity.
semi skilled labour. It provides employment opportunities
The leading producers of asbestos in the world are Russia, to the local people, hence raising their local purchasing
Kazakhstan and China. power. These industries are quite famous in countries like
In India its deposit lies in Rajasthan, Odisha, M.P., Karnataka India, China, Indonesia and Brazil.
and Andhra Pradesh. •• Large scale industries involve large markets, raw
Gypsum material from various sources, specialized workers and
hi-tech machinery for production as well as assemblage
It is used in the manufacture of various plasters and cement. of various finished products. It has first introduced around
USA is the largest producer in the world (32%). 200 years ago in United Kingdom, north–eastern USA
Iran, China are other leading producers. and Europe but it has spread to almost all over world.
2. Industries based on Input/Raw Material used
Diamonds
•• Agro based industry is the industry which uses raw
South Africa is the world’s largest producer.
materials from field and farm and turns them into finished
Other producers are Ghana, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Angola and product such as sugar, pickle, fruit juice, beverages like
Tanzania. Russia, Brazil, Venezuela and India also produce tea and coffee, spices and oil, fats and textiles (cotton,
diamonds. jute, silk), rubber, etc.
Rank of countries in mineral production •• Mineral based industries use only minerals as their raw
materials which further categorized into metal and non-
Minerals First Second Third
metal minerals. The non- metal mineral industries are
Coal China India USA cement, pottery industry. But the metallic minerals are
Natural gas USA Russia Iran further divided into ferrous (which contain iron particle
Petroleum fuel USA Saudi Arabia Russia in it) and non ferrous (which does contain iron particle
Diamond Russia Botswana Australia in the metal)
•• Chemical based industry involves natural chemical
Aluminium China India Russia
minerals such as mineral- oil, petroleum, salt, sulphur,
Bauxite Australia China Guinea potash. At times raw materials are obtained from coal and
Lead China Australia USA wood. Some of the finished products are synthetic fiber,
Copper Chile Peru China plastics, and Petroleum products like Vaseline etc.
Gold China Australia Russia •• Forest based industry uses forest products as their raw
materials such as log of woods bamboo, and grasses are
Iron ore Australia Brazil China used to produce finished product such as paper, wooden
Manganese South Africa Australia China furniture etc.
Mica China Russia Brazil •• Animal based industries involve raw material extracted
Nickel Indonesia Philippines Russia from animal either live or dead. Leather and wool are
such type of industries.
Platinum South Africa Russia Zimbabwe
3. Industries based on Output/ Finished Product
Silver Peru China Australia
Tungsten China Vietnam Russia •• Basic industries are those industries whose finished
products are being used as the raw material for other
Cadmium China Japan Korea Republic industries like iron and steel industries, cotton textile
Zinc China Peru Australia industries etc.
 34
•• Consumer based industries are the manufacturers France Lille Textiles
of those goods which can be directly consumed by the
consumer such as bread, biscuits, tea, soaps, paper, Dunkirus Iron & Steel
toiletries etc. These are also called non-basic goods. St. Etienne Armaments & Bicycle
4. Industries based on Ownership Limoges Pottery
•• Public Sector Industries are owned and managed Lyone Silk making
by Government only and also called as Public Sector Marseilles Oil refineries
Undertakings (PSU). In some countries like India both
Paris Aircraft & Transport
central and state governments impose their authority on
the industries sometimes individually or jointly. Champaque Wine
•• Private Sector Industries are entirely owned and Lorrensar Iron & Steel
governed by private companies and hence called as Germany Frankfurt Railway engineering
Private Sector Undertaking.
•• Joint Sector Industries have shares and participation of (Ruhr- Mainz Leather, Brewing,
both Private and Public sectors. Westphalia Mannheim Engineering
5. Industries based on weight region, served
Ludwigshafen
Chemical, electrical
•• Heavy industries involves heavy raw materials and their by engineering
Hamburg
production is also heavy; for example, iron and steel Rhine River, Iron & Steel.
Munich
industry. is the Shipbuilding
•• Light industries use comparatively lighter material as largest industrial
Stuttgart
Photographic
input and the finished product is also light; for example, Aachen
region of equipment, Musical
electrical industries. Leipzig
Germany instrument
Major industrial centres of the world Jena Zeiss
This industrial Automobile
Country Major Industrial Industries Dresden
region is Iron & Steel, Textile
Centers Karl Marx Stadt
connected Optical instrument
Britain Birmingham Iron & Steel, Heavy
(Midland is the Coventry Machinery to North sea by Photographic
largest Burton-on-Trent Automobile Dortmund-Ems equipment Porcelain
Industrial Stoke-on-Trent Brewing (largest canal) Textiles
region centered New Castle brewery town of Belgium Liege Iron & Steel, Guns,
at Birmingham) Middlesbrough Britain) Antwerp pistols & other
Ghent firearms
Bradford Pottery (Pottery capital Diamond cutting
Halifax of Britain) Linen textiles
Leeds Shipbuilding Luxemburg Luxemburg city Engineering
Sheffield (World’s Iron & Steel
Netherland Rotterdam Shipbuilding and
largest Worsted textile
Amsterdam marine engineering
cutlery town) Garments
Arnhem Diamond cutting
Manchester Cutlery, Iron & Steel
Tin smelting
(Lancashire Cotton textile
region) Shipbuilding Sweden Goteborg Shipbuilding
Liverpool & Heavy chemicals Stockholm Shipbuilding
Birkenhead Iron & Steel Switzerland Zurich Engineering and
Along Shipbuilding Basel Textiles
Manchester Canal Shipbuilding & Baden Engineering
Glasgow Linen industry
Hamilton Denmark Copenhagen Dairy
Motherwell
Coatbridge Italy Milan (main Silk textile
Port Glasgow industrial region) Motor Car
Belfast region Turin (Detroit of
(Main industrial Italy)
region of Ireland)
 35
U.S.A. Boston Shipbuilding Japan Nagoya (Detroit Aircraft, Car,
(Great Lake Pittsburgh Iron and Steel of Japan) Machinery
region) Akron (Iron & Steel capital of Osaka Shipbuilding, Textile,
is the most Detroit the world) (Manchester of Iron & Steel
important Pontiac World’s largest Japan) Shipbuilding, Textile,
industrial Flint synthetic Kyoto and Kobe Iron & Steel
region Tokyo Shipbuilding,
Gary
Nagasaki Engineering, and
Chicago rubber and tyre making
Textile
Toledo centre
Shipbuilding, Iron and
Birmingham Motor car and
Steel, Machinery
Troy Aeroplane
Buffalo Cars and their spare Tertiary Activities
San Francisco parts Tertiary Activities focus both on production and exchange.
(Silicon Valley) Iron and Steel Here production involves provision of services which are to be
Automobile consumed. There is no such involvement of physical processing
Iron and Steel of raw material rather it’s a service meant for exchanging the
Garment finished product. Services such as Trade and Transports belong
Iron and Steel, to Tertiary economic activities.
Machine Transport
(It is also the largest It is a service which facilitates the process of trading of
flour milling centre of people, materials and manufactured products with ease. In
U.S.A.) Oil refining, other words it is the organized industry to satisfy man’s
Shipbuilding, need of mobility. On the basis of the modes of transport it
Computer technology can be of four types:
Canada Montreal Shipbuilding and •• Land Transport is the most preferred transportation
Toronto Aircraft system with reference to the movement of human beings,
Ottawa Engineering and animals and goods from one location to another. The
Hamilton Automobile two vital media which facilitate land transport across the
Birmingham) Paper world are Roads and Railways.
of Canada) Iron and Steel, Road Transport
Quebec Engineering •• Germany was the first country to develop nation-wide
Shipbuilding & Marine highway network.
Engineering •• U.s.a. has the largest highway network in the world
Russia Moscow and Iron and Steel, followed by India.
Gorky Chemicals •• Highway 401 in Ontario (Canada) is the busiest highway
Magnitogost Iron and Steel, Oil and is the widest in world.
refining •• The Karakoram highway in Pakistan to China is the
Leningrad (St.
highest international highway in world.
Petersburg) Textile, Chemical,
•• China was the world’s largest network of express ways
Paper
network which extends over 1,23,000 km. USA ranks
Ukraine Krivoyrog Iron & Steel and second in terms of expressways (7,7017).
Heavy Machinery •• Transport Canadian Highway links Victoria with St.
Argentina Buenos Aires Shipbuilding John City (7,821 km).
China Shanghai Textile and Machinery •• Alaskan Highway joins the city of Anchorage in Alaska
Wuhan Textile, Machinery, to Edmonton in Canada covering a distance of 2,237 km.
Shipbuilding, •• Pan American Highway is the largest international
Iron and Steel highway linking USA, Central America and South
America. It covers a distance (30,000 km).
 36
•• Stuart Highway is the longest highway in Australia; •• Trans-Siberian Rail Route: It connects St. Petersburg
starting from Darwin in north Australia it reaches upto to Vladivostok.
Melbourne situated in South Australia. •• Trans-Caucasus Rail Route: It starts from Batumi, cross
Road transport is the most important communication medium Tergana and reaches Krusk.
as it facilitates door to door services for transporting goods and •• North Trans Continental Rail Route: It originates at
hence becoming the backbone of world’s economic and social Seattle (USA) New York.
infrastructure. •• Mid-Trans Continental Rail Route: It joins San
Rail Transport Francisco to New York.
•• Southern Trans Continental Rail Routes: It runs from
The first steam locomotive was built in 1804 in United
Los Angeles to New York and then reaches New Orleans.
Kingdom. The first ever mechanised rail transport was
•• Oriental Express Rail Route: Connects Paris to
introduced by England and ever since railways have remained
Kustuntunia (Turkey)
as an important means of land transport.
•• Cape-Cairo Rail Route: It is the longest rail route of Africa
•• United States (202500 km), China (1,39,000 km) and
running from Cape Town in Southern part of continent
India (95981) rank from first to third respectively in
and reaches Cairo near the coast of Mediterranean sea
world scenario of largest railway networks.
situated in the northern part of continent.
•• India ranks first in carrying passenger per year by rail.
•• Trans-Andean Rail Route: Starting from Valparaiso
•• Steam engine was invented by Thomas Newcomen and
(Chile) reaches other end of the continent running west to
was improved by James Watt.
east to Buenos Aires (Argentina).
•• The first full-scale working railway steam locomotive
•• Trans-Australian Continental Rail Route: It connects
was built in the United Kingdom in 1804 by Richard
west end of Australia to east end starting from Perth and
Trevithick.
reaches Sydney.
•• In 1811, John Blenkinsop designed first successful and
Trans-Asiatic Railways Line: This is a proposed project of
practical railway locomotives.
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia
•• Dieselization was the replacement of steam locomotive
and Pacific to create an integrated freight railway network
with the diesel locomotive. This began in 1930s.
across Europe and Asia. It will connect 28 countries
•• Electrification of rail was started by Robert Davidson in
including China, Thailand Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Iran
1838 in the form of electrical railway car.
and Turkey.
•• The Trans-Australian Railway includes the largest straight
stretch of the world: 301 miles without any curve. Water Transport
•• Qinghai-Tibet Railway in China is the world’s highest Water transport is considered to be one of the oldest forms
train journey, reaching the height of 5,072 m above sea of transport. It is cheapest mode of transport. The cost of
level at the Tanggula Pass. production alongwith the cost of operation is also low incase
•• World’s longest railway tunnel is the Seikan Tunnel, of water transport. There are evidences which show that
connecting Japan’s northern Hokkaida Island with boats were used in the form of dugout canoe (a boat made
Honshu. It is 33.46 miles long. from a hallowed tree trunk) in ancient period. It is considered
•• The Napier to Gisborne Railway line is unique, as it that Egyptians probably were the first to use sail boat. The
crosses the main runway of Gisborne Airport. Mesopotamian and Indus valley civilization excavation have
•• The Venice Simplon-Orient-Express is the train against shown the presences of harbours and ports.
which all other luxury trains are measured. Water transportation includes canals, lakes, rivers, seas and
•• The Trans-Siberian Railway is the longest rail line in oceans. It is mainly divided into two categories:
the world. It connects St. Petersburg to Vladivostok via Sea Routes
Moscow. Since 1916 its branches stretches into Mongolia,
Oceans provide smooth traversable highway in all direction
China and North Korea. It runs 9,332 kilometers (5,798.6
with low maintenance cost. Major sea routes are:
miles) and takes full week to cover this distance.
The North Atlantic Sea Route
•• Trans-continental Railways are connecting one part of a
continent to its other part. It links two major industrially developed regions of the world
Major Trans-Continental Railways of the World such as North-Eastern USA and North-Western Europe.
•• Canadian Pacific Rail Route: It runs from Halifax to The Mediterranean-Indian Ocean Sea Route
Vancouver It is considered to be the most important sea route as it serves
•• Canadian National Rail Route: It joins St. John City to more countries and people; this route includes Port Said, Aden,
Vancouver. Mumbai, Colombo, and Singapore. The distance covered by
 37
this route has drastically reduced with the construction of Suez is preferred by passengers for travelling across countries or
Canal. sending cargoes across countries. The growth of Air Transport
The cape of Good Hope Sea Route has reduced the travel time across the world to a great extent.
But keeping in view the manufacturing of aircrafts and its
It connects west European and West African countries with
associated elaborated infrastructure like hangars, landing,
Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay in South America.
fuelling and maintaining these facilities, the air transport is
The North Pacific Sea Route
considered to be the costliest among all transportation system.
It is connecting Western Europe, North America with
Inter-continental Air routes
Australian countries and is used for reaching Hong Kong,
•• These are the distinct air routes of Northern Hemisphere.
Philippines and Indonesia. Honolulu is the most important sea
Denser network of these Air routes is available in Eastern
port of this route.
U.S.A, Western Europe and Southeast Asia.
Inland Water Transport •• U.S.A. only accounts for 60% of the total network.
Rivers, Canals, Lakes and Coastal area the important •• The major nodal points or airports of this intercontinental
components of inland water transport as they facilitate air route are New York, London, Paris, Frankfurt, Rome,
transportation of goods and services with in the country. Moscow, Karachi, New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangkok,
Boats and steamers are the important means of transport. The Singapore, Tokyo, San Francisco, Los Angeles and
significant waterways of the world are: Chicago.
The Rhine Waterway •• Africa, Asiatic part of Russia and South America are
deprived of any such services.
River Rhine flows through Germany and Netherland. It is
•• There are few air services which are available only
navigable for 700 km. It serves industrial areas of Switzerland,
between 100 and 350 latitude in the southern hemisphere.
Germany, France, Belgium and the Netherlands.
The Danube Waterway Pipeline Transport
River Danube serves Eastern Europe as it rises from Black •• It is the excellent mode of transporting gaseous liquid
forest and flows eastward through many countries. The matters from one place to another.
navigation is possible only upto Turnu Severin, this river •• Cooking gas or LPG oil and natural gas are the items that
transport facilitates the export of wheat, maize, timber and can be transported extensively through pipelines in many
machinery. parts of the world.
•• In some countries like New Zealand, milk is supplied
The Volga Waterways
from farms to factories with the help of pipelines.
Volga is one of important water ways of Russia which provides •• In U.S.A, oil is one of the major products which are
a navigable water route of 11,200 km and it drains into Caspian transported through pipeline from producing areas to
Sea. consuming areas. Some of the other countries transporting
The Great Lake - St. Lawrence Seaways oil through pipelines are Europe, Russia, West Asia and
Together with canal and welland canal, the Great lake of North India.
America Superior, Huron, Erie and Ontario forms the Great •• Big Inch is one of the famous pipelines which connect
lakes - St. Lawrence Seaways. Major ports of this route are the oil wells of the Gulf of Mexico to the North-eastern
Duluth and Buffalo. States.
•• There is proposal of 1840 km TAPI (Turkmenistan –
Air Transport
Afghanistan –Pakistan – India) pipeline for transportation
It is the fastest way of transport but at the same time it is the of natural gas.
costliest among the all medium of communication, still it
 Economic Geography
of the World

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 4 Administration and Economy
under the Company Rule

Introduction

The year 1757 started a memorable NCERT TOPICS Covered

period in the annals of British Raj
in India. With the defeat and death CLASS 8 •• Indian Textiles and the World Market
•• Indian textiles in European markets
of siraj-ud-Daulah at Plassey the •• Claim to paramountcy
•• Weavers
foundation of British Empire was •• Doctrine of Lapse
•• The decline of Indian textiles
laid in India. East India Company •• Setting up a New Administration
•• Cotton mills come up
was now granted the right to collect •• The Company Army
•• Abandoned furnaces in villages
revenue and also the right to free •• The Company becomes the Diwan
•• Iron and steel factories come up in India
trade. •• Revenue for the Company
•• The Need to Improve Agriculture CLASS 12
– The Problem •• Bengal and the Zamindars
•• A new system is devised
– The Munro System

The Regulating Act, 1773 diwani and Sadar Nizamat courts based on Indian Laws
or the Laws made by the Governor-General in Executive
•• It was the first act passed by British Parliament through Council, were also set up.
which the British government started ‘directing’ East India •• The zamindari rights were secure by the company’s servants
Company. in the name of their native servants or Banias. This practice
•• The system of dual administration in Bengal was a abolished. continued till 1793, by when a large part of Bengal’s land was
•• Warren Hastings was named as the governor General transferred to these banias from the traditional zamindars.
of Bengal and an executive council was created with four •• The Regulating Act, 1773 failed to clarify the relationship
members assisting the Governor-General. between the Governor-General and the Governors of Madras
•• The Act empowered the Governor-General in council to and Bombay Presidency even though.
make rules, ordinance and regulations for good order and •• Bombay and Madras presidency were subordinated to
civil government. The administration provided by Warren Bengal Presidency.
Hastings and Regulating Act had the following shortcomings:
•• The revenue collectors also had magisterial powers that Pitt’s India Act, 1784
denied the land-owners security from the oppression of the
The Pitt’s India Act, was an Act of Parliament of Britain which
officers.
was passed by East India Company in 1784 so as to adress the
•• Under Regulating Act, 1773, the power was given to
short comings of the Regulating Act of 1773.
Governor-General in Council, not to the Governor-General.
The decision had to be taken by the majority. This created a The important provisions were as follows:
practical problem for Warren Hastings, as the members of 1. A Board of Control was set up in England with six members
the executive council were not cooperative. including the President. Its members were called Commissioners.
•• The regulating act created dual judiciary. On the one hand 2. A court of directors consisting of 24 members was set up to
a Supreme Court was set up at Fort William at Calcutta for look after commercial functions. The court of directors war
Europeans, based on English law. On the other hand, Sadar made subservient to the Board of control.
 40
3. The Board of Control acquired access to all the papers of the •• Witness rule was changed, earlier a Muslim witness was
company and its approval was necessary for all dispatches treated to be more reliable than a non-Muslim.
relating to matters other than commercial business. •• Physical amputation was given up, instead, rigorous
4. The strength of executive council was reduced to three from imprisonment was introduced.
four. The Governor-General now needed the support of only •• Company’s employees, including collectors, were brought under
one member to have his way. the law. They could be tried in the court of law. Thus slowly, India
5. The Crown got the power to remove or recall any servant of moved towards ‘rule of law’ and ‘Equality before law’.
the company.
Thus Pitt’s India Act established British Parliament’s control over
Reforms Introduced by William Bentinck
Indian affairs. Through the Secretary of State it supervised, directed During the Governor-Generalship of William Bentinck
and controlled the Governor-General and Council in India. (1828-35) the following reforms were introduced:
1. Regional languages were permitted in the courts instead of Persian.
Administrative Reforms 2. Indians could be appointed upto Sadar Amin. The posts of
•• Lord Cornwallis as a Governor General (1786-93) initiated Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector were also created.
certain reforms in the administration. 3. Provincial Courts, set up by Cornwallis, were abolished because
•• He enforced the rules against private trade and acceptance of these courts failed to serve its objectives. The powers of these
bribes by officials with strictness. courts were transferred to magistrate and collectors under the
•• To check the corruption he raised the salaries of companies’ supervision of commissioners of Revenue and Circuit.
servants. 4. Section 87 of the Charter Act of 1833 provided that “no
•• He kept Indians outside of civil services, which he introduced Indian subject of the company in India was to be debarred
in 1793. from holding any office under the company by reason of his
•• It was officially announced, in 1793 that all the posts in civil religion, place of birth, descent and colour”. As expected, for
services, army, Police, Judiciary and engineering, in which the first four decades it remained only on paper but later, due
the salary is more than ` 500/annum would be given only to to consciousness among rising middle class, the British had
Englishmen. to recruit Indians in various capacity.
Judicial Reforms The Charter Act of 1793
Cornwallis brought a number of changes in the judiciary, collectively •• The Charter Act of 1793 extended the commercial
known as Cornwallis code. The Zamindars lost police and judicial privileges of the company for a further period of
functions. Land revenue collection was separated from the twenty years.
administration of justice and revenue court was abolished. Separate
•• Lord Cornwallis was given special power at the time
Diwani and Criminal Courts were set up.
of his appointment, to override his council but it was
Diwani Courts not extended to all Governors or Governors General by
•• The difference between lagan and money related cases ceased to the Charter of 1793.
exist. Diwani Court was to decide both kind of cases. Provisions of this Act were
•• The lowest court was ‘Munsif ki Adalat’, in which cases
pertaining to matter of value upto 50 Rupees could be heard. •• The Governor General was granted extensive powers
Munsif was an Indian. over the subordinate presidencies.
•• Registrar was above Munsif who could hear the case •• The Governor General’s power of over-ruling his
involving value of maximum 200 Rupees. council was affirmed, and extended over the Governors
•• District Court was above Registrar, in which English judges of the subordinate presidencies.
were assisted by learned Hindus and Muslims. •• Senior officials were forbidden from leaving India
•• Four provincial courts were set up at Calcutta, Dhaka, without permission.
Murshidabad and Patna. Here too the English judges were •• Royal approval was mandated for the appointment
helped by the Indian advisers. of the Governor General, the governors, and the
•• Highest court was Sadar-Diwani Adalat, where Governor- Commander-in-Chief.
General and his council delivered justice. •• The EIC was empowered to grant licences to both
•• The final appeal could be made in the office of English King individuals and Company employees to trade in India
and his council. (known as the “privilege” or “country” trade), which
Criminal Court paved the way for shipments of opium to China.
•• District criminal courts were set up, which were mobile and
whose judges were English.
The Charter Act of 1813
•• Four provincial criminal courts were set up at Murshidabad, •• The Charter Act of 1813 renewed the tenures of the
Calcutta, Dhaka and Patna. commercial privileges of the company.
•• Highest court of appeal, in criminal cases, was Sadar Nizamat, •• Moreover the Charter of 1813, envisaged that the company
which was headed by Governor General and his council. should function as the commercial body wholly.
•• Its political function was limited considerably.
Other Features of Cornwallis Code
•• The Diwani cases of Hindus were governed through their Provisions of the Act
Shastras, especially based on Manu Smriti. The Muslims, on •• The monopoly of trade of the company was abolished except
the other hand, were governed through Islamic Shariat. in tea and its trade with china.
•• The criminal court was primarily based on Islamic Shariat •• Church was placed under a Bishop which was maintained
with some changes, applicable to all, Hindus or Muslims. from Indian revenue.
 41
•• Englishmen were granted permission to settle and hold land •• The Charter Act of 1853 renewed the powers of the company
in India. but did not mention the specific time period.
•• The Christian missionaries were allowed to spread their •• It allowed the company to retain the possession of the Indians
religion in India. territories in trust of Her Majesty.
•• The crown had complete power over territorial and revenue matters. •• It also provided the scope for thorough revisions of the
•• For the improvement of education, grant of rupees one lakh existing legislative procedure.
every year was allotted.
Provisions of this act were
The Charter Act of 1833 •• Laid foundation of Parliamentary system of Government, the
executive and legislative separated. Legislative Assembly
•• The Charter Act of 1833 granted a lease to the company functioned in the model of British Parliament.
for further twenty years. •• Renewed the term of East India Company for an indefinite period;
•• The Act introduced centralization in the legislative •• Reduced the number of Court of Directors from 24 to 18 and
and administrative function and provided the abolition 6 out of them were nominated;
of slavery thereby brought several changes in the •• Indian Civil Service became an open competition. Macaulay
Constitution of India. made chairman of the committee.
•• The Charter Act of 1833 was a turning point in the •• The Act for the first time introduced local representation
history of modern India. in the Indian (Central) Legislative Council. The Governor-
General’s Council had six new legislative members. They
Provisions of this Act were were appointed by the local (provincial) governments of
Madras, Bombay, Bengal and Agra.
•• The Charter Act of 1833 granted a lease to the •• The Act separated, for the first time, the legislative and
Company for further twenty years. executive functions of the Governor General’s Council.
•• The monopoly of all trade of the company was abolished.
•• All restrictions on European immigration into India and Significance of Charter Act 1853
acquisition of land and property in India removed. •• The Charter Act 1853 indicated clearly that the rule of
•• A Law Commission was constituted for codification of laws. the Company was not going to last a long time.
•• The debts of the company were taken over by the Indian •• The power and influence of the company were curtailed .
government which agreed to pay its shareholders •• British Crown could nominate six directors. Further,
a 10.5% dividend on their capital out of the Indian marks the beginning of Parliamentary system in India
revenues for the next 40 years. because of the key feature that Legislative Council was
•• Section 87 of the Act declared that no person can be clearly distinguished from the Executive Council.
disqualified for any place in the company’s service by •• The Governor General was relieved of the
reason of caste, colour, creed or place of birth. administrative duties of Bengal. He was to devote his
•• The Charter Act of 1833 afforded to the Indians an whole time to work for the Government of India.
opportunity of entering into the company’s service.
•• The merit became the basis for employment in The Government of India Act, 1858
government services and the religion, birth place were •• Rule of company in India ended and the rule of crown started.
not be the criteria. •• System of Dual government ended. Court of Directors and
Board of control abolished and substituted with a post of
Significance of Charter Act 1833: Analysis secretary of state (a member of the British cabinet).
•• The secretary of state was assisted by a 15-member council
•• The elevation of Governor General of Bengal as of India (an advisory body).
Governor General of India was a major step towards •• Secretary of State governed India through the Governor General.
consolidation and centralization of the administration •• Governor General received the title of Viceroy who represented
of India. (Ist Governor-general of India was Lord Secretary of State. (Lord Canning was the first Viceroy).
William Bentick) •• A highly centralised administrative structure was created.
•• End of East India Company as a commercial body
effectively made it the trustee of the crown in the field
Significance of the Government of India
of administration. Act, 1858
•• This act for the first time made provision to freely admit •• The Government of India Act 1858 was largely
Indians into administration in the country. Indians confined to the improvement of the administrative
could enter into the civil service but the process was machinery by which the Indian Government was to be
still very difficult. supervised and controlled in England.
•• This act for the first time separated the legislative •• It did not alter in any substantial way the system of
functions of the Governor General in council from the government that prevailed in India.
executive functions. Also, the law commission under
Lord Macaulay codified the laws.
Some Facts
The Charter Act of 1853 •• First Secretary of State for India: Lord Stanley
•• Charter Act of 1853 was the last charter act passed for East •• First Governor-General and Viceroy of India: Lord
India Company, which was passed on expiry of charter act Canning
of 1833.
 42
The Indian Council Act, 1861 ⇒ Madras: 20 members
•• The first ever constitutional structure was formulated ⇒ Bombay: 8 members
on 1st August, 1861. ⇒ Awadh: 15 members
•• The British Government passed the Legislative Council ⇒ North Western Province: 15
Act to introduce better provisions for the Governor •• In 1892, out of 24 members, only 5 were Indians.
General’s Council and for Local Government. •• The members of the Legislative Councils were given
Provisions of this Act were the right to put questions. They were also authorized to
discuss the annual budget, but had to give a notice of 6
•• There was provision made for the formation of
days for it.
legislative councils in other provinces. New
•• They could not ask supplementary questions.
provinces could also be created for legislative purposes
•• The local bodies were given right to send their elected
and Lieutenant Governors be appointed for them.
members to the Legislative Councils.
Legislative councils were formed in other provinces in
•• The principle of representation was initiated through
Bengal in 1862, North West Frontier Province in 1886
this act. The district boards, universities, municipalities,
and Punjab and Burma in 1897..
chambers of commerce and zamindars were authorised to
•• The legislative council of Calcutta had extensive
recommend members to the provincial council.
power to pass laws for the whole of British India.
•• The Secretary of State for India in Britain could also The Indian Councils Act, 1909
dissolve any act passed by the Governor-General’s
Council.
(The Morely-Minto Reforms)
•• This Act restored the legislative powers of the •• Morely was the Secretary of State and Minto was the Indian
Governor-in-Councils of the Presidencies of Madras Viceroy.
and Bombay (which was taken away by the Charter •• They introduced for the first time indirect elections to the
Act of 1833). state Legislative councils.
•• The Governor-General also had the power to promulgate •• Separate electorates were introduced for the Muslims.
ordinances without the council’s concurrence during •• Resolution could be moved before the budget takes its final
emergencies. form. Supplementary questions could be asked.
•• The Viceroy had the power to overrule the council if •• The legislative councils at the Centre and the provinces increased
necessary. in size. (Central Legislative Council – from 16 to 60 members).
⇒ Legislative Councils of Bengal, Madras, Bombay and
•• Any bill related to public revenue or debt, military,
United Provinces – 50 members each
religion or foreign affairs could not be passed without
⇒ Legislative Councils of Punjab, Burma and Assam – 30
the Governor-General’s assent.
members each
•• Lord Canning nominated three Indians to the Council •• No discussions on foreign policy or on relations with the
in 1862 namely, the Raja of Benares, the Maharaja of princely states were permitted.
Patiala and Sir Dinkar Rao. •• Lord Minto appointed (on much persuasion by Morley)
•• Lord Canning, who was the Governor-General and Satyendra P Sinha as the first Indian member of the
Viceroy at the time, introduced the portfolio system. In Viceroy’s Executive Council.
this system, each member was assigned a portfolio of •• Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary
a particular department. of State for Indian affairs.
•• For legislative purposes, the Governor-General’s
Council was enlarged. Now, there were to be between Indian Press Act, 1910
6 and 12 additional members (nominated by the •• It revived the worst features of the Vernacular Press Act –
Governor-General). Local government was empowered to demand a security at
•• For the executive functions of the Council, a fifth registration from the printer or publisher.
member was added. Now there were five members •• Assamese, Bengali, Hindi, Kannada, Gujarati, Konkani,
for home, military, law, revenue and finance. (A sixth Malayalam, Kashmiri and Marathi were added in new
member for public works was added in 1874) Vernacular language and literature.
•• Customs and postal officers were given authority to detain
The Indian Council Act, 1892 and examine suspected matter, and local governments were
•• The Government introduced another Act known as the authorised to declare forfeit any news paper, book or document
Indian Councils Act of 1892 which could not ensure or empower the police to search and seize the same.
the maximum safeguards to the Muslims.
•• For which the leaders of Muslim community felt for a
The Government of India Act, 1919
separate electorate to protect the Muslim Interest. (The Montague-Chelmsford
Reforms)
Provisions of this Act were
•• The idea of Responsible Government was empharised upon.
•• The Act increased the number of aditional or non- •• Devolution Rules: Subjects of administration were divided
official members in the legislative councils as follows: into two categories – ‘Central’ and ‘Provincial’. All
⇒ Central legislative council: 10-16 members important subjects (like Railways and Finance) were brought
⇒ Bengal: 20 members under the category of Central, while matters relating to the
administration of the Provinces were classified as Provincial.
 43
•• Dyarchy system introduced in the Provinces. •• The office of the Secretary of State for India was to be
•• The Provincial subjects of administration were divided into abolished and his work was to be taken over by the Secretary
two categories ‘Transferred’ and ‘Reserved’ subjects. of State for commonwealth affairs.
•• The Transferred subjects were to be administered by •• British Government would not continue any control on any
the Governor with the aid of ministers responsible to the dominion.
Legislative Council. •• The Governor General was invested with adequate powers
•• The Reserved subjects (Rail, Post, Telegraph, Finance, Law until March 1948 to issue orders for effective implementation
& order, etc.) were to be administered by the Governor and of the provisions of the Indian independence act 1947.
his Executive Council.
•• Indian legislature became ‘bicameral’ for the first time. Subsidiary Alliance
•• Communal representation extended to Sikhs. The Subsidiary Alliance System was “Non-Intervention Policy”
•• Secretary of State for India now to be paid from British revenue. used by Lord Wellesley, the Governor-General (1798-1805) to
•• An officer of the High Commissioner of India was created establish British Empire in India. It was basically a treaty between
in London. the British East India Company and the Indian princely states,
•• The nominated members were nominated by the governor- by virtue of which the Indian kingdoms lost their sovereignty to
general from Anglo-Indians and Indian Christians. The the English. It was actually used for the first time by the French
members had tenure of 3 years. Governor-General Marquis Dupleix.
•• This act provided for the first time, the establishment of a
public service commission in India. Important Points of the Subsidiary Alliance
•• The act also provided that after 10 years, a statutory •• The allies of Indian state’s ruler were compelled to accept the
commission would be set up to study the working of the permanent garrison of British Army within their territories and
government. This resulted in the Simon Commission of 1927. to pay a subsidy for its maintenance. If they failed to make the
payment, a portion of his territory would be taken away and
The Government of India Act, 1935 ceded to the British. In return, the British would protect the
•• The Government of India Act, 1935 provided for setting up Indian state against any foreign attack or internal revolt.
of the Federation of India i.e. All India Federation comprising •• The Indian ruler could not employ any European in their
British Indian provinces and Indian States (Princely States). service without prior approval of British.
The joining of Princely states was voluntary and as a result, •• They could not even negotiate with any other Indian rulers
the federation did not come into existence. without consulting the Governor-General.
•• Dyarchy was introduced at the centre. The department of foreign •• The British promised non-interference in internal affairs of
affairs and defence were reserved for the Governor-General. the Indian state but this was rarely kept.
•• Dyarchy in the provinces was replaced by provincial •• The Indian states neither could enter into any alliance with
autonomy. They were granted separate legal identity. any other foreign power nor could employ any other foreign
•• It divided powers into three fold: Federal, Provincial and nationals other than Englishmen in their service.
Concurrent. Residuary powers were to be with Governor-General. •• The Indian rulers, thus, lost all powers in respect of foreign
•• The Indian Council of Secretary of State for India was abolished. affairs and the military.
•• Principle of separate electorate was extended to include •• They virtually lost all their independence and became a
Anglo-Indians, Indian Christians and Europeans. British ‘protectorate’.
•• The Federal Bank (The Reserve Bank of India) and the •• A British Resident was also stationed in the Indian Court.
Federal Court (Supreme Court of India) were established
in 1935 and 1937 respectively.
Results of the Subsidiary Alliance
•• This Act introduced direct elections in India for the first time. •• As a result of Indian rulers disbanding their armies, many
•• About 10% of the whole population acquired voting rights. people were rendered unemployed.
•• A Federal Railway Authority was set up to control Indian railways. •• Many Indian states lost their independence and slowly, most
•• The Act also provided for the establishment of federal, parts of India were coming under British control.
provincial and joint Public Service Commissions. •• The Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to accept the
Subsidiary Alliance in 1798.
Indian Independence Act, 1947 Indian States entered into Subsidiary Alliances
•• Indian Independence Act, 1947 did not lay down any S.No. States Time
provision for the administration of India.
•• It was about the partition of India and the establishment of 1. Hyderabad 1798
two countries (India and Pakistan). 2. Mysore 1799
•• The boundaries between the two dominion states were to be 3. Tanjore 1799
determined by a Boundary Commission which was headed 4. Awadh 1801
by Sir Cyril Radcliffe. 5. Peshwa (Marathas) 1802
•• It provided for partition of Punjab & Bengal and separate boundary 6. Scindia (Marathas) 1803
commissions to demarcate the boundaries between them.
•• Pakistan was to comprise the West Punjab, East Bengal, 7. Gaekwad (Marathas) 1803
Territories of the Sind, North West frontier provinces, Syllhat Doctrine of lapse
divisions of Assam, Bhawalpur, khairpur, Baluchistan and 8
other princely states of Baluchistan. Doctrine of lapse was the formula prepared by Lord Dalhousie, the
•• The constituent Assembly of each Dominion would have Governor-General of India between1848–56, to deal with questions
unlimited powers to frame and adopt any Constitution. of succession to Hindu Indian states. It was a result to the doctrine
of paramountcy, by which Great Britain, as the ruling power of the
 44
Indian subcontinent, claimed the superintendence of the subordinate Nizam of Mir Qamruddin 1724 1798 (Subsidiary
Indian states and so also the regulation of their succession. Hyderabad Chin Kilich Khan Alliance)
Features of Doctrine of Lapse ‘Nizam-ul-Mulk’
•• According to this, any princely state under the direct or Mysore Haidar Ali 1761 1799 (Subsidiary
indirect (as a vassal) control of the East India Company Alliance)
where the ruler did not have a legal male heir would be Punjab Ranjit Singh 1792 1849 (Dalhousie)
annexed by the company.
•• As per this, any adopted son of the Indian ruler could not be Decline of India’s trade and commerce
proclaimed as heir to the kingdom. The adopted son would •• Aurangzeb’s long wars in the Deccan and the lawlessness
only inherit his foster father’s personal property and estates. developing in North India due to the weakness of the imperial
•• The adopted son would also not be entitled to any pension that machinery of administration, reduced the cultivation of land
his father had been receiving or to any of his father’s titles. as well as industrial production.
•• This challenged the Indian ruler’s long-held authority to •• Peace was disturbed by rebellions and wars.
appoint an heir of their choice. •• Trade suffered not only from insecurity but also from
Effects vexatious imports by local princes and petty chiefs.
•• Foreign trade was seriously affected by the ruin of Indian
•• This led to a lot of unrest among the Indian princes. shipping, first by the Portuguese, and later by the Dutch and
•• Many Indian states lost their sovereignty and became British English rivals in the Asiatic sea.
territories.
•• India lost her old markets in South - East Asia, West Asia and
•• A lot of people were unhappy with the ‘illegal’ nature of this
Africa as a result of the dwindling of her mercantile marine power.
doctrine and this was one of the causes of the Indian Revolt
•• During the early years of the eighteenth century, the English merchants
of 1857.
finally came to localise their commercial interest in India.
•• Nana Sahib and the Rani of Jhansi had grievances against
•• Farrukhsiyar’s forman of 1716, which provided for an
the British because the former’s pension was stopped by the
extraordinary reduction in customs duties for the English
British after his foster father died, and the Rani’s adopted son
merchants of Surat and Bengal, helped them to prevail over
was denied the throne under the doctrine of lapse.
Dutch and Indian rivals.
•• Dalhousie returned to Britain in 1856. After the Indian
In spite of these setbacks, the balance of trade was still in India’s
Revolt broke out in 1857, his doctrine of lapse was widely
favour and her agriculture, handicrafts and industries thrived, with
criticised as one of the causes of the rebellion.
England being the major beneficiary of India’s vibrant economy.
•• It wasIASas per this policy
Mains that Nana
Previous YearSahib, the adopted son
Question During the half century preceding Plassey, the trade of the English
of the Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao II was denied
Q. “In many ways, Lord Dalhousie was the founder his titlesof
and company prospered in India despite political disturbances, war and
pension. competition from the French and the Dutch.
modern India.” Elaborate  [Paper-2 2013]
•• In 1652, the English and in 1665, the Dutch, obtained from
States Annexed by the Doctrine of Lapse Shahjahan exemption from all duties from Surat to all inland
S.No. States Time centres, and from Hughli or Pipli to Agra and Delhi.
•• An Act passed in 1700 prohibited the use of Asiatic silks and
1 Satara 1848
printed and dyed calicoes in England, though these could
2 Jaipur 1849
still be imported into England for re-exportation.
3 Sambhalpur 1849 •• An Act passed in 1720, generally prohibited the wear and
4 Udaipur 1852 use of calicoes not dyed or printed in England.
5 Jhansi 1853 •• In Bengal, the English put their own interpretation on
6 Nagpur 1854 Farrukhsiyar’s farman and claimed right which were not
7 Oudh 1856 really warranted by the imperial grant. Even then they had
to reckon with the competition from Indian traders and the
Foundation of Different Kingdoms and its annexation
French and the Dutch merchant and the restraints imposed
Kingdom Founder Year Annexation by the Nawabs could not be ignored.
Nawab of Murshid Quli 1713 1765 (Treaty of ▪ After 1757 there was a large-scale English run. On
Bengal Jafar Khan Allahabad) Bengal’s inland trade.
▪ In 1765 clive established monopoly of salt manufacture
Maratha Baji Rao I 1720 1801 (Subsidiary
and trade through a society.
confederacy Alliance)
▪ In 1776 Warren Hastings introduced a new scheme of
Nawab of Saadatullah Khan 1720 1801 (Subsidiary leasing out to individuals the privilege of manufacturing
Carnatic/Arcot Alliance) and selling salt.
Nawab of Mir Muhammad 1722 1801 (Subsidiary ▪ In 1758 Robert clive secured from Mir. Jafar, the puppet
Avadh Amin Saadat Khan Alliance), 1856 Nawab of Bengal, monopoly of the Saltpetre trade in
‘Burhan-ul-Mulk’ (Dalhousie) Bengal for the company.
▪ By 1793 indigo became another important item of
export, indigo planters were “British Free Traders”.
 45
Transformation of Indian •• As saltpetre was an ingredient for the manufacture of
Economy into Colonial Economy gunpowder, it was in great demand among European
nations during their wars in the 18th century.
•• Soon after the battles of plassey and Buxar, when the english •• The indigo planters were ‘British Free Traders’, who
established their sway over the rich province of Bengal, the exploited and oppressed the poor indigo cultivators in the
Indian economy was transformed from a surplus and self- most inhuman manner.
sufficient economy into a colonial economy. •• Bengal’s rich sugar industry was also ruined on account
•• There was a steady increase in both exports and imports of of heavy duties imposed on Bengal sugar in England as
the company. compared with low duties on West Indies sugar.
•• The company’s servants captured the trade in commodities •• India’s flourishing shipbuilding industry was also ruined
like salt, betelnut and tobacco which had so long been on account of the restrictions imposed on Indian shipping
prohibited to all European traders. in the interests of British shipping.
•• England’s political power in India enabled the British
•• This was one of the factors which led to the break up between
manufacturer to convert this country into a vast market
the English and Mir Qasim, the Nawab of Bengal.
for their goods. The result was an ‘economic revolution’
•• It is also an admitted fact that the British deliberately crippled which made India a land of poverty in the nineteenth
Indian trade and manufacture by creating a high tariff wall in century.
Britain against Indian goods and by encouraging the import •• The inventions of Hargreaves, Arkwright and others during
of British goods into India. the years 1767 to 1785 helped extensive production of
•• After the acquisition of political power of Bengal by the cotton goods in England.
English, India’s economy was made to subserve British •• The unorganized Indian manufacturers, incapable of using
colonial interests. The huge drain of wealth form Bengal, improved scientific methods and discriminated against in
the destruction of its industry, and the gradual increase in respect of duties by the company’s Government, were not
land revenue during the latter half of the eighteenth century, equal to this unfair competition.
ruined Bengal completely.
•• Dubious methods were adopted by the English to ruin trade, The Stages of British Colonialism
crafts and industries. •• The Battle of plassey in 1757 laid the foundation of
•• Parliament passed various prohibitory and sumptuary laws British colonialism in India, when the East India company
for the protection of the English wearing industry. The rich established its hold over Bengal.
textiles of Bengal, for which there was demand all over the •• Company strengthened its naval power in the coastal
world, were monopolised by the english. regions of India, and after the Battle of Plassey, when the
•• Bolt, a senior servant of the company, wrote in 1772 that rich provinces of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa came under its
weavers who dared to sell their goods to purchasers other control, it made concrete efforts to usurp the wealth of local
than the company were “frequently seized and imprisoned, Nawabs, Zamindars and Chiefs. Consequently, every year
confined in irons, fined considerable sums of money and the wealth and resources of India began to be drained out; and
deprived, in the most ignominious manner, of what they as England became richer, India grew poorer and agriculture
consider most valuable, their crafts”. became the only source of sustenance to the Indians.
•• The result of such methods was the wholesale abandonment •• But Indians agriculture too broke down on account of the
of their occupation by the weavers and the decline of the oppressive British revenue system.
weaving industry in Bengal. •• The Basic tenet of colonialism is economic exploitation but
•• In 1786, the Court of Directors made the first tentative efforts the basic nature of colonialism is manifested through various
for sale of Lancashire cotton cloth in Bengal. means of economic exploitation.
•• In 1793 “the calicoes and muslins of India, even for Indian •• R.P. Dutt has made a brilliant analysis of the Indian colonial
use, were supplanted in Bengal by the products of the economy and commented upon Karl Marx’s theory of three
steamlooms of Manchester”. phases of British Colonialism and economic exploitation of India.
•• In 1815 the Bengal Government reduced the import duty on
British goods by 2 1/2 percent, delivering thereby a severe Economic Impact of British Rule
blow to Indian Industry.
•• After 1765, the land revenue demand of Bengal alone was Three stages of British Colonialism
raised by 400 percent in the thirty years. First phase-The Mercantile phase (1757-1813)
•• The East India Company used its political power to
monopolize trade and dictate terms to traders of Bengal.
•• Imposition of inflated prices of goods led to buccaneering capitalism
whereby wealth flowed out of barrel of the British trader’s gun.
•• Revenues of Bengal were used to finance exports of Indian
goods to England.
 46
Second phase- The Industrial phase (1813-1858) What was it: A 10 year (decennial) settlement made with Zamindars,
•• India was exploited as a market for British goods. who were the absolute owners of lands for which the East India company
•• Act of 1813 allowed one way trade for the British, as a result gave them permanent rights to collect land revenue.
the Indian markets flooded with cheap and machine-made Presidency: Mainly applied to Bihar and Bengal, Orissa and
imports. Indian traders lost foreign as well as home market. districts of Banaras & Madras.
•• Indians were forced to export raw materials and import Features
finished goods. •• All the land belonged to Zamindars.
•• Heavy import duty on Indian products to England to •• Zamindars had to collect revenue from tenants and submit
discourage them in the market. it to British.
Third phase- Financial phase (1860 onwards) or Finance Colonialism •• They had the full authority to decide the amount to be
collected from tenants.
•• The British consolidated their position in India and made
•• There was provision for Zamindars to keep some amount
India a market for manufacturers and a supplier of foodstuff
of revenue with themselves (1/11th of the revenue collected
and raw materials.
remains with Zamindars).
•• Introduction of Railways (1853), Post and Telegraph (1853)
•• The amount of revenue was fixed once and for all the time to come.
Banking system (Awadh Commercial Bank-1881).
•• Zamindars were having three type of right over land
•• HeavyIAS
British investment
Mains in India
Previous YearandQuestion
burden of public debt Alienable: As per the right the zamindari could be transfered
increases. from incapable to capable ones if they did not meet the revenue
Q. Examine critically the various facets of economic
•• Industries came into existence (Tata Iron and Steel in 1907). collection target.
policies of the British in India from mid-eighteenth
century till independence.  [Paper-2 2014] Rentable: The zamindari could be outsourced to comparatively
smaller zamindars.
Drain of Wealth Theory
Heritable: With the death of Zamindars it would be automatically
•• Dadabhai Naoroji cited it in his book “poverty and Un-
transfered either to the siblings or to the descendants.
British Rule in India” (1867).
•• R.C. Dutta in his “Economic History of India” (1901) blamed Consequences of Zamindari system
British policies for Indian economic ills.
•• Drain of Wealth theory refers to a portion of national product of
Political Impacts
India which was not available for consumption to its people. Political Impacts
•• Constituents of drain were: •• British got new political allies with zamindars who would
1. Purchasing goods out of revenues of Bengal and keep their own guardsmen to suppress peasant revolts.
exporting them. This was called investment. •• sometimes they also would act as informers and
2. Extortion by company servants the fortunes from remained loyal to British rule.
rulers, zamindars, merchants and common man and Economic Impacts
sending them home. •• Financial security of British had increased.
3. Duty free trade provided to the British gave them a •• Cost of running administration decreased as the British
competitive edge over Indian traders. These subsidise appointed few Zamindars to collect revenue from
were financed from Indian treasury. lakhs of farmers.
4. Home charges or cost of salaries and pensions of company •• Gradually the income of the government started declining
officials in India were paid from the treasury of India. as the revenue collected were fixed permanently whereas
there were continuous increase in intermediaries.
5. Hefty interests were paid to British investors.
6. Remittances or salaries and other incomes by company Social Impacts
officials sent to England. •• Socially zamindari system had a negative impact on
Effects the lower stratum of Indian Society.
1. It financed capitalist development in Britain. •• The farmers had nothing to do with bargaining power
2. It stunted the growth of Indian enterprises and checked as such they lose it.
•• Since they didn’t have any possession over land they
and retarded capital formation in India.
had to opt for being tenants -at-will for zamindars.
3. Plantations, mines, jute mills, banking, shipping,
•• The Britisher shifted textile manufacturing to Britain
export-import cocerns promoted a system of with a plea of industrial revolution and started
interlocking capitalist firms managed by foreigners. It importing cotton from and exporting finished product
drained resources from India. to India. This led to collapse of desi industries and the
4. India was kept as a zone of free trade without allowing weaver became unemployed which compelled them to
it to develop the ability to compete. migrate to village in search of work.
•• Hence the begar or unpaid labour started increasing in
Land Tenure System in India the field of zamindars.
•• As the zamindari had monopoly of controlling the
Permanent or Zamindari System revenue they started to levy more and more tax on the
Introduced by - Cornwallis in 1793 poor farmers and made them poorer day by day.
 47
Ryotwari System Consequences of Mahalwari System
Introduced by - Thomas Munro and Charles Read in Madras in 1826.
Political Impacts
What was it: This was a direct settlement made between colonial
•• Introduction of village headman or “Lambardar” for
government and the “ryots” (the peasants) collecting the tax from the cultivators and submission
Presidency: Madras, Bombay and Assam. of the same to British.
Features Economic Impacts:
•• All the land were claimed by government and allotted directly to •• As the system was primarily confined to Punjab
the cultivators on the basis of the amount of tax they could pay. and parts of Northern India the British started to
•• Farmers gained authority over their piece of land and they extract more revenue by giving supplications of
were free to use it in whatever way they wanted. It might be the fertile lands. Hence generally a revenue of
50% - 70% was collected of the total produced.
personal use, rent, sell, bequeath, mortgage and lease.
•• With passing generation the land got divided among
•• The farmer could be expelled from the possession of land if the descendants to the farmers. Hence there were
they were unable to pay the tax. gradual decrease in size of land holdings which in turn
•• The government has the authority to increase their revenue reduced the farm productivity.
whenever they wanted •• The transfer of lands to money lenders was more as
•• The amount of tax was revised in every thirty years. there were increase in such farmers who continuously
loosing their land due to inefficiency of repaying debts.
Consequences of Ryotwari System
Social Impacts:
Political Impacts
•• The settlement of taxation was directly with villagers
•• The intermediate layer between peasants and British, the Zamindar which led to form a common ownership and its
started to lose their importance as a result of direct agreement. maintainance known as “Bhaichara” or “Mahali” i.e.
Economic Impacts represented a group of villagers.
•• The Government insisted upon growing cash crops so as
to earn more cash revenue. As cash crops required more
Impact of Land Tenure system
growing and maintanence cost it compelled the peasants to Over all the peasant community was affected to a great extent by
take more loans from money lenders. the land tenure system levied by British :
•• Another instance which made the peasant farmless was the 1. Impact on Agriculture community
result of American Civil War which resulted into reduction
Change in Agrarian life
of cotton export. Hence the peasants defaulted on loans and
•• On, one hand there was steady growth of population of peasant
the lands were transferred to money lenders.
community due to peaceful condition among the people,
Social Impacts
but on the other hand there was gradual disappearance of
•• The weavers became unemployed because of cotton-textile economic self-sufficiency of the farmers and gradual transfer
industries in Britain. Hence they had to work for Zamindars of authority within the village from the village elders to the
at their own will so as to earn their livelihood. agents of the government.
•• Farmers had to pay revenue even during drought and famine
Disintegration of Village Communities and Emergence of
which became hard at times.
Indian Middle Class
Mahalwari System •• The land revenue system succeded in breaking up the age
Introduced by: Lord William Bentick in 1833. old social frame work which was an assimilation of different
What was it: Outsourcing of revenue collection work to village community. groups, categorised on the basis of their profession like
Technically the tax collector was the “head man” of the village. peasants, artisans etc.
Presidency: Gangetic valley, north west provinces, parts of •• But with growing demand of changing revenue system
central India, Punjab. the artisan had to sacrifice their profession as they lost the
position and market of their products.
Features •• Moreover they changed into wage labourers from the
•• The assessment of taxation was done by individual village. industrial workers.
•• Taxation targets were distributed among the cultivators. Agricultural Backwardness
•• Individual farmers were responsible for their share of •• The land revenue system compelled the peasant for paying
contribution. So everyone was liable for others arrears. heavy revenues to the British. As a result they were unable to
•• A group of high caste elders were recommended to represent save money for future use.
the whole village population. •• In addition the liability of the farmer was restricted to
•• The revision of tax was on periodical basis. him. The Zamindar had nothing to do with that rather than
villagers or peasant gradually get poorer.
 48
•• Even they didn’t have the option to optimise their cultivation •• The famines also contributed to the decline of village artisan
practice with better amenities. This resulted into the industries. During the period of famine, poor artisans,
backwardness of Agriculture in India. specially weavers, were constrained to seek relief by taking
to other forms of work.
Increase of Rural Indebtedness
•• Another aspect of the change in the status of the artisan was
•• As the peasant communities were unable to pay the revenue
that they were increasingly transformed into wage workers.
they had the only option of taking debt from the moneylender
•• Many of the village artisans deserted their traditional
who in long run captured the land holdings of the poor farmer
occupations and migrated to urban areas.
due to the lack of repayment of loan.
•• These artisans became either wage - earners in towns and
•• This was a common phenomena during the Ryotwari land
cities or turned into landless labourers on petty wages.
tenure system.
4. Ruin of Indian Handicrafts
Commercialisation of Agriculture •• While the village industries declined slowly, the town
•• Previously the agricultural productivity was confined to handicrafts in India had a “sudden and complete collapse”
the “village use” only which converted into ‘production of under the British rule.
marketing’ as a result of land tenure system. •• Karl Marx has rightly said “The British intruder broke up
•• This enabled the “merchant” or the middle class of society to the Indian handloom and destroyed the spinning loom, and
take undue advantages from the peasants as they had a monopoly inundated the very mother country of cotton with cottons”.
over the market owing to their supremacy in economic position. •• The rule of the East India Company proved disastrous to the
2. Growth of Poverty handicraft industry in India for a number of reasons. The
•• During 1854 - 1901, 24 famines hit India, in which about 29 first was that it destroyed the native states, which were the
million people perished. greatest customers and patrons of this industry.
•• In 1943, famine of Bengal claimed three millio lives. •• Secondly, the East India Company, which was the successor
•• There were other factors which also contributed to the growth of these states, could have given impetus to the industries,
of poverty among the agriculturists. On addition to such but, being a foreign company under the control and direction
economic earthquakes as the periodically occurring agarian of foreign power, it adopted measures under the pressure
crisis, there were also non-social causes such as drought, of British Government, which proved detrimental to the
or devastating rains which brought economic misery to the manufacturing interests of India.
agriculturists. •• Thirdly, being a trading company it wanted to produce things
•• A large proportion of Indian peasant population got into debt due cheaply and sell them profitably in other markets. B. D. Basu
to their inability to pay land revenue as a result of bad monsoons. has enumerated the following principal measures taken by the
•• Famines also hit the land. These famines revealed that British to bring about the collapse of Indian handicrafts
poverty, chronic starvation, low life expectancy, and infant •• From the time England acquired political power in India, she
mortality had taken firm roots in India. destroyed Indian industries principally by means of:
•• The worst feature of the Indian famines was that large-scale – the forcing of British free trade on India;
deaths occurred not because of drought, floods, crop failures, and – imposing heavy duties on Indian manufacturers in England.
non-availability of food grains in the country but mainly due to – the export of raw products from India;
starvation owing to the poor purchasing power of the people. – the transit and customs duties;
•• The cumulative effect of all the factors enumerated above – granting special privileges to the British in India;
explains the growth of the phenomenal poverty of the – building railways in India;
agricultural population. – compelling Indian artisans to divulge their trade secrets;
•• Unable to pay their debt or even the interest on it, the – another factor which affected the handicrafts in India was
agriculturist not only lost their crops to the money lender but the attitude of the new wealthy classes which evolved on the
also rapidly lost the land to him. basis of the establishment of British rule in India.
5. De-Industrialisation
3. Decline of Village Industries
•• The colonial masters of India deliberately deprived India of
•• During 1757 - 1857, the east India company expanded its
the fruits of the Industrial revolution and strove to keep India
control over more and more territories in India.
predominantly agrarian, so that they could secure cheap
•• In 1813, the industrial classes had become politically
agricultural raw materials from India for British industries
powerful in England.
and find ready markets in India for industrially produced
•• The 1813 charter destroyed the monopoly of trade of the
goods of Britain.
East India company.
•• In England and other European countries there were indian
•• The Act of 1793, in Bengal, had a very disastrous effect on
modern industries which vanquished and crushed Indian
the life of the craftsmen.
handicrafts.
•• The village industries were an integral part of the balanced
•• Ruin of handicrafts and industries and industrialisation led to
and self-sufficient village economy of pre-British India.
 49
acute poverty and unemployment. Therefore, by the end of 7. Growth of Unemployment
the 19th century, the demand for rapid industrialisation along •• In India, labour was released from traditional industries
modern lines had assumed national proportions. but there was no growth of modern industries or extension
6. 
Growth of foreign capital and the rise of modern of agriculture to absorb that labour. Briefly, the economic
industries in India development of the country became “an appendage of a
•• In 1850, cotton textiles, jute, and coal mining industries were foreign exploitative system”.
started in India. •• Industry and trade were in foreign hand leading to a drain of
•• before 1914 nearly 97% of British capital investment in the country’s wealth; and its vast resources were monopolised
India was diverted towards completion of govt. projects, and brutally exploited by the colonial masters.
plantation industry and development of financial houses. 8. Change in the Structure of India’s Trade
•• The coming of railways heralded the entry of modern •• The expansion of British trade in India not only proved
machines in India and during the 1850’s cotton textiles, jute, ruinous to Indian trade and industry, but also radically
and coal mining industries were started in India. changed the structure of India’s trade. Competition with
•• Thus establishment of modern industries began in India imported goods destroyed the Indian industry, deprived the
during the second half of the nineteenth century, but its artisans of their income and narrowed down the avenues of
growth was slow and stunted and under the control of foreign employment for labour.
capital. •• Thus, the change in the structure of Indian trade became
•• Thus the predominant control of British finance capital an instrument of exploitation of India’s resources and her
retarded the tempo of free industrial growth and general, economic enslavement. Owing to this change, there was
economic development in India. such a heavy reduction in the prices of Indian products in the
world market that the teems of trade turned heavily against
India.

Practice Questions for Mains

1. Large number of land grants in hitherto non-arable tracts invariably meant expansion of agriculture in early medieval India. How
did the management of hydraulic resources (different types of irrigation works) facilitate expansion of agriculture in this period?
2. Critically analyse the agricultural economy from 750 to 1200 CE.
3. To what extent ‘monetary anaemia’ afflicted the erstwhile commercial economy during the early medieval period?


 Administration and Economy
under the Company Rule

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 5 Urbanisation and
Associated Issues

Sociological Meaning of Urbanisation

The process of urbanisation denotes population growth of the cities and towns. Sociologically it also denotes the spread of urban
way of life to the countryside. Thus, the process of urbanisation has demographic as well as social dimensions.
Demographic Meaning
The demographic concept of urbanization deals with the dynamics of population in a particular region.
Urbanisation in India
•• The level of urbanisation in the country as a whole increased from 27.7% in 2001 to 31.1% in 2011. By 2031, it is expected
to grow by 6% and by 2051, more than half of the nation’s population will be living incities.
•• At present, Cities contribute nearly 65% of the country’s GDP, which is likely to goup to 70% by 2030. (Mc Kinsey report).
•• India’s urbanisation is “messy and hidden”, says a report by the World Bank.The report suggested three fundamental deficits
– in empowerment, resources and accountability of urban bodies.
What is the Urban Area?
Ans:
Definition of Urban Area: For the Census of India 2011, the definition of urban area is as follows; ipality, corporation, cantonment
board or notified town area committee, etc.
All Other Places which Satisfied the Following Criteria
•• A minimum population of 5,000.
•• At least 75 percent of the male main working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; and
•• A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.
Forms of Urbanisation
•• Urban Agglomeration (UA): An urban agglomeration is a continuous urban spread constituting a town and its adjoining
outgrowths (OGs), or two or more physically contiguous towns together with or without outgrowths of such towns. An
Urban Agglomeration must consist of at least a statutory town and its total population (i.e. all the constituents put together)
should not be less than 20,000 as per the 2011 Census.
•• Out Growths (OG): An Out Growth (OG) is a viable unit such as a village or a hamlet or an enumeration block made
up of such village or hamlet and clearly identifiable in terms of its boundaries and location. Some of the examples are
railway colonies, university campuses, port areas, military camps, etc., which have come up near a statutory town outside its
statutory limits but within the revenue limits of a village or villages contiguous to the town.
Impact of Urbanisation on Society
Urbanization and Family
•• Sizes of the families are shrinking and kinship relationships are getting confined to two or three generations only.
•• The husband dominated family is being replaced by an equalitarian family where the wife is given a share in the decision
making process.
•• Parents no longer impose their authority over children and children no longer blindly obey the commands of their parents.
Urbanization and Caste
•• The networks of urbanites comprise people from all castes.Class ties are more important than caste ties.
52

•• At the same time, educated members of some of the caste groups come in together to make some kinds of pressure groups
in urban areas. However, such pressure groups work like a social organization instead of caste structures in villages. Such
groups also bring several sub-castes together.
•• The caste norms are not followed strictly in urban areas. There is a remarkable change in commensal, marital, social and
occupational relations.
•• More and more people are in favour of inter-caste marriage.
•• The Jajmani system is weakening and inter-caste and inter-class relations are changing.
Urbanization and Status of Women
•• The status of women in urban areas are not only aware of their economic, social and political rights but also are able to
exercise those rights.
•• Average age of marriage of girls is higher in cities.
•• The participation rate in the labour market has increased among married women and they no longer are ‘housewives.
•• However, Some peculiar problems faced by urban women include difficulty to remain single; expected subordinate career
to that of husbands etc.
•• Higher frequency of divorce and remarriage.
•• In summary, while rural women continue to be dependent over men, urban women are independent and enjoy greater
freedom.
Urbanization and Village Life
•• Urban development has led to the centrifugal movement of village people to urban areas.
•• Most people migrate to cities for employment and business.
•• At the same time, rural residence and urban employment has resulted in a new type of lifestyle in rural-urban fringe areas.
•• It has resulted in modifications of social patterns as well as adjustments to a new way of life.
Urbanization as an Agent of Transformation and Innovation
•• Cities are nodes of new ideas, communication and innovation. It spreads in the immediate hinterlands as well as in the whole
country.
•• In Asia, cities have been termed the “centre of change”. This is largely due to migrants returning home for a short while from
urban areas and spreading awareness among rural villages, encouraging them to adopt some innovations already witnessed
in urban areas.
Role of Urbanization in Expansion of Communication Mechanisms
The most important role of major cities is their linking of different parts of the world through transport and communications. Air
routes, road and rail networks, telephone, and E-mail networks are the main transport and communication mechanisms that have
revolutionized the concepts of time and distance throughout the world.
Problem Associated with Urbanisation
1. Slum and squatter: According to the 2011 census, 66 Million people live in slums, while UN Habitat says there are 104
million slum dwellers. This reflects the issue of accurate data and the second major issue is most of the slums are not
considered as slums in the official list. Example: Blue Polygon (Four Poles surmounted by blue plastic sheet. The UN
Habitat employs five criteria to identify slums:
ŠŠ Lack of Durable housing of permanent nature.
ŠŠ Sufficient living space.
ŠŠ Easy access to safe water.
ŠŠ Access to adequate sanitation.
ŠŠ Security of tenure.
Negative Impact of Slum:
ŠŠ Women and Girls: Women and girls are not afforded time for education, as they are burdened with carrying water long
distances and caring for sick family members.
ŠŠ Health and Child Mortality: Illness and disease spread like wildfire in slums; in the Kibera slum in Kenya, HIV
infection is twice the national average, and diarrhoea is the leading killer of children under five in Dharavi.
ŠŠ Education: Many children never receive any formal education and few complete a primary education.
ŠŠ Finance: Banks often refuse residents of slums because they are considered ‘unbankable.’
ŠŠ Political and Social Exclusion: Governments often ignore slum dwellers; they are excluded from voting, city development
plans, and full protection under the law.
ŠŠ Disasters: Flooding in Kerala and Hyderabad.
 53

PM UDAY Scheme
Benefits for people living in these slums and unauthorised colonies:
1. They can avail loan from the bank after registration of property.
2. They can avail the benefits of social security schemes of the government.
3. They will gain a voice in politics also.

2. Social Crime: There is a positive correlation between crime rate and size of cities. Bigger the city, the higher the rate of
crime.
3. Child Labour: It is the problem associated with migration, deprivation, lack of government initiatives to provide children a
safe and secure livelihood.
4. Environment:
Industrialisation and Urbanisation Environmental Issues
Management-Setting air Air pollution can lead Water pollution Harmful chemicals can build up
quality standards for to acid rain, which kills fish and other in the food chain and poison
industries and monitoring damages buildings aquatic animals humans that eat them
levels of pollution and vegetation leading to the
disruption of
food chains Air
Air Some pollutants destroy pollution
pollution the ozone layer which
protects us from the sun
Management-building Contamination
It can cause health sewage treatment works of water supplies
Environment
problems and passing laws which with sewage can
al problems in
like headaches LEDCs force factories to remove spread diseases
pollutants like typhoid

Infrastructure LEDCs don't have Money- poorer countries can't afford to dispose
of waste safely. They have more urgent
the infrastructure to take the
Waste problems to spend money on such as healthcare
waste away. For example the
poor roads mean lorries cant Disposal
Scale- the problem is huge. A city will generate
take the waste away thousands of tonnes of waste everyday

Lopsided Urbanization
Faulty Urban Planning

Basic problems of Inadequate housing

Urbanization facilities

Presence of Slums
Environmental
degradation
Urbanization in India
Environmental Problems
Regional Inequality
Slum and Problems
Effects of Urbanization of Conflict
on society
Traffic Snarls
Garbage and
Sewerage Problems
Obstructed Water
(Source: Author) Supply
4. Urban Governance: Weak urban governance is the absence of time bound citizen-centric quality service delivery without
adequate monitoring, feedback and performance appraisal.
Reasons
•• Absence of incentives, encouragement and promotions on the basis of efficiency.
•• Finance: According to the Niti Aayog, India requires a INR 40-trillion investment until 2030 to overhaul its infrastructure
whereas the revenue of all the municipal corporations put together is not more than INR 1.2 trillion.
•• Rampant corruption at multiple levels, nepotism, vested interests, unduepolitical interference, crony capitalism, allocation
of tenders to incapable contractors (Eg. recent flyover collapse in West Bengal).
•• Lack of monitoring and evaluation of officials and due accountability and responsibility for timely completion of work.
•• Absence of allocation of subjects as per 74th CAA.
54

•• Limited monetary sources for Urban local bodies.

•• Multiple government bodies with overlapping mandates leading to inordinate delays and redtapism.
Measures
•• Reforms in urban bodies by intake of professionals and experts in urban policy, planning and implementation.
•• Giving more teeth and power to commissioners and councillors to take important decisions.
•• Increase the limit of professional tax, popularise municipal bonds with state guarantees, provide budgetary allocation.
•• Municipal Bonds
•• Sharing of royalty if mining is there in the area
5. Linkage between Urbanisation, Migration and Issues:

Slums Migration Illiteracy

Unhygienic Overcrowding Unemployment

conditions

Communicable Stretching of
overburdened Poverty
diseases
systems

Non-communicable Injuries Crimes

diseases

Stress
Life style Mental illness
modification

6. Urbanisation and Water:

ŠŠ The global water consumption rate is double the rate of Population increase. Demand is expected to outstrip supply by
more than 50 percent by 2025, leaving 1.8 billion people in water scarce conditions.
Š Š According to the Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) report released by the Niti Aayog in 2018,
21 major cities (Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, Hyderabad and others) are racing to reach zero groundwater levels
by 2020, affecting access for 100 million people.
Why Such a Condition?
Ans:
•• This trend has been driven chiefly by unsustainable agricultural water extraction, especially non-renewable groundwater
pumping and flood irrigation, as well as increasing urbanization.
•• The changing climate will negatively impact water resource security and agricultural production for parts of the world
already struggling with scarcity. Ex: El Nino created Drought in Southern Africa and India.
•• Urbanization also increases the demand for power generation, which itself requires a lot of water. This water-energy nexus
is really a water energy food nexus, because a large portion of the energy (30 percent) and water consumption (70 percent)
is required to feed a rapidly growing and urbanizing population.
Suggestion
1. Recycling and Harvesting: An example of recycled sewage water being used for industrial purposes is the 30 MLD waste
water treatment facility at Gandhinagar and Anjar in Gujarat set up by Welspun India Ltd. Also, alternative rain water
harvesting as harvesting rain water from concrete surfaces using porous concrete can be used to supplement roof-top rain
water harvesting, to help replenish groundwater.
2. Community initiatives to supplement regular water supply: Initiatives such as community water storage and decentralized
treatment facilities, including elevated water towers or reservoirs and water ATMs. EX: Water ATM in Marathwada
3. Collaborative approach: Finally, a collaborative approach like the adoption of a public-private partnership model for
water projects can help. For example, in the Netherlands, water companies are incorporated as private companies,
with the local and national governments being majority shareholders.
 55

4. Both the central government and the state governments need to have considerations on setting the Minimum Support Price
(MSP) of water consuming crops.
5. Follow Mihir Shah Panel Recommendations:
•• To restructure the Central Water Commission (CWC) and the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB).
•• Aquifer Mapping and Participatory Ground Water Management Division.
•• Participatory groundwater management: Ground water needs to be recognised as a common pool resource and its
continuous, unchecked extraction needs to be stopped.
Best Model
•• In Rajasthan, there is a scheme called ‘Mukhya Mantri Jal Swavlamban Abhiyan’. One of its objectives is to ensure
effective implementation of water conservation and water harvesting related activities in rural areas.
•• Maharashtra has launched a project called ‘Jalyukt-Shivar’, which aims to make 5000 villages free of water scarcity
every year.
•• The Telangana government has launched a mission called Mission Kakatiya, the objective of which is to enhance the
development of agriculture based income for small and marginal farmers, by accelerating the development of minor
irrigation infrastructure, strengthening community based irrigation management and adopting a comprehensive
programme for restoration of tanks.
Government Steps
1. Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sichai Yojna:- The overarching vision of Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY)
is to ensure access to some means of protective irrigation to all agricultural farms in the country, to produce ‘per drop
more crop’, thus bringing much desired rural prosperity.
PRADHAN MANTRI KRISHI SINCHAI YOJANA
Farmer's Welfare
Rs. 50 thousand crore to be spent Har Khet ko Pani
in five years to bring 140 lakh
hectares additional area under
irrigotion

To bring 28.5 lakh hectore

area under irrigation during
the year 2016-2017

Rs. 12,517 crore to be incurred

on 23 irrigation schemes
in 2016-17
# Tronsformingindia More crop per drop

Broad Objectives
•• Achieve convergence of investments in irrigation at the field level (preparation of district level and, if required, sub
district level water use plans).
•• Enhance the physical access of water on the farm and expand cultivable area under assured irrigation (Har Khet Ko Pani).
•• Intetration of water source, distribution and its efficient use, to make best use of water through appropriate technologies
and practices.
•• Improve on-farm water use efficiency to reduce wastage and increase availability both in duration and extent.
•• Enhance the adoption of precision - irrigation and other water saving technologies (More Crop Per Drop).
•• arge of aquifers and introduce sustainable water conservation practices.
2. Jal Shakti Ministry:- VISION:- Optimal sustainable development, maintenance of quality and efficient use of water
resources to match with the growing demands on this precious natural resource of the country.
3. Interlinking Rivers:- Under the National Perspective Plan (NPP) prepared by the Ministry of Water Resources, NWDA
has already identified 14 links under Himalayan Rivers Component and 16 links under Peninsular Rivers Component for
inter basin transfer of water based on field surveys and investigation and detailed studies. Example:- Godavari-Cauvery
(Grand Anicut) link project, Ken Betwalink, Damanganga – Pinjal Link Project and Par – Tapi – Narmada Link
Project

7. Urbanisation and Street Vendor:

Who are Street Vendors?
Ans: National Policy on Street Vendors 2004 is defined as a person who offers goods and services for the sale of Public without having
a permanently built structure.
56

According to the Ministry of Housing and Poverty alleviation, there are approximately 10 million street vendors in India.
Issues with Street Vendors:
1. Neither protected by NGO, nor by the Government.
2. Income is minimal and they are also forced to pay bribes to Police and Municipal Bodies.
3. They are usually associated with the encroachment of Public places and thus eviction takes a heavy toll on their business.
4. Negative impact of online shopping.
Judiciary on Street Vendor:
•• Sodan Singh Vs NDMC: Declares Hawking on Pavement is the Fundamental Right.
•• Bombay Hawkers Union Vs BMC: Each City should formulate schemes to include Hawking or No Hawking Zones.
Law on Street Vendor: The Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood and Regulation of Street Vending) Act, 2014
•• Any person above 14 years of age, who is a street vendor has to register him/herself with the Town Vending Committee
(TVC).
•• The TVC shall have a 40% representation from street vendors and another 10% from civil society. The remaining would be
represented by local authorities, residential associations etc, .
•• Every street vendor has to obtain a certificate of vending from TVC, for which he/she will be issued with an identity card.
•• The local authorities shall frame a street vending plan, which shall be revised every 5 years. The plan should contain free
vending zones, restricted vending zones, and no-vending zones.
•• There is also a provision to provide credit insurance and welfare schemes to the street vendors by the appropriate government.
•• There is a provision for independent Grievance Redressal Mechanism composed of a retired judicial officer.
Executive Action on Street vendor
•• Providing 10000 Rs as a working capital for each vendor & Interest Rate should be linked to the MCLR.

Case Study
1. Pheriwala Action Committee:- Lobbies on various issues affecting streetvendors
2. National Association of Streetvendors of India: Celebrated World Food Day to highlight the values of Street vendors.

Suggestion
1. Promote and develop natural market system
2. Having Cooperatives and SHG for urban areas.
8. Urbanisation and Migrants:
ŠŠ Schedule Tribes Migration is mainly for seasonal agricultural and construction work, work in Brick kilns or as manual workers
in urban areas.
ŠŠ Contractors are often given advance payments and the workers are then treated as bonded to the contractor.
ŠŠ The Inter State “Migrant Workmen Act 1979” is inadequate since it deals only with those Migrant Workers in the
Contractor system and excludes workers who migrated on their own and mostly ST comes under this category.
ŠŠ In Urban areas, the Market system works in a way that capital and labour cannot be equals.
ŠŠ The rise of casualisation further fractures the workforce.
Problems faced by these Migrants:
1. Lack of Implementation of the “Migrant Workmen Act 1979.
2. According to the 2011 Census, 1 in 7 people lives in slums.
3. Challenge of documentation and Identity.
4. Limited access to Financial Services.
5. Violence against Migrant women.
SC has directed the government to take measures for migrant workers during second wave:
•• Food and travel arrangements.
•• Community kitchen
•• State government to arrange transportation for migrant workers.
•• SC has fixed July 31 as the deadline to implement One Nation One Ration Card scheme.
•• Recognised the need for direct cash transfer benefit for them.
•• Directed the ministry of labour and employment to ensure National data base for unorganised workers.
 57

Niti Aayog on Migrant Issue

There were two approaches put forward by NITI Aayog:
•• Handout Approach: This means usage of all the facilities provided by the Indian Government tomigrants
•• Rights Based Approach: This approach means the rights must be ensured in allstates
Proposals:
•• Creation of a nodal agency: NITI Aayog has recommended the creation of a nodal Ministry. The Ministry of Labour and
Employment must be the nodal agencywhich must create a special unit to help converge the activities of other Ministries.
•• Create Migration Resource Centres (MRCs): NITI Aayog has recommended creating Migration Resource Centres in high
migration zones, creation of National Labour helpline, interstate migration management bodies which must be coordinated
by a special unit.
•• Identification of Migration Corridors: The states where the migration happens must be regulated both at source and
destination.
•• The role of Panchyats would be crucial in providing the rights to the labourers who have migrated. The Panchayat must issue
the workers with ID Cards, passbooks, training, placementsetc.
• • Stem Migration: The states have been asked to raise the minimum wages to bring a major shift in the migration
pattern and thus stem migration. In this the Community Building Organizations or CBOs and administrative staff
has been asked to control the push factors. Create a central database to help the employers to fill the gap between
demand and supply and to ensure the benefits of various social welfare schemes reaches everyone.
•• The Aayog has also asked the National Legal Services Authority and the Ministry of Labour to set up Grievance Handling
Cells and fastrack the response systems for human trafficking, minimum wage violations and abuses at workplace for
migrants.
Suggestion
A concerted National Policy for their well being keeping in mind the constitution promise mentioned in Article 23 is the need of
the hour.
Linguistic Heterogeneity and Migrants
Migration has led to linguistic diversity, especially in the terms of mother tongues spoken. Example: If you draw two people at
random in Maharashtra, there is 50 % probability that they share the same mother tongue.
The linguistic heterogeneity of the cities is typically ignored by the respective State Governments. This results in different issues
for Migrants:
1. Migrants are eligible to be registered under “Building and construction workers’ act”. Registered workers are eligible
for social security benefits and their children get financial support for education. But they are not able to do so, because
documents on the website are in Marathi and English only.
2. Language is a barrier to children of Migrant workers. The medium of instruction in government schools is typically the
official language of the state. An unfamiliar medium of instruction will pose a barrier for children of inter state migrants.
Case Study
West Bengal appears to be sensitive to the issue of language diversity. The act says in a block where the population of
Urdu, Hindi, Santhali, Oriya exceeds 10%, rules, notifications, and everything will be available in multiple languages.

9. Urbanisation and Pandemics

ŠŠ The WHO has identified urbanisation as one of the key challenges for public health in the 21st century. Ex: Ebola, Zika
and COVID.
ŠŠ Crisis of Urbanisation reflected during Pandemic:
1. Poor Transport
2. Lack of Planning: The buildings are allowed to be built first and then the other basic municipal services follow from the demand
generated from the increased population density, without any feasibility study being conducted. This makes urban growth in India
to be predominantly unplanned.
3. Bonding Vs Social Distancing: Urban activities of agglomeration require people to come together. This goes against
the mandate of social distancing.
4. The increased number of passive encounters between people due to high populations and more opportunities for this
type of contact to happen due to density can lead to a domino effect in terms of infectivity of viruses and diseases.
58

5. Deforestation for Urbanisation has disturbed Isolated system which brought us in close contact with Bats and Primates,
resulting in Zoonotic Diseases.
How the city should be Planned Post Pandemic?
Ans:
•• Decentralisation: Privatisation and decentralisation of public services, such as waste collection and healthcare, have proven
effective in delivering operational efficiencies. During a crisis, decentralisation delivers another strength: resilience. It
reduces the points of failure that make centralised systems so vulnerable.
•• City wide Digital Transformation: The pandemic has proved the need for real-time, geo-located, publicly available
information to city managers across all sectors.
•• Focusing on Pedestrianization, biking, and building harmonious opportunities for street vending
•• Cross-disciplinary collaboration of public policies, urban planning and design using open public spaces, parks, urban forests
and integrated blue and green infrastructure are needed as tools to make cities healthy.
•• Promoting the use of blue-green spaces, physical activities on a neighbourhood or local and approachable level can
help negate impacts of infectious diseases, chronic illnesses etc in the future.
•• The mapping of under used and low-functioning sites and their reclamation can be another approach at local levels.
The ongoing pandemic of COVID-19 is a strong reminder that urbanisation has changed the way that people and communities
live, work, and interact, and the need to strengthen systems and local capacities to prevent the spread of infectious diseases is
urgent.
DHARAVI MODEL TO TACKLE COVID IN URBAN AREAS:
Focus on Tracing,
Tracking, Testing, Treating
1. BMC decided to do proactive screening in high-risk zones and organised fever camps to identify the suspects.
2. Mobilized all available ‘private’ practitioners through the drive conducted in‘mission-mode’..
3. Later all practitioners were asked to open their clinics and attend to patients and communicate to BMC about all the
suspected cases.
4. BMC sanitised all the clinics of these private practitioners and provided them with PPE, gloves etc.

10. Urbanisation and Transport

Issues
1. Traffic Congestion
2. Old vehicles plating on Road
Measures to Check Traffic Congestion
Global Positioning
System (GPS) IoV Cloud
Infrastructures

Mobile
Network

Ve
hic
le-
to-
Se
Vehicle-to- ns
or
Pedestrian

Ve
hic
Vehicle-to- le-
to-
Infrastructure Ve
hic
le

Road Side
Unit
Connected
Vehicle
 59

Intelligent Transportation System

Intelligent transportation systems are the application of sensing, analysis, control and communications technologies to ground
transportation in order to improve safety, mobility and efficiency.
Intelligent Transport System (ITS) aims to achieve traffic efficiency by minimizing traffic problems. It enriches users with prior
information about traffic, local convenience, real-time running information, seat availability etc. which reduces travel time of
commuters as well as enhances their safety and comfort.
The use is not just limited to traffic congestion control and information, but also for road safety and efficient infrastructure
usage. Because of its endless possibilities, ITS has now become a multidisciplinary conjunctive field of work and thus many
organizations around the world have developed solutions for providing ITS applications to meet the need.
One such example is the city of Glasgow. In the city, Intelligent Transport System gives regular information to the daily commuters
about public buses, timings, seat availability, the current location of the bus, time taken to reach a particular destination, next
location of the bus and the density of passengers inside the bus.
How does the Intelligent Transport System work?
Traffic Management Centre (TMC) is the vital unit of ITS. It is mainly a technical system administered by the transportation
authority. Here all data is collected and analyzed for further operations and control management of the traffic in real time or
information about local transportation vehicles. Its working can be understood in detail in following points:
•• Data collection: Strategic planning needs precise, extensive and prompt data collection with real-time observation. So the
data here is collected via varied hardware devices that lay the base of further ITS functions. These devices are Automatic
Vehicle Identifiers, GPS based automatic vehicle locators, sensors, cameras etc.
•• Data Transmission: Traffic-related announcements are communicated to the travellers through internet, SMS or onboard
units of Vehicle. Other methods of communications are dedicated short-range communications (DSRC) using radio and
Continuous Air Interface Long and Medium Range (CAILM) using cellular connectivity and infra-redlinks.
•• Data Analysis: The data that has been collected and received at TMC is processed further in various steps. These steps are
error rectification, data cleaning, data synthesis, and adaptive logical analysis. Inconsistencies in data are identified with
specialized software and rectified. After that data is further altered and pooled for analysis. collective data is analyzed further
to predict traffic scenarios which are available to deliver appropriate information tousers.
•• Traveller Information: Travel Advisory Systems (TAS) is used to inform transportation updates to the travelling user. The
system delivers real-time information like travel time, travel speed, delay, accidents on roads, change in route, diversions,
work zone conditions etc. Information is delivered by a wide range of electronic devices like variable message signs, highway
advisory radio, internet, SMS, automated cell.
Metro and Bus service is considered as an important component of Urbanisation
As per two recent independent study reports, one each by Mckinsey Global Institute and the High Powered Expert Committee
(HPEC) commissioned by Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, the total investment in urban transport has
been projected as more than 50% of the total investment required for urban development in next 20 years which includes housing
as well. The rough figure of investment works out to roughly about 1 lakh crore per year for next 20 years for urban transport.
Indian cities have various types of urban transit systems operational, under construction and planned. These systems are being
implemented based on the population of a city, financial feasibility and demand.
•• Rapid Transit: The rapid transit or popularly known as metro in India, is an urban high-capacity rail system, commonly
operated in metropolitan cities. These systems are segregated from Indian railway Example: Delhi Metro
•• Suburban Railway: Suburban rail or popularly known as local train system in India, is an urban rail transit system where the
suburbs are connected to the city’s centre. These systems are linked to and operated by Indian Railways. Example: Mumbai
Suburban railway
•• Medium Capacity Rail: It is a rapid transit (metro) system which has a capacity higher than light rail but lower than rapid
transport system to serve a medium demand. Example : Rapid metro Gurugram
•• Light Rail: Light rail is used in cities that have low demand. It is a combination of rapid rail and tram systems. It has a higher
capacity and speed compared to tram services and has dedicated tracks that are mostly fenced. Example: Srinagar Metro
•• Monorail: This system has trains running on a single rail/beam. It has found its application in medium capacity transport,
but due to low efficiency and high costs, it has been sidelined in India. Example : Mumbai Monorail
•• Regional Transit System: This system is operated either between two similarly-sized cities, which are close to each other
or between an urban city and smaller cities lying nearby. Example : Delhi Meerut RRTS
•• Tram: These systems are one of the oldest modes of urban transport in India. They are low capacity, slow-moving trains
which run on tracks that are embedded in the urban streets. Example: Kolkata Tram
Metro is growing as a significant transportation system in India: According to a report published in 2021, a total of 2,636
million people travel annually in metro systems across India’s thirteen major cities, placing the country as one of the busiest
urban rapid transit hubs in the world in terms of ridership. The combined length of metro systems in India makes it the fifth
longest in the world with 731.5 km in operation.
In this context, Metro Rail policy is important to know
1. The policy requires the states to focus on five kilometers of catchment area on either side of the metro station and to commit
60

in the project reports, development of feerer services, non-motorized transport services like walking pathways, cycling
pathways etc.
2. It has been made mandatory to set up a Urban Metropolitan Transport Authority (UMTA) which would be involved in
drafting comprehensive mobility plans for cities, with multi modal integration for efficient exploitation of capacities.
3. It proposes agencies to be identified by the government to put in place a third party assessment mechanism for a thorough
assessment of new metro proposals.
Bus Services
Bus rapid transport system: Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) is a high-quality bus-based transit system that delivers fast, comfortable,
and cost-effective services at metro-level capacities.
Character of BRT System
1. Dedicated Right of way: Bus-only lanes make for faster travel and ensure that buses are never delayed due to mixed traffic
congestion.
2. Busway alignment: Center of roadway or bus-only corridor keeps buses away from the busy curbside where cars are
parking, standing, and turning.
3. Off board Fare collection: Fare payment at the station, instead of on the bus, eliminates the delay caused by passengers
waiting to pay on board.
Relevance of Transit Oriented Development
Transit oriented development is regional planning, city revitalization, suburban renewal, and walkable neighbourhoods combined.
In essence, TOD integrates land use and transport planning and aims to develop planned sustainable urban growth centers, having
walkable and livable communes with high density mixed land-use. Citizens have access to open green and public spaces and at
the same time transit facilities are efficiently utilized.
Transit-oriented development (TOD) is defined as “walkable, compact, mixed-use, higher-density development within walking
distance of a transit facility.” TOD generally provides a mix of residential and commercial uses and is designed to make public
transit successful, enhance the convenience and safety of walking and bicycling, and provide for a vibrant, livable community.
By 2025, 14.6 million households will demand homes within walking distance to public transit and rail systems. TOD can help
meet some of that demand.
FEATURES OF TOD
Transit-oriented Development has Five Key Characteristics
•• It contains a walkable, high-quality pedestrian environment that integrates streetscaping.
•• The highest housing densities are located closest to the transit center in order to decrease sprawl and promote compactness.
•• The transit center is also at the center of a destination that has a diverse, mixed-use development.
•• Parking is carefully located, designed, and managed.
•• Most importantly, the community has quality public transit facilities and service.
Benefits of TOD
•• TOD can improve public health. A community with a strong and dependable transit system and streetscaping elements can
discourage vehicle dependence and congestion.
•• TOD can create a more sustainable community. The Center for Transit-Oriented Development reported that transportation
contributes about 28 percent of all greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, TOD has the potential to reduce annual
GHG. The Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission found in their GHG inventory that Philadelphia had lower
transportation-related emissions per capita because of a higher reliance on public transit.
•• TOD can strengthen local economies. Improving local public transit can cut vehicle transportation costs and time spent on
commuting. With reduced commuting times and costs, people will be able to spend their time and money at restaurants,
shops, and museums in the local area.
•• Sprawl development is costly because it requires the expansion of public infrastructure and utilities. TOD promotes a compact
community and uses existing infrastructure. A transit-dependent community saves money on repairing infrastructure as
vehicle use decreases.
Old Vehicles
India has 51 lakh light motor vehicles that are more than 20 years old and 34 lakh over 15 years old. Around 17 lakh medium and
heavy commercial vehicles are older than 15 years without valid fitness certificates, according to data with the Ministry of Road
Transport and Highways.
India has introduced Scrappage Policy. Globally, a scrappage policy has been followed by a boost in demand in the auto
manufacturing sector, especially in Europe and the US. This has also been a tool to deal with economic slowdown in the
manufacturing sector and consumption due to recession. Besides, there are spelt-out benefits vis-à-vis the environment since
newer cars come with better emission standards and better fuel efficiency.
The policy dictates that all automobiles over a certain age should be off the roads in the interest of better pollution control and
safety, which new vehicles ensure. Commercial vehicles over 15 years old and personal vehicles over 20 years old are marked
for scrapping; it doesn’t matter if they run on diesel or petrol- if they fail an automated fitness test.
 61

This does not mean that vehicle owners need to rush to scrap their old vehicles. India is still not ready with the infrastructure to
either test or scrap vehicles in such large numbers. The investor summit seeks to sensitise India’s industry about the scope and
profitability of the scrappage industry.
Government Step
1. Amrut: Atal mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation
Vision: Fill the gap between infrastructural necessity and their accessibility.
The purpose of Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) is to:
ŠŠ Ensure that every household has access to a tap with the assured supply of water and a sewerage connection.
ŠŠ Increase the amenity value of cities by developing greenery and well maintained open spaces (e.g. parks).
ŠŠ Reduce pollution by switching to public transport or constructing facilities for non-motorized transport.
Focus: Building amenities to improve the quality of life in the selected cities.
ŠŠ It adopts a project approach to ensure basic infrastructure services.
ŠŠ Under this mission, 10% of the budget allocation will be given to states and union territories as incentive based on the
achievement of reforms during the previous year.
ŠŠ Under this mission, states get the flexibility of designing schemes based on the needs of identified cities and in their
execution and monitoring.
Features:
ŠŠ Cooperative Federalism: State Governments have been empowered to appraise, approve and sanction projects for their
AMRUT Cities.
ŠŠ Framework for institutional Reforms: AMRUT lays major emphasison institutional reforms which aim to improve
governance and institutional capacities of ULBs.
ŠŠ Principles of Incrementalism and Prioritisation: It is a gradual process of achieving the benchmarks and priority is
given to water supply and sewerage projects.
Š Š Incentivising over penalising: During the erstwhile JNNURM, 10% of the Additional central assistance for
projects was retained for non completion of reforms. This led to all States, UTs, losing this 10 % as none
could achieve 100% of reforms, hence several projects were starved of funds and remained incomplete. This
is reversed in AMRUT.
The data from the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs has revealed the following facts about the implementation status of
AMRUT Yojana:
•• With only a year to the deadline, only 20 per cent of the total projects were completed utilising 3 percent of the total funds
approved.
•• States like Bihar and Assam were not able to complete even a single project.
•• Tamil Nadu topped the list by completing 378 projects.
•• About 46% of water connection and 28.3% of sewer connection targets have been achieved between June 2015 and December
2019.
•• The data of ministry of housing and urban affairs reveal that over the last five years, only 2,316 projects worth Rs 7,195
crore – 9.2% of the total outlay – have been completed.
Achievement
1. 79 lakh household water tap connections and 45 lakh sewer connections have been provided, including in slums and low-
income habitations.
2. The Mission helped cities to undertake a set of 11 reforms comprising 54milestones aimed at strengthening capacities of city
level institutions for effective governance and citizen service delivery.
3. In order to promote energy efficiency across the Indian cities, 76 lakh streetlights were replaced with energy efficient LED
streetlights.
4. Credit rating exercise undertaken in 469 of the 500 Mission cities which has helped Urban bodies to raise Municipal Bonds.
AMRUT 2.0 (SECOND PHASE)
1. AMRUT 2.0 aims to provide 100% coverage of water supply to all households in around 4,700 urban local bodies.
2. 100% coverage of sewerage and septage in 500 AMRUT cities.
3. AMRUT 2.0 would follow circular economy principles and promote the conservation and renewal of surface and ground
water bodies.
4. It has been mandated for cities having million plus population to take up PPP projects.
5. Notification on property tax related, and user charges related to O & M costs is a mandatory reform.
6. Rain water harvesting in all institutional buildings.
2. Smart City:
Vision:
To create ‘Smart Cities’ by empowering them socially, economically and technologically to act as a support system in the
neighbourhood.
62

Strategy:
Š Š Retrofitting will introduce planning in an existing built-up area to achieve smart city objectives. In retrofitting,
an area consisting of more than 500 acres will beidentified by the city in consultation with citizens.
ŠŠ Redevelopment will effect a replacement of the existing built-up environment and enable co-creation of a new
layout with enhanced infrastructure using mixed land use and increased density. Two examples of the redevelopment
model are the Saifee Burhani Upliftment Project in Mumbai and the redevelopment of East Kidwai Nagar in New
Delhi.
ŠŠ Greenfield development will introduce most of the Smart Solutions in a previously vacant area (more than 250 acres) by
land pooling/ land reconstitution) Example is the GIFT City in Gujarat.
ŠŠ Pan-city development envisages application of selected Smart Solutions to the existing city-wide infrastructure. Ex: Smart
Transport Intelligent System
Smart city at the time of Pandemic
The component of Smart city:- “Integrated command and control centre” functioned as a war room and helped in Information
dissemination, predictive analysis and effective management in the time of COVID.

Issues in Smart City

1. Design Challenges:
2. Fund Utilization: It has been lowest among all the Urban Schemes. Only 1.8% of the funds have been utilized.
3. Availability of master plan or city development plan: Unfortunately 70-80 per cent of Indian cities don’t have City
Development Plan.
4. Providing clearances in a timely manner: For timely completion of the project, all clearances should use online processes
and be cleared in a time-bound manner.
5. Dealing with a multivendor environment: Another major challenge in the Indian smart city space is that (usually) software
infrastructure in cities contains components supplied by different vendors.
6. Reliability of utility services: For any smart city in the world, the focus is on reliability of utility services, whether it is
electricity, water, telephone or broadband services.
7. Financing Smart Cities: Using an average figure of 1 million people in each of the 100 smart cities, the total estimate of
investment requirements for the smart city comes to Rs 7 lakh crore over 20 years.
Success of Smart City
1. PUNE: Installation of Sensor, Doppler Radar etc.
2. BHUBANESWAR: Common Payment system for commutation.
3. JABALPUR: GIS based Sewage Disposal.
4. As per Economic survey, approximately 5,000 projects worth more than Rs 2 lakh crore are being implemented in 100
cities under Smart Cities Mission.
5. The Bhopal integrated command and control centre aims to enhance the safety and security of citizens through implementation
of India’s first cloud based Integrated command and control centre which consists of a cloud data centre for all seven smart
cities of the state such as Bhopal, Gwalior, Jabalpur, Indore, Ujjain, Satna and Sagar.
6. The big achievements in the year 2018-2019 are a three-fold rise of projects tendered, and another three-fold rise in projects
completed.
7. Pune Municipal Corporation Is Also First City Administration In India To Launch Its Open Data Policy And Open Data
Initiatives Like Sharing Real Time API For Co-Creation / Co-Innovation.
Smart City Requires Smart Department
It is because smart cities don’t emerge from top down, but from organic collaboration between departments, employees and
citizens.
How is it possible?
Ans:
•• A smart department should be able to apply digital technologies across 3domains: Process, Human resources, and citizen
centricity.
•• Process should be simple, human resources should have leadership qualities and citizen centricity means urban bodies
should focus on service delivery rather than just using technology.
•• But what is more important is Behavioural change: Switch from pen based to computer based record keeping system.
•• Urban local bodies should use a combination of expectation settings and incentives for employees. Ex: Andhra ULB reported
a saving of an average of 11hours every week using digital technologies, they should be incentivised.
•• Leaders should set phased targets for adoption of new tools and capacity building of employees.
 63

3. Housing for All by 2022: “Housing for All by 2022” aimed for urban areas with following components/options to States/
Union Territories and cities-
A. Slum rehabilitation of Slum Dwellers with participation of private developers using land as a resource: Central grant
of Rs. one lakh per house, on an average, will be available under the slum rehabilitation programme. A State Government
would have flexibility in deploying this slum rehabilitation grant to any slum rehabilitation project taken for development
using land as a resource for providing houses to slum dwellers.
B. Promotion of affordable housing for the weaker section through credit linked subsidy: Under the Credit Linked Interest
Subsidy component, interest subsidy of 6.5 percent on housing loans availed up to a tenure of 15 years will be provided to
EWS/L I C categories.
C. Affordable housing in partnership with the Public & Private sector: Central assistance at the rate of Rs.1.5 lakh per
house for EWS category will be provided under the Affordable Housing in Partnership and Beneficiary-led individual house
construction or enhancement.
D. Subsidy for beneficiary-led individual house construction or enhancement.
NEED OF SMART VILLAGE
Minister of MSME at CII Conference: The purchasing power of people in rural areas must increase for bigger industries to
benefit, and the growth rate of the country to increase, adding that creation of employment in rural areas will prevent migration of
labourers, potentially avoiding a crisis that has risen amid the Covid-19 pandemic. Thus need to focus on Smart Villages rather
than Smart Cities. Basically this concept is based on the concept to PURA (Providing Urban Amenities to Rural Areas)
PURA – Providing Urban Amenities in Rural Areas

Ring Road Telecom

Rail
Physical Connectivity Internet
Public Infrastructure

Warehouse Economic E-Governance

Agro-Industries Connectivity
K Tele-medicine
Markets Co now
nn le n ic
Hospital ec dg tro ity Tele-education
tiv e ec tiv
Micro Power Plant ity El nec
n
Coop. Product Mktg. Co 10-30 Village Clusters
- 50-100 Crore investment
Schools
IRS Imagery for - Business Proposition
- Land & Crop Mgmt - Employment for 3000
- Water Mgmt Enlightened Citizenship persons
- Forest Mgmt
- Environment Moral Leadership - Beneficiaries :
Proactive Health care 30,000 – 100,000 people
Manufacturing

JOINT PRIVATE –PUBLIC EMPOWERED BODIES

www.abdulkalam.com

The Concept of Smart Village is Mentioned as

S Simple and skilled R Responsive and Ready
M Moral and Modern T Technology and Transparent
A Aware and Adaptive
Things that Will Make Village Smart
Adequate water Affordable housing,
supply especially for the poor
Assured electricity
supply Robust IT connectivity
and digitalization
Sanitation
including Sustainable
solid waste environment
management
Efficient urban
mobility and Health and education
public transport

Good governance, especially Safety and security of citizens

e-governance and particularly women, children
citizen participation and the elderly
64

What to do?
Ans:
•• We must create an ecosystem that makes youth interested in working from their villages. BPOs/KPOs can operate from
villages and young people can be encouraged to take up IT jobs there.
•• Farming should be made a remunerative occupation, with guidance and mentoring to small farmers.
•• Skill India can empower youths to start their own small businesses after training as masons, mechanics, electricians, and
drivers or to run repair shops, poultry and dairy farms, kirana stores, tea-shops, dhabas and so on.
•• Training villagers in water harvesting methods, rejuvenating ponds/wells to improve water storage and sharing these good
practices systematically with others, would help mitigate hardships.
•• A great deal of export potential is hidden in craft like Pottery, Ivory craft, wood craft, paper craft etc.
Case Study
PUNSARI Village in Gujarat: Set up Air Conditioned Classroom, CCTV, Optic Fibre Communication.
Dharnai Village in Bihar: Since the launch of Greenpeace’s solar-powered 100 kilowatt micro-grid in 2014, quality
electricity is being provided to more than 2,400 people living in this village in Jehanabad district.
Hiware Bazar, Maharashtra: Facing a major water crisis each year, today the village has 294 wells.
 Urbanisation and
Associated Issues

ISBN : 9789355640192
This book is available at all leading physical book stores and
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6 Historiography of Modern
Indian History

Imperialist School of Historians

Nationalist School of Historians
Marxist School of Historians
Semi-Marxist School of Historians
Subaltern School of Historians
 67

Historiography is the study of the methods of historians in developing history as an academic discipline, and by extension is
anybody of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians have studied that
topic using particular sources, techniques, and theoretical approaches. Modern Indian historiography began with the writings of
the scholar-administrators of the English East India Company and they found history as an instrument to legitimize the colonial
rule by putting some interpretations. Thus emerged different school of thoughts or historiographical trends in Indian History.
They are colonial or Imperialist, Nationalist, Marxist and Subaltern.

Imperialist School
It was the product of British colonialism in India. The Indologist and Orientalists were the real force behind the development of
the investigation on India’s past and culture. They talked about providential nature and benevolent nature of British rule. They
were saying that God sent us to help you and to civilize you. There was no exploitation.

R Coupland Percival Spear
They rejected the Idea that India was nation. India was a geographical expression. We reorganize and
helped India to couple into a nation.
Now, some Historian started developing Imperialist school of writing in different manner and this school was called Cambridge
school of Historians.

Dr. Anil Seal Judith M. Brown
There was no nationalism. India was even not a nation into making. It was a conglomeration of caste, communities, religious
groups, linguistic groups so there was nothing called Indian nation. They were not united. People were mobilised and they were
mobilized because of their group interest not for their nation. Not for their common will.
There was different group and they have different interest. These different groups were competing and they were called
collaborators [India collaborators]. New Historian believes competition among between different collaborators and there was a
faction rivalry between these collaborators and they were actually competing to get British favour.
They called Nehru and Gandhi a national Broker. They are referring to some group interest and class interest. There was nothing
like popular movement and there was nothing like united Front.
68

Nationalist School of History writing

Nationalist Approach played a vital role in Indian historiography since the second half of 19th century. Indian nationalist
historians tried to prove the falsity of colonial historical narrative on the basis of analysis of existing historical source and also
they were also was raised as a political weapon to eliminate foreign rule in India. Ideological studies were regarded as a binding
factor of Indian people and their sentiments. History was taken to means as a motivating force of national awakening and made
use of to instill patriotic feelings. National pride played a big role in providing inspiration to common people and historical
consciousness began to grow steadily as never before. They emphasized achievements in Indian history, while downplaying
negative aspects, which led to various contradictions.
Old Nationalist School of Historians

Lala Lajpat Rai Bal Gangadhar Tilak Dayanand Saraswati

Surendranath Banerjee
New Nationalist School of Historians

R C Majumdar Tara Chand B.R. Nanda

 69

B N Pandey
•• They questioned the concept of imperial Historians.
•• British rule was exploitative and they plundered India.
•• They transformed India into a captive market.
•• They suggested India as a cultural all national entity. Nation always existed. This not the concept which British has came
with up.
Marxist School of Historian
The marxian historiography of India has focused on studies of economic development, land ownership, and class conflict in
pre-colonial India and deindustrialization during the colonial period. One debate in Indian history that relates to a historical
materialist schema is on the nature of feudalism in India. Example-

R.P Dutt A.R Desai

•• R.P Dutt- India Today heralded the Marxist approach in Indian historiography.
•• A.R. Desai’s Social Background of Indian Nationalism (1948). It is another thorough going account of the colonial period
and the rise of nationalism from a Marxist perspective.
•• In National Movement there was a middle class leadership and for a particular class interest.
•• They also talked about exploitative colonial rule.
•• Our National movement was led by bourgeois (middle class) and they directed this movement to suit their own class
interest and they neglected the interest of masses.
•• They also talked about exploitative colonial rule.
•• Three phases of British rule:-
(i) Mercantile phase (till 1813)
(ii) Industrial phase (till 1860)
(iii) Finance capitalism
•• They also talked about positive development in Britishers rule:-
•• Colonial rule known for structural transformers of Economy and with this there was decline of feudalism.
•• British led the foundation of new administration- New Bureaucracy.
•• British developed the Modern means of transport.
•• They also worked in field of Education.
70

• Recently, Sumit Sarkar said that India Education classes were traditional intellectuals. They don’t know anything about
the features of the middle class.
However they tried to have a balance approach towards Colonial historians and Nationalist Historians approach. Marxist talked
about the positive outcomes of British rule as well as negative outcomes of British rule. According to them, Nationalist historians
had exaggerated the facts in the process of reacting against the Imperialist school of Historians.
Semi- Marxist Nationalist School
Bipin Chandra was the representative of this school. According to Bipin chandra Indian National
Movement is called popular movement. Various classes contributed in this movement. Not
only middle classes.
Bipin Chandra talked about two contradiction:-
(i) Primary contradiction in India society.
(ii) Secondary contradiction in India society.
•• Primary contradiction was between the interest of the Indian people and the interest of the
British rule.
•• Secondary contradiction was within Indian society between two classes, between two
castes, between two religions.
•• Gradually secondary contradiction was compromised and primary contradiction was
dominated. Secondary merged in primary within. Finally with this there was dominance of
nationalist ideology.
Subaltern school of history writing- 1980s
This school of thought began in the early 1980s under the editorship of Ranajit Guha, as a
critique of the existing historiography, which was faulted for ignoring the voice of the
people. Right from the beginning, subaltern historiography took the position that the
entire tradition of Indian historiography had had an elitist bias. Sometime also called
Radical Marxist. They were guided by Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci.
•• There were two classes:-
(i) Elite (ii) common man
•• Subaltern school of history writing was about common man. History of -
(i) poor persons
(ii) Woman
(iii) Tribals
(iv) Dalits
•• Indian History till now is dominated by Elitist Historiography and there was no
conflict between British elite and Indian Elite.
However, The Subaltern School of Historiography is an extension of Marxism. With its emergence began the written history
of the people who were suppressed and ignored by the statist discourse. The Subaltern historians mainly criticized the Indian
Nationalist and Orientalist Schools of history writing as these groups were representing the elitist history alone by ignoring the
oppressed and the ‘small voices’ in India. They focused on the power-knowledge relationship and the marginalized sections
of the society which had been ignored throughout the course of history writing. Most of the scholars of this school have
their origin in Marxism. The school took its roots from two main names; Antonio Gramsci and Michel Foucault. Gramsci was
the founder of Communist Party of Italy. He was of the view that working class should be given importance as revolutionary
intellectuals originate from within rather than from above or outside it. Foucault gave importance to power and highlighted
that power works through institutions which demand subjugation and obedience. This school was emerged in the late 20th
Century with the efforts of Ranajit Guha. On the one hand, there are various critiques on this school as well. It gained popularity
as it emerged as ‘historiography of the protest’ but it failed to play its due share in the writing of effective history of all the
suppressed groups of the society. On the other, subaltern studies highlighted a range of themes like the role of indigenous
resistance, etc. which had never been discussed earlier. Its significance cannot be denied as it has focused primarily on those
who were never given any social status.
 Historiography of
Modern Indian History

ISBN : 9789395985406
This book is available at all leading physical book stores
and online book stores
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 Unit B : General Studies-1

1
Centre- State Relations

Introduction

Since a federation is a multi Government system and every unit has its own NCERT TOPICS Covered
environment where the demands flow and conflicts arise, so the problems are
in heterogeneous nature. The roots of the dispute is in the federal system are
CLASS 11
differences of ideological stances, regional economic and cultural interests •• The Centre-State Relations
and the attitude of the leaders have varied from time to time. For perceiving •• Legislative Relations
overall value system and resolving inter-governmental conflict there is •• Division of Powers
need for a consensual framework for normative and procedural perspective. •• Union List, State List, Concurrent List
Due to the absence of this framework the federal system has frequently •• Types of Interstate disputes
oscillated among the different ideological orientation and the bargaining and •• River waters sharing
negotiation of the principal personalities of the politics. CLASS 10
•• The centre-state Relations

Centre – State Relations

Political scientists have classified government into unitary and federal on the basis of the nature of relations between the national
government and the regional government.
A federal government is one in which powers are divided between the national government and the regional governments by the
jurisdiction independently.
In a federal model, the national government is known as the Federal Government or the Central Government or the Union
Government.
•• The distribution of powers is an essential feature of federalism. A federal Constitution establishes the dual polity with the Union
at the centre and the States at the periphery, each endowed with the sovereign powers to be exercised in the field assigned to
them respectively by the Constitution. The one is not subordinate to the other in its own field; the authority of one is co-ordinate
with the other.
•• In the Indian federal set-up, the Constitution divides powers between centre and states as:-
–– Legislative (Article 245-255)
–– Administrative (Article 256-263)
–– Financial (Article 268-273)
Legislative Relations
•• Article 245 to 255 in part XI of the Constitution deals with the Legislative relation between the Centre & the States.
•• Article 245(1) of the Constitution of India provides that the Parliament has power to make laws for the whole or any part
of territory of India. This includes not only the States but also the UTs or any other area, for the time being included in the
territory of India. It also possesses the power of ‘Extra-Territorial Legislation’ which no State Legislature possesses.
•• The State Legislature is competent only to make laws for the whole or any part of the state to which it belongs.
 2
•• For certain UTs like Andaman & Nicobar and state list common to these states, Parliament can make
Lakshadweep, regulations made by the President laws in that respect. Such a Law can only be amended as
have the same force as the Acts of the Parliament and repealed by the Act of Parliament
such regulations may repeal or amend a law made by •• Under Article 253, Parliament has power to make any
Parliament in relation to such territory. law for the whole or any part of the territory of India for
•• The application of Acts of parliament to any Scheduled implementing treaties and international agreements and
Area may be barred or modified by notifications made by conventions.
the Governor. •• Parliament is empowered to make laws w.r.t. all matters
•• In distributing the subject matters between Centre and states, in the state list when there is failure of constitutional
our Constitution makers followed Canadian scheme. machinery of the State under Article 356.
However they added one more list to it, Concurrent list.
Centre’s control over state legislation
(GOI Act 1935 had 3 fold enumeration – federal, provincial
and concurrent) at present, 3 lists are there:- In addition to the Parliament’s power to legislate on the state’s
1. Union List – 98 subjects, originally 97 subjects subjects as mentioned above, the Constitution also provides
2. State List – 59 subjects, originally 66 subjects for certain provisions where the Centre’s consent is required
3. Concurrent List –52 subjects, originally 47 subjects before a bill passed by the state legislature can become a law.
•• Article 246 is related to subject matter of law making Article 31-A grants immunity to laws providing for agrarian
power of Parliament and state legislatures. reforms from Articles 14 and 19. The immunity of Article
•• Subjects mentioned in the Union List are of national 31-A will not be available to a state law unless it has received
importance and only Parliament is competent to make the consent of the President.
laws on these subjects. Article 200 directs the Governor of a state to reserve a bill
•• For State List, only the States have exclusive power to passed by a state legislature for the President’s consideration
make laws. if in his opinion, if passed into law would derogate the powers
•• Concurrent list is a “Twilight Zone”, where both the of the High Court..
Union and the states are competent to make law, without Article 288(2) authorizes a state to tax in respect of water or
any conflict. electricity stored, generated, consumed, distributed or sold
•• Residuary powers (Article 248): Parliament has by any authority established by law made by Parliament.
exclusive power to make laws on the subjects not But no such law shall be valid unless it has been reserved for
enumerated in any of the lists (Entry 97 of Union List). President’s consideration and received his assent.
•• Wherever the conflict arises as to a subject matter, the Article 304(b) authorizes a state legislature to impose
Union List predominates over the other lists. reasonable restriction on the freedom of trade, commerce and
•• To determine whether a particular enactment falls under intercourse within the state in the public interest. But such
one list or the other, it is the pith and substance of laws cannot be introduced in the state legislature without the
such enactment and not its legislative level that is taken previous sanction of the president.
account of. Pith and substance here means the true object
of the legislation or statute and the competence of the Administrative Relations
legislature which enacts it. •• During the time of emergency Indian Constitution works
•• Colorable Legislation – The motives of the legislature like a unitary government.
are, otherwise, irrelevant for determining whether it has •• In normal times, there are constitutional provisions which
transgressed the constitutional limits of the legislative ensure the control of the union over the states. Some of
power. This principle is based on the maxim that you can the mechanisms are:
not do indirectly what you can not do directly. •• Power to appoint and dismiss the Governor (articles 155-
•• Parliament’s Power to legislate on state subjects. 156), power to appoint and remove judges of HC, removal
•• Under Art 249, in the national interest, Parliament has of members of state PSC (articles 217, 317)
the power to make laws w.r.t. any matter included in the •• Direction by the center to the states.
State List, for a temporary period, if Rajya Sabha passes •• Article 256 provides that the executive power of the state
a resolution supported by 2/3rd of the members present shall be so exercised as to ensure compliance with the
and voting that it is necessary in the national interest that laws made by the parliament and executive power of the
parliament should make laws w.r.t. any matter enumerated Union shall also extend to the giving of such directions to
with in state list.
a state as it may deem essential for the purpose.
•• Under the proclamation of emergency, Article 250
•• Further article 257 provides that states must exercise
empowers the Parliament to make laws for the whole or
their executive power in such a way so as not to impede
any part of the territory of India w.r.t. all matters in the
State List. Such a law however shall cease to have effect or prejudice the exercise of the executive power of the
on the expiration of 6 months after the proclamation of Union in the state.
emergency has ceased to operate. •• The powers of the Union Government also extend to
•• Under Article 252, if the legislatures of two or more giving directions to a state in 2 specific matters:
States pass a resolution to the effect that it is desirable 1. Construction and maintenance of means of
to have a law passed by Parliament on any matters in the
 3
communication which are declared to be of national or Financial Relations
military importance. •• Articles 268 to 293 in part XII deal with the financial
2. Measures to be taken for the protection of the railway relations.
within the states. •• These relations are related to the distribution of taxes as
•• The Constitution prescribes and coercive sanction for the well as non-tax revenue and the power of borrowing.
enforcement of its directions through article 356. •• Grant-in-aid forms an important part of centre-state
Delegation of Union functions to the States relations.
•• Parliament can levy taxes on the subjects enlisted in the
•• Under article 258 (1), Parliament with the consent of the
List - I (Union List) while the states can levy taxes on the
state government can entrust to it any matter falling with
subjects mentioned in the State List. (List II).
in the executive powers of the Union.
•• There are no taxes on the subjects of the Concurrent List
•• Under article 258(2) Parliament is empowered to use
(List III).
state machinery for the enforcement of Union laws. For
•• Finance Commission (Article 280) recommends to the
such purpose, it can confer powers or impose duties on
President on the distribution of net proceeds of taxes
state functionaries.
between the Centre and states.
•• Therefore under clause (1) delegation of power is made
with the consent of the state, whereas consent of the state Finance Commission
is not necessary under clause (2), and such delegation •• Article 280 provides Finance Commission as a quasi-
is done by the parliament by law. This implies that judicial body constituted by the President every fifth year
parliament can interfere in the state administration, even or at such earlier time as he considers necessary.
without the consent of the State. •• Recommendations made by the Finance Commission
•• The State government has also the power to delegate are only of advisory nature and not binding upon the
its functions to the Union and its officers. Article 258 government.
(A) added by 7th amendment act 1956 provides that Composition
Governor of the state with the consent of GOI, entrust to •• A chairman and four other members appointed by the
the government, such functions to which the executive President.
power of State extends. •• They hold office for such period as specified by
•• All India services are common to both the Union and the the President in his order. The are Eligible for
states. The officers of these services are appointed and reappointment.
regulated by the Centre and are placed in various states. •• The Constitution authorises Parliament to determine the
•• Grants in-aid (Article 275): Parliament has power qualifications of the members and the manner in which
to make such grants as it may deem necessary to give they should be selected. Accordingly, the Parliament
financial assistance to any state which is in need of such enacted Finance Commission (Miscellaneous Provisious)
assistance (Article 275). Act of 1951, specifying the qualifications of the chairman
•• Under Article 263, President has power to establish Inter- and its members.
State Councils. These Councils have duty of inquiring •• The Chairman should be a person having experience in
into and advising upon disputes which arises between public affairs.
the states. These councils also investigate and discuss the •• The four other members should be selected from the
subjects of common interest between the union and the following :
States or between two or more states. –– A Judge of high court or one to be qualified to be
–– The President has established Central Council of appointed as such;
health, a Central Council of local self-government –– A person having specialized knowledge of finance
and a Transport Development Council. and accounts of the government.
•• Parliament has power to constitute an Inter-State –– A Person having wide experience in financial
Commerce Commission (Article 307) and empower it to matters and in administration;
execute such functions as it may deem fit. –– A person who has Special knowledge of economics.
•• Article 261 provides that full faith and credit shall be Functions
given throughout the territory of India to public acts, •• The finance commission is required to make
records and judicial proceedings of the Union and every recommendations to the President of India on the
state. following matters:
•• Article 261 (3) declares that final judgement or orders –– Distribution of the net proceeds of taxes to be shared
delivered or passed by civil courts in any part of territory between the Centre and the States.
of India can be executed anywhere in the country. –– Principles that should govern the grants-in-aid to
•• Article 262: Adjudication of disputes relating to waters of the states by the centre (i.e. out of the consolidated
inter-state rivers or river valleys. Article 262 (2) provides fund of India).
that parliament may by law provide that neither the SC –– The measures needed to augment the consolidated
nor any other court shall exercise jurisdiction in respect fund of a state to supplement the resources of the
of any such dispute. Panchayats and the Municipalities in the state
 4
on the basis of the recommendations made by (1) Parliament and the state legislature, subject to cl. (2),
the State Finance Commission. This function have power to make laws w.r.t GST imposed by the Union
is added by the 73rd and 74th constitutional or by such state.
amendment 1992.
(2) Parliament has exclusive power to make laws w.r.t. GST
–– Any other matter referred to it by the President in
the interests of sound finance. where the supply of goods, or of services, or both takes
•• The Commission also suggests the amounts to be paid place in the course of inter-state trade or commerce.
to Assam, Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal in lieu of
Article 269A: Levy and collection of GST in course of inter-
assignment of any share of the net proceeds in each
year of export duty on jute and jute products (Article state trade or commerce
273). GST on supplies in the course of inter-state trade or commerce
–– The Commission submits its report to the shall be levied or collected by the central government and such
President. He lays it before both the Houses of tax shall be apportioned between the union and the states in
Parliament along with an explanatory memorandum
as to the action taken on its recommendations the manner as may be provided by Parliament by law on the
(Article 281). recommendation of the GST Council.
Finance Chairman Operational It also provides that Parliament may by law formulate the
Commission Duration principles for determining the place of supply and when a
First K. C. Neogy 1952–57 supply of goods or of services or both takes place in the course
Second K. Santhanam 1957–62 of inter-state trade or commerce.
Third A. K. Chanda 1962–66 Article 279A: GST Council
Fourth P. V. Rajamannar 1966–69
The President shall constitute within 60 days from the date
Fifth Mahaveer Tyagi 1969–74
of commencement of 101st amendment act 2016 by order
Sixth K. Brahmananda Reddy 1974–79
Seventh J. M. Shelat 1979–84 constitute a GST council, which shall consist of the following
Eighth Y. B. Chavan 1984–89 members:
Ninth N. K. P. Salve 1989–95 •• Union Finance minister – Chairperson
Tenth K. C. Pant 1995–2000 •• Union minister of state in charge of Revenue or Finance
Eleventh A. M. Khusro 2000–2005 – Member
Twelfth C. Rangarajan 2005–2010 •• Minister in charge of Finance or Taxation or any other
Thirteenth Dr. Vijay L. Kelkar 2010–2015 Minister nominated by each state government – Members
Fourteenth Dr. Y. V. Reddy 2015–2020 The GST Council shall make recommendations to the Union
Fifteen N. K. Singh 2021–2026 and the States on –
(a) The taxes, cesses and surcharges levied by the union, the
IAS Mains Previous Year Questions states and the local bodies which may be subsumed in the
Q. How is the Finance Commission of India constituted? GST.
What do you know about the terms of reference of the (b) The goods and services that may be subjected to or
recently constituted Finance Commission? Discuss. exempted from the GST.
 [Paper-2 2018] (c) Model GST laws, principles of levy, apportionment of
Q. Discuss the recommendations of the 13th Finance integrated GST and the principles that govern the place of
Commission which have been a departure from the
supply.
previous commissions for strengthening the local
(d) The threshold limit of turnover below which goods and
government finances. [Paper-2 2013]
Q. How have the recommendations of the 14th Finance services may be exempted from GST.
Commission of India enabled the states to improve (e) The rates including floor rates with bands of GST.
their fiscal position? [Paper-2 2021] (f) Any special rate or rates for a specified period, to raise
additional resources during any natural calamity or
Goods and Services Tax (Gst) disaster.
GST is an indirect tax used on the supply of goods and (g) Special provision w.r.t the states of Arunachal Pradesh,
services. It came into effect through the Constitutional 101st Assam, J&K, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland,
amendment act 2016. This amendment subsumed a number Sikkim, Tripura, Himschal Pradesh and Uttarakhand; and
of indirect taxes levied by the central and state governments (h) Any other matter relating to GST, as the council may
into GST thus doing away the cascading of taxes and paved
way for common national market for Goods and Services. decide.
Article 246A: Special provision w.r.t. GST
 5
Important Subjects in Various Lists commissions to review and examine the Federal Relations
Union List (List I) from time to time, leading among them are :-
•• Atomic energy and mineral resources. Sarkaria Commission
•• Extradition. Sarkaria Commission was set-up in June, 1983 by the
•• Banking. Central Government of India. The Sarkaria Commission’s
•• Insurance. charter was to examine the relationship and balance of power
•• Stock exchange and futures markets. between State and Central Governments in the country and
•• Patents, inventions and designs; copyright; trade-marks suggest changes within the framework of Constitution of India.
and merchandise marks. The commission was so named as it was headed by Justice
•• Census. Rajinder Singh Sarkaria, a retired Judge of the Supreme Court
•• Corporation tax. of India and other two members of the committee were Shri B
•• Any other matter not enumerated in List II or List III Sivaraman and Dr SR Sen and Rama Subramaniam.
including any tax not mentioned in either of those lists. The Commission made 247 recommendations to improve
State List (List II) Centre-state relations. The important recommendations are
•• Public order. mentioned below:
•• Police 1. A permanent Inter-State Council called the Inter-
•• Local government. Governmental Council should be set up under Article
•• Public health and sanitation. 263.
•• Libraries, museums and other similar institutions. 2. Article 356 (President’s Rule) should be used very
•• Relief of the disabled and unemployable sparingly, in extreme cases as a last resort when all the
•• Agriculture. available alternatives fail.
•• Fisheries. 3. The institution of All-India Services should be further
•• Gas and gas-works. strengthened and some more such services should be
•• Markets and fairs. created.
•• Betting and Gambling 4. The residuary powers of taxation should continue to
•• Capitation taxes
remain with the Parliament, while the other residuary
Concurrent List (List III)
powers should be placed in the Concurrent List.
•• Criminal law.
5. The National Development Council (NDC) should be
•• Criminal procedure.
renamed and reconstituted as the National Economic and
•• Preventive detention.
Development Council (NEDC).
•• Marriage and divorce.
•• Transfer of property other than agricultural land. 6. The judges of the High Courts should not be transferred
•• Contracts. against their will.
•• Bankruptcy and Insolvency 7. The governor’s term of five years in a state should not
•• Trust and Trustees be disturbed except for some ex¬tremely compelling
•• Civil procedure. reasons.
•• Contempt of court, but not including contempt of the 8. The surcharge on income tax should not be levied by the
Supreme Court. Centre except for a specific purpose and for a strictly
•• Prevention of cruelty to animals. limited period.
•• Forests 9. When the president withholds his assent to the state
•• Economic and social planning. bills, the reasons should to communicated to the state
•• Legal, medical and other professions. government.
•• Electricity. 10. The Union Government should consult the Government
•• Trade Unions, industrial and labour disputes of the States before enacting any law related to a subject
•• Archaeological sites. included in the Concurrent List.
•• Price control. 11. The President should delegate some of the Union
Commissions for the Improvement of Centre- executive function in concurrence with the states, which
State Relations will promote the spirit “Co-operative Federalism.”
12. If Parliament passes a legislation under article 252 with
There have been several efforts for the improvement of
mutual consent of two or more states, it should remain
Centre-State relations. Central Government have set-up many
 6
in force only for three years. Currently, such law can be Inter-State Water Disputes
repeated or amended by an act of Parliament only. •• Article 262 of the Constitution envisages the
13. The Corporation Tax should be distributed between the adjudication of inter-state water disputes which make
Centre and the States. two provisions
MM Punchhi Commission 1. Parliament may by law provide for the adjudication of any
Another Commission on Centre-State Relations was dispute or complaint with respect to the use, distribution and
set-up by the Government of India in April, 2007 under control of waters of any inter-state river and river valley.
2. Parliament may also provide that neither the Supreme
the Chairmanship of Madan Mohan Punchhi, Former
Court nor any other court is to exercise jurisdiction in
Chief Justice of India to look into the issues of Centre-State
respect of any such dispute or complaint.
Relations. Some of the recommendations given in its various
•• Under this provision, the Parliament has enacted two
reports are as below :
laws i.e. the River Boards Act of 1956 and the Inter-State
•• It recommended higher central transfers to backward
Water Disputes Act of 1956.
states to enable them to improve their physical and human
•• The River Board Acts, envisions the establishment of
infrastructure.
rivers boards for the regulation and development of inter-
•• It recommended for the adoption of a multi-pronged
state river and river valleys. The Inter-State Water
strategy in the backward regions of the country comprising
Disputes Act empowers the Central Government to
public investment in infrastructure development,
set-up an adhoc tribunal for the adjudication of a
proactive policies to attract private investment, higher
dispute between two or more states in relation to the
public expenditure on social sectors, such as health and
waters of an inter-state river or river valleys.
education and area specific strategy for the growth of
agricultural production. Inter-State Water Dispute Tribunals
•• There should be much better coordination between the Name Set-up in State Involved
Finance Commission and the Planning Commission. The Krishna Water Disputes 1969 Maharashtra,
synchronisation of the periods covered by the Finance Tribunal Karnataka and
Commission and the Five Year Plan will considerably Andhra Pradesh
improve such coordination. It recommended that another Godavari Water Disputes 1969 Maharashtra,
attempt be made to synchronise the periods. Tribunal Karnataka, Andhra
•• There should be mandatory devolution of functions to Pradesh, Madhya
local government and it must be done by the year 2015. Pradesh and Odisha
Priority should be given to items pertaining to basic Narmada Water Disputes 1969 Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Tribunal Madhya Pradesh and
needs. Articles 243 G and 243 W should be amended
Maharashtra
to mandate that devolution of functions as listed out in
Ravi and Beas Water 1986 Punjab, Haryana and
the Eleventh and Twelfth Schedules, together with the Disputes Tribunal Rajasthan
powers and authority to implement them, should be done Cauvery Water Disputes 1990 Karnataka, Kerala,
by the year 2015. Tribunal Tamil Nadu and
•• The Collector is overburdened and hence, there should Puducherry
be a separate administrative structure for the district Second Krishna Water 2004 Maharashtra,
Panchayat. Disputes Tribunal Karnataka and
•• The Constitution needs to be amended to provide a Andhra Pradesh,
specific entry in List 1 (Union List) of the Seventh Telangana
Schedule empowering the Union on matters concerning Vansadhara Water 2010 Odisha and Andhra
Disputes Tribunal Pradesh
environment, ecology and climate change.
Mahadayi Water Disputes 2010 Goa, Karnataka and
•• The National Water Resources Council needs to play
Tribunal Maharashtra
a greater role in integrating policy and programmes on a
Mahanadi water Disputes 2018 Chhattisgarh and
continuous basis. Tribunal Odisha
•• The Government should ideally explore the possibilities
of setting up a single regulator for tariff regulation of
power, coal and gas.
 7
IAS Mains Previous Year Question the states and to create one unit with a view to encourage the
Q. Constitutional mechanisms to resolve the inter-state free flow of trade, commerce and intercourse in the country.
water disputes have failed to address and solve the The freedom under this provision is not confined to inter-state
problems. Is the failure due to structural or process trade, commerce and intercourse but also extends to intra-state
inadequacy or both? Discuss. [Paper-2 2013] trade, commerce and intercourse. Thus, Article 301 will be
violated whether restrictions are imposed at the frontier of any
Inter-State Councils state or at any prior or subsequent stage.
The freedom guaranteed by Article 301 is a freedom from all
•• Article 263 provides for the establishment of an Inter-
restrictions, except those which are provided for in the other
state council to effect co-ordination between the states.
provisions (Articles 302 to 305) of Part XIII of the Constitution
•• The power of the President to set-up Inter-State Councils
itself. These are explained below:
may be exercised not only for advising upon disputes,
(i) Parliament can impose restrictions on the freedom of
but also for the purpose of investigating and discussing
trade, commerce and intercourse between the states or
subjects, in which some or all of the States of the Union
within a state in public interest. But, the Parliament cannot
and one or more of the States have a common interest.
give preference to one state over another or discriminate
•• In the exercise of this power the President has already
between the states except in the case of scarcity of goods
constituted the Central Council of Health, the Central
in any part of India.
Council of Local Self-Government, the Central Council
(ii) The legislature of a state can impose reason able restrictions
of Indian Medicine, the Central Council of Homeopathy.
on the freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse with
•• The Inter-State Council was set-up under Article 263
that state or within that state in public interest. But, a bill
of the Constitution of India in May, 1990. The council
for this purpose can be introduced in the legislature only
charged with the duty of
with the previous sanction of the president. Further, the
–– inquiring into and advising upon disputes, which
state legislature cannot give preference to one state over
may have arisen between states;
another or discriminate between the states.
–– investigating and discussing subjects in which some
(iii) The legislature of a state can impose on goods imported
or all of the States or the Union and one or more of
from other states or the union territories any tax to which
the states, have a common interest or
similar goods manufactured in that state are subject. This
–– making recommendations upon any such subject
provision prohibits the imposition of discriminatory taxes
and in particular recommendations for the better
by the state.
coordination of policy and action with respect to
(iv) The freedom (under Article 301) is subject to the
that subject;
nationalisation laws (i.e. laws providing for monopolies
•• It shall be lawful for the President by order to establish
in favour of the Centre or the states). Thus, the Parliament
such a council and to define the nature of the duties to be
or the state legislature can make laws for the carrying
performed by it and its organisation and procedure.
on by the respective government of any trade, business,
Composition of Inter-State Council
industry or service, whether to the exclusion, complete or
The Composition of the Inter-State Council includes the Prime partial, of citizens or otherwise.
Minister, Chief Ministers of all States, Chief Ministers of Union The Parliament can appoint an appropriate authority for
Territories having Legislative Assemblies and Administrators carrying out the purposes of the above provisions relating to the
of Union Territories not having Legislative Assemblies, freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse and restrictions
Governors of states under President Rule, six Ministers of on it. The Parliament can also confer on that authority the
Cabinet rank including Home Minister in the Union Council necessary powers and duties. But, no such authority has been
of Ministers’ to be nominated by the Prime Minister. appointed so far.

Inter-State Trade and Commerce Zonal Councils

Articles 301 to 307 in Part XIII of the Constitution deal with The Zonal Councils are the statutory bodies. They are
the trade, commerce and intercourse within the territory of established by an Act of the Parliament, that is, States
India. Reorganisation Act of 1956. The act divided the country into
Article 301 declares that trade, commerce and intercourse five zones (Northern, Central, Eastern, Western, Southern) and
throughout the territory of India shall be free. The object of provided a zonal council for each zone.
this provision is to break down the border barriers between Each zonal council consists of the follow members:
 8
(a) Home Minister of Central government. 3. Eastern Bihar, Jharkhand, West Kolkata
(b) Chief Ministers of all the States in the zone. Zonal Bengal and Odisha
(c) Two other ministers from each state in the zone. Council
(d) Administrator of each Union Territory in the zone. 4. Western Gujarat. Maharastra, Goa, Mumbai
The Home Minister of Central Government is the common Zonal Dadra and Nagar Haveli and
chairman of the five zonal councils. Each Chief Minister Council Daman and Diu
acts as a vice-chairman of the council by rotation, holding 5. Southern Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Chennai
office for a period of one year at a time. Zonal Tamil Nadu, Kerala and
The Zonal Councils aim at promoting cooperation and Council Puducherry, Telangana
coordination between states, union territories and the Centre. 6. North- Arunachal Pradesh, Shillong
They discuss and make recommendations regarding matters Eastern Assam, Manipur, Mizoram,
like economic and social planning, linguistic minorities, Council Meghalaya, Nagaland,
border disputes, inter-state transport, and so on. They are only Sikkim and Tripura.
deliberative and advisory bodies.
The objectives of the Zonal Councils are as follows: Articles Related to Inter-State Relations at a Glance
•• To achieve an emotional integration of the country. Article Subject-matter
•• To help in arresting the growth of acute state- No.
consciousness, regionalism, linguist and particularistic
Mutual Recognition of Public Acts, etc.
trends.
•• To help in removing the after-effects of separation in some 261. Public acts, records and judicial proceedings
cases so that the process of reorganisation, integration
Disputes Relating to Waters
and economic advancement may synchronise.
•• To enable the Centre and states to cooperate with each 262. Adjudication of disputes relating to waters of
other in social and economic matters and exchange ideas Inter-State Rivers or river valleys
and experience in order to evolve uniform policies. Co-ordination between States
•• To cooperate with each other in the successful and speedy
263. Provisions with respect to an inter-state council
execution of major development projects.
•• To secure some kind of political equilibrium between Inter-State Trade and Commerce
different regions of the country.
301. Freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse
North-Eastern Council 302. Power of Parliament to impose restrictions on
In addition to the above Zonal Councils, a North-Eastern trade, commerce and intercourse
Council was created by a separate Act of Parliament– the 303. Restrictions on the legislative powers of the
North-Eastern Council Act of 1971. Its members include Union and of the states with regard to trade and
Assam, Manipur, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, commerce
Meghalaya, Tripura and Sikkim. 304. Restrictions on trade, commerce and intercourse
The UTs of Andaman and Nicobar Island and Lakshadweep among states
are not members of any of the zonal councils. However, they 305. Saving of existing laws and laws providing for
are presently special invitees to the southern zonal council. state monopolies
Zonal Councils at a glance 306. Power of certain states in Part B of the First
Schedule to impose restrictions on trade and
Name Members Headquarters
commerce (Repealed)
1. Northern Jammu and Kashmir, New Delhi
Zonal Himachal Pradesh, 307. Appointment of authority for carrying out the
Council Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, purposes of Articles 301 to 304
Delhi, and Chandigarh,
Ladakh
2. Central Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Allahabad
Zonal Chhattisgarh, and Madhya
Council Pradesh
 9

Practice Questions for Mains

1. The origin of the concept of federalism is a matter on which it is possible to have a variety of approaches, depending on
the view which takes on the meaning of federation. Comment
2. The Central Government does not devolve power; it decentralises according to its own political or administrative
convenience. Explain.
3. In a Unitary form of Government, Central Government is the creator of the political divisions, and the provinces are its
subordinates where as in Federal form of Government, the Central Government is not the creator of the federated units.
IS this true statement?
4. “The definition of a confederate republic seems simply to be an ‘assemblage of societies,’ or an association of two or
more States into one State. Comment.
5. In the U.S., Federalism is the system of Government in which power is divided between a central Government and States
Government. Examine the US federal system.


 Centre- State Relations

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 11

2
India’s Foreign
Policy Challenges
and Opportunites
The process of adjusting to new realities and looking for new
opportunities which assist its rise will be the task for Indian foreign
policymakers in 2021 and beyond. US-China rebalancing and the
emergence of an assertive China will have a major impact on India.
Already India has forged close defence ties with the US. With the
signing of the foundational agreements, the interoperability between
the Indian and US forces has improved. India has also become less
hesitant in engaging with the Quad. Analysts in China and Russia are
interpreting these developments as a definite tilt in the Indian policy
towards the US. With the unfolding of an ambitious vision for Indian
Ocean, India is positioning itself in the Great Power Game that is
unfolding in the region of great strategic importance.
In his first term, PM Modi was able to undertake significant
strategic outreach to the United States, Japan, and Australia. The
revival of the Quad is a great indicator of the pragmatism in India’s
diplomacy today. Despite some setbacks in between, India also
managed to consolidate its position in two important Indian Ocean
countries – Sri Lanka and Maldives. PM Modi can also be credited
with a more effective outreach to Southeast Asia, with its Act East
Policy.
But there are also Growing Difficulties-
Managing China, India’s most serious challenge, has seen some
success but it remains a major and continuing problem. India’s
more active role in the Quad in its second avatar is a positive sign.
Despite the occasional wavering in India’s Indo-Pacific policy,
elevating the Quad to foreign ministerial level deliberations shows
the willingness of all the four Quad members to acknowledge the
reality of the China problem and the need for the four to work
toward strategic coordination.

vid-19 has accelerated the global political and economic rebalancing that had been underway for the last two decades.
New power equations are emerging. China’s confidence has increased many folds while the West is struggling to find
answers to its external and domestic problems. The West’s unity, a constant fixture of international relations since 1945,
has been fractured. China is taking advantage of the disarray in the west and making inroads. New geopolitics centring
around the rise of China, the future of US hegemony, the fate of the post-world war alliance system, the efficacy of the
multilateral institutions, the churn in Europe, the rising salience of the Indo-Pacific, the reshaping of the Middle East, the
 12

growing salience of technology in trade and politics and will remain as strong as that of Trump. It remains to be seen
the fears of pandemics and viruses is shaping up. whether some momentum which the Quad got in 2020 will
continue in 2021.
Managing the multifaceted consequences of China’s rise, 3. Europe and Russia
sustaining the key strategic partnerships with major India will have to clearly balance its policies vis-à-vis Russia
powers like the US, Russia, Japan, Europe; deepening the and China especially when a new Cold War is beginning to
all-round engagement with the immediate neighbours; take shape although its character is likely to be different
filling the Act East Policy, Neighbourhood First, Security from the US-USSR Cold War of the 20th century because
and Growth for All (SAGAR), the Indo-Pacific, the Quad etc. of the close intertwining of US and China relations. The
initiatives with strategic content; using the market and data role of Europe in the emerging China-US confrontation is
potential of India to its benefit; reviving the economy and ambiguous. Russia is firmly with China. Japan is in alliance
returning to high growth trajectory are some of the major with the US and is under great pressure from China but it
tasks for policymakers. India is hoping that the bipartisan maintains close trade links with it. ASEAN looks towards
consensus in the US on India will not break down under the US for security but is tied to China economically and
Biden administration and the salience of the Indo Pacific in commercially. Thus, the contest between the two major
US policies would be upheld. powers will not be a straightforward one yet some loose
camps may be formed with some countries finding
India’s Foreign Policy Challenges Can be themselves on both sides. Non-alignment is unlikely but
Grouped into- neutrality is possible as a strategy.
1. CHINA Factor The US pressure on India not to buy Russian S 400 ballistic
The Galwan clash and the Pangong Tso standoff indicate that missile defence system continues. India is following the
China is going to pose some serious security concerns for policy of engagement with Russia bilaterally as also in
India in the future. On trade front, China joined the Regional the BRICS, RIC and SCO formats. To reassure Russia, India
Economic Comprehensive Partnership (RCEP) mega trade needs to quickly follow on its Act Far East Policy which
deal and reached a landmark investment agreement with was announced with much fanfare during Prime Minister
the EU after seven long years of negotiations; this will drive Modi’s visit to Vladivostok in 2019. India needs to watch
a wedge between US and EU. While the US was struggling the trends in Russian foreign policies carefully.
with its infrastructure initiatives, China was expanding the The International North South transport Corridor (INSTC)
Belt and Road initiative (BRI) to include a Digital Silk Route must be operationalised to improve trade with Russia.
and a Health Silk Road. The US continued to spurn Russia, Russia remains the top defence supplier for India. The
China was strengthening its alliance with it. The US has joint production of defence systems with Russia must be
lost nearly half a million lives to coronavirus in less than considered. Russia and China already have a very strong
a year while China advertised its efficient handling of the strategic partnership. Pakistan would try to drive a wedge
coronavirus crisis. between India and Russia.
2. USA under Biden 4. MIDDLE EAST AND TURKEY
Biden victory has produced new uncertainties in US- The world is also seeing regional rebalancing at a massive
China relations. Biden has promised to restore American scale. With the signing of Abraham accords, the Middle East
supremacy in the world. His broad strategy seems to be is being transformed. More and more countries are trying
to repair the US alliance system, restore US hegemony, to normalise relations with Israel in the hope of dealing
reassure the allies, deal with the covid mess at home and with Iran challenge. At some point in time, Saudi Arabia
restore the economy to health. For China, the substantial may normalise its relations with Israel. The net result is
decoupling from the West is a nightmare scenario. China is that Iran-Saudi rivalry is becoming more acute.
trying its best to keep the American companies and their Turkey is trying to regain the glory of the Ottoman Empire.
investment within China. So far, the decoupling has been Its role in regional conflicts is increasing. A new axis of
only limited. Nevertheless, China has announced a ‘dual Turkey-Iran-Russia-Pakistan is in the making. The rivalry
circulation’ strategy which aims to capitalise on global between Turkey and Israel, between Turkey and Saudi
engagement as well as domestic market. In short, China is Arabia is also sharpening. Tensions in the Mediterranean
also bringing in the elements of self-reliance in its strategy. region have increased. Although Turkey is a member of
China sees the geostrategic concept of the Indo-Pacific and NATO, its relations with the West are highly strained. The
the Quad as a US attempt to contain China. With Biden’s US has sanctioned Turkey for the purchase of S 400 missile
victory doubts are being expressed whether the new defence system from Russia. New hotspots are emerging in
administration’s commitment to the concept of Indo-Pacific North Africa. The ISIS may have been defeated militarily,
 13

its radical ideology continues to exert influence across the 7. UN REFORMS

region and beyond. India begins its two-year tenure at the UN Security Council
Saudi Arabia is trying to diversify its economy and it has for the 8th time. The Prime Minister has called for reformed
sought to seek a role for itself in G20. Trump had walked multilateralism. As India engages with the contemporary
out of the JCPOA. It remains to be seen whether Biden will issues of international security, it needs to come out with
re-engage with Iran on the letters nuclear program and so specific initiatives on how to implement its agenda for
on what terms and conditions. As usual, the Middle East reformed multilateralism. The reform of the UN Security
will remain in churn and continue to throw surprises. Council looks distant but India can certainly initiate
5. PAKISTAN discussion and debate on key issues like UN peacekeeping,
Sustainable Development Goals, health security, climate
The withdrawal of US troops from Afghanistan will leave
change, peace and stability. India should reach out to the
the Afghans at the mercy of the Taliban and Pakistan.
developing countries and raise the issues of concern to
Russia does not seem to mind. Russia-Pakistan relations
them.
are growing. These trends must be watched carefully and
factored into India’s Russia policy. Indian diplomacy broke new grounds as it used the
pandemic to activate the SAARC cooperation in covid
India will have to be wary that Pak-China nexus does not
issues. India supplied medicine and equipment to over 150
create further security complications for India. CPEC,
countries and evacuated over a million Indian and foreign
passing through the Gilgit Baltistan is a security threat.
stranded nationals. Undoubtedly, China will remain the
India’s defence preparedness must be top class to deal with
most serious security challenge for India in 2021. Deeper
a possible two-front situation. Indigenisation of defence
security cooperation with the US and other countries is
production must be given the highest priority.
justified in face of the growing pressures from China. China
6. ASEAN AND ACT EAST has shown no sensitivity to India’s security concern.
India’s decision not to join the RCEP has mixed India has begun to pursue a policy of self-reliance as
consequences. While the deal may have been justified on encapsulated in the Atmanirbhar Bharat framework. This is
the concerns of Indian industry’s competitiveness and the need of time. The government has initiated far-reaching
the apprehensions of the floodgates being open to China, labour and agriculture reforms. Some of these have created
the fact remains that ASEAN countries, who have been anxieties. Their impact will be visible in the coming years.
looking at India as a counter balance to China, have been The path to economic recovery and growth will be a long
disappointed. Moreover, India is not part of any new one. There could be more surprises in 2021. India needs
generation Free Trade Agreements (FTAs). This can have to build its inherent capabilities and strengths for effective
consequences for India’s ambition to increase its share in diplomacy and foreign policy.
global trade. India needs to move ahead with FTAs with the
European Union and other countries as soon as possible,
making sure that its interests are not jeopardised.

MAINS QUESTIONS
1. What are the major foreign policy challenges that India faces in the upcoming decade? Comment in light of an
uncertain global order right now.
 14

India’s Foreign Policy

Challenges and Opportunites

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 15

The Golaknath Case

3
Case TITLE:
I. C. Golaknath
The Golaknath verdict of 1967 delivered by an 11-judge bench of the Supreme
vs
court reversed the position, the Supreme Court held in the earlier Sankari
Prasad Deo case 1951 where the court had upheld the power of the Parliament State of Punjab
to amend any part of the Constitution using the powers under Article 368,
including the Fundamental Rights of citizens and provided a ‘limitation’ on
the power of the Parliament to amend the Constitution with regards to the Court
Fundamental Rights of citizens. Supreme Court of India
Bench
BACKGROUND of the case K. Subba Rao (CJI), Justice
C.A Vaidialingam, Justice
The Punjab Security of Land Tenures Act (1953) and of the Mysore Land G.K Mitter, Justice J.C Shah,
Reforms Act (1962) were challenged under Art 32 of the Constitution by Justice J.M Shelat, Justice
the petitioners who were deprived of a few acres of their land under the K.N Wanchoo, Justice M
Hidayatullah Justice R.S
said legislations. The 17th Constitutional Amendment Act 1964 was also Bachawat, Justice S.M Sikri,
challenged as unconstitutional, as it enabled the inclusion of the impugned Justice V. Bhargava and
Acts in the 9th Schedule of the Constitution. Justice V. Ramaswami
PETITIONER
LEGAL ISSUES I. C. Golaknath
RESPONDENT
• Whether power to amend the Constitution resides in Article 368 or in State of Punjab
residuary power of Parliament under Article 248 and Entry 97 of List-1 of Year
the Seventh Schedule? 1967
• Whether the Fundamental Right in Part-III can be amended and abridged by the procedure in Art 368?
• Whether the 17th Constitutional Amendment Act is invalid for contravention of Article 13(2) of the Constitution
of India.[1]

ARGUMENTS BY THE PETITIONER

The petitioners argued that the power of the Parliament to amend the Constitution must be limited by Article 13 of
the Constitution of India.
 ARGUMENTS BY THE RESPONDENT

The respondent State argued that a Constitutional amendment is made in exercise of the sovereign power and not
legislative power of Parliament and, therefore, it partakes the quality and character of the Constitution itself. As a
consequence, power of the Parliament to amend the constitution cannot be limited by Article 13.

JUDGMENT

By a 6:5 majority, the Supreme Court decided that Article 368, which contained provisions related to the amendment
of the Constitution merely laid down the amending procedure.
Article 368 did not confer upon Parliament the power to amend the Constitution. The amending power (constituent
power) of Parliament arose from other provisions contained in the Constitution (Articles 245, 246, 248) which gave it
the power to make laws.
Thus, the apex court held that the amending power and legislative powers of Parliament were essentially the same.
Therefore, any amendment of the Constitution must be deemed law as understood in Article 13 (2).
The Court held that there are implied limitations on Parliament’s power to amend the Constitution. Article 13
expressed this limitation on the powers of Parliament.
The Constitution gives a place of permanence to the fundamental freedoms of the citizen. The fundamental rights
were so sacrosanct and transcendental in importance that they could not be restricted even if such a move were to
receive unanimous approval of both houses of Parliament.
The Parliament could not modify, restrict or impair fundamental freedoms due to this very scheme of the Constitution
and the nature of the freedoms granted under it.

AFTERTHOUGHT

The judgment utilized the Doctrine of prospective over-ruling as during 1950-1967, a large number of laws were
passed to affect agrarian reforms. The court was of the view that if the Supreme Court now restricts the agrarian
acts and deny the power of Parliament to amend the Fundamental Rights, it would introduce chaos and unsettle
the conditions in our country. Therefore, the Court validated the amendments related with fundamental Rights but
restricted the Parliament to take away or abridge any of the Fundamental Rights. Thus, the judgment would have an
effect only in the future.

In the words of Chief Justice K. Subba Rao - “In the constitutional field, therefore, to meet the present extraordinary
situation that may be caused by our decision, we must evolve some doctrine which has roots in reason and precedents
so that the past may be preserved and the future protected”.
NOTES:
[1] Article 13 in The Constitution of India: Laws inconsistent with or in derogation of the fundamental rights:
(1) All laws in force in the territory of India immediately before the commencement of this Constitution, in so far
as they are inconsistent with the provisions of this Part, shall, to the extent of such inconsistency, be void.
REFERENCES:
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 The Golaknath Case

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18

4 National Food
Security Act Passed

Background
The basic concept of food security globally is to ensure that all people, at all times, should get access to the basic food for their
active and healthy life and is characterized by availability, access, utilization and stability of food. The concerns regarding food
security in India can be traced back to the experience of the Bengal Famine in 1943 during the British Colonial Rule.Though
the Indian Constitution does not have any explicit provision regarding right to food, the fundamental right to life enshrined in
Article 21 of the Constitution may be interpreted to include right to live with human dignity, which may include the right to food
and other basic necessities. The National Food Security Act (NFSA) was introduced by the Government of India in 2013. It is
responsible for the provision of subsidized food grains to the population. The enactment of the NFSA marks a watershed in the
approach to food security from welfare to a rights-based approach.The NFSA converts into legal entitlements the existing food
security programmes of the Government of India. The annual allocation of foodgrain under the NFSA and other welfare schemes
is about 610 Lakh Metric Tons. In 2006, the then Finance Minister announced the introduction of the National Food Security Act
under which BPL families in rural and urban areas will be entitled by law to 25 kg of wheat or rice per month at Rs. 3 per kg.
Objectives
The National Food Security Act (NFSA) 2013, passed recently by the Indian Parliament, aims to ensure food security in India,
chiefly by providing cereals at subsidized prices through the Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) for about two-thirds
of households.
Overview
The concept of food security at a global level indicates access to basic, nutritious food by all people, at all times. It is
characterized by availability, access, utilization, and stability of food.NFSA defines the joint responsibility of the Centre and
State/UT Government. While the Centre is responsible for allocation of required food grains to States/UTs, transportation of food
grains up to designated depots in each State/UT and providing central assistance to States/UTs for delivery of food grains from
designated FCI godowns to the doorstep of the FPSs, the States/UTs are responsible for effective implementation of the Act,
which inter-alia includes identification of eligible households, issuing ration cards to them, distribution of foodgrain entitlements
to eligible households through fair price shops (FPS), issuance of licenses to Fair Price Shop dealers and their monitoring,
setting up effective grievance redressal mechanism and necessary strengthening of Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS).
Food grains under NFSA were to be made available at subsidized prices of Rs. 3/2/1 per kg for rice, wheat and coarse grains
respectively for an initial period of three years from the date of commencement of the Act (July 13, 2013). Thereafter, prices were
to be fixed by the Central Government from time to time, but not exceeding MSP. Government has decided from time to time to
continue the mentioned subsidized prices under NFSA and their validity has last been extended upto June, 2019.
Timeline
22 December, 2011 The bill was introduced into India’s parliament
5 July, 2013 Bill was promulgated as a presidential ordinance.
13 July, 2013 Commencement of the Act.
12 September, 2013 The bill was signed and enacted into law.
17 November, 2015 Odisha government implemented food security bill in 14 districts.
24 December, 2015 Assam government implemented Act.
 19

Facts you need to knoW

The four pillars of food security are:

1. Availability 2. Access
3. Utilization 4. Stability
Coverage and entitlement under NFSA
NFSA covers upto 75% of the rural population and 50% of the urban population under Antyodaya Anna Yojana
(AAY) and priority households. While AAY households, which constitute poorest of the poor are entitled
to 35 kg of food grains per family per month, priority households are entitled to 5 kg per person per month.
Tide over allocation
The Act provides that in case any State/UT’s allocation under NFSA is lower than their current allocation, it will be protected
upto the level of average offtake under erstwhile normal TPDS during 2010-11 to 2012-13, at prices to be determined by the
Central Government.
Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT)
National Food Security Act (2013) provides for reforms in the TPDS including schemes such as Cash transfers for provisioning
of food entitlements. In pursuance of enabling provisions under section 12 of NFSA for cash transfer, Govt. notified ‘Cash
Transfer of Food Subsidy Rule, 2015’ in Aug 2015.
Power of Central Government to make rules
Under Section 39(1) of NFSA, the Central Government may, in consultation with the State Governments and by notification, make
rules to carry out the provisions of the Act.
Obligations under NFSA
The NFSA states in detail the obligations of the Central government, the state government, and the local authorities.
Obligations of the Central Government
The Central Government shall allocate the required food grains from the central pool to the State Governments under the TPDS.
The Government would have to allocate the resources keeping in mind the number of persons in the eligible households. The
Central Government would also provide for the transportation of food grains as per the allocation to the State Governments.
Assist the State Governments in meeting the expenditures incurred by the State Government towards intra-state movement,
handling of the food grains, and the FPS margins.Create and maintain storage facilities at various levels.
Obligations of the State Governments
The State Government shall be responsible for the implementation and monitoring of the various schemes. Organize intra-state
allocations to deliver the allocated food grains to the beneficiaries. Determine the eligible households and the beneficiaries
and ensure that they can avail of the benefits of the schemes. Create and maintain scientific storage facilities at the district and
block levels to store the allocated food grains. Establish institutionalized licensing arrangements for the FPS under the Public
Distribution System (Control) Order, 2001.
Obligations of the local authorities
They shall be responsible for the effective implementation of the Act. They may be assigned additional responsibilities by
the State Government for the implementation of the TPDS. The local authorities would be responsible for discharging the
responsibilities allotted to them by the State Governments.

Key Features
•• The Act provides for coverage of upto 75% of the rural population and upto 50% of the urban population for receiving
subsidized foodgrains under Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS), thus covering about two-thirds of the population.
•• The eligible persons will be entitled to receive 5 Kgs of foodgrains per person per month at subsidised prices of Rs. 3/2/1 per Kg
for rice/wheat/coarse grains.
•• The existing Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) households, which constitute the poorest of the poor, will continue to receive
35 Kgs of foodgrains per household per month.
•• The Act also has a special focus on the nutritional support to women and children. Besides meal to pregnant women
and lactating mothers during pregnancy and six months after the child birth, such women will also be entitled to receive
maternity benefit of not less than Rs. 6,000.
•• Children upto 14 years of age will be entitled to nutritious meals as per the prescribed nutritional standards.
•• In case of non-supply of entitled foodgrains or meals, the beneficiaries will receive food security allowance.
•• The Act also contains provisions for setting up of grievance redressal mechanism at the District and State levels.
20
•• Separate provisions have also been made in the Act for ensuring transparency and accountability.
Who are the beneficiaries of the National Food Security Act?
•• The Act covers two-thirds of the entire population under two categories of beneficiaries:
1. Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) households
AAY households encompass the households headed by widows or disabled persons or persons aged 60 years or more
with no assured means of subsistence or societal support. It usually takes into account the households of those below the
poverty line too. It also includes support for women and children.
2. Priority Households (PHH)
NFSA gives the right to receive food-grains at subsidized prices by people belonging to eligible households, i.e., the
PHH. A major section of the ration cardholders in the priority sector comes under this category. This is an effort to
alleviate poverty.The work of identification of eligible households within the coverage under TPDS determined for each
state is to be done by the states and the UTs.
Outcomes
Food security is of utmost importance to a nation as it will also have a positive influence on the other aspects determining the
growth of a nation. The enactment of the National Food Security Act, (NFSA) 2013 on July 5, 2013 marks a paradigm shift in
the approach to food security from welfare to rights-based approach. Households with non-agricultural enterprises registered
with the Government. Household with any member as Government employee. Any member of the family earning more than Rs.
10,000 per month. Section 40 of the National Food Security Act provides that the State Governments may, by notification and
consistent with the Act and the rules made by the Central Government, make rules to carry out the provisions of this Act. The
Chhattisgarh government has taken the initiative to pass the first Food Security Act in the country.
Impacts
Political:
Food security is also important for global security and stability of the nation.
Social:
Access to nutritious food would enhance the overall health of the public. The impacts also included improving the performance
of agriculture and diversifying produce as well as reducing vulnerabilities of smalland marginal farmers with special focus on
women and other disadvantaged groups
Economic:
It will boost the agricultural sector. It will also aid the government to regulate food prices. A boost in the agricultural sector would
result in more job opportunities, as agriculture is a labour-intensive sector. This would enhance economic growth and result in
the reduction of poverty.
Way forward
The way forward is to deal with the plethora of challenges to battle food security like:
•• Climate change: the increase in the global temperatures and the capricious rainfall makes farming difficult. A change in
the temperatures not only impacts the crops but the other species which are reared for food such as fisheries, livestock, etc.
•• Lack of access: there is a lack of access to remote areas. The tribals and other communities living in remote areas do not get the
opportunity to avail of the benefits of the schemes implemented for food security due to lack of access.
•• Over-population: A substantial increase in the population when not accompanied by an increase in agricultural production
results in a shortage of food.
•• Non-food crops: crops grown for commercial purposes such as biofuels and dyes have reduced the area under cultivation
for crops.
•• Migration from Rural-Urban cities: This causes a problem as it leads to a lot of confusion as to which PDS shop to buy
the subsidies from.
•• Lack of transparency: According to a Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) audit conducted in 2016, the wrong people
were benefiting from the NFSA.It accuses many states of implementing the NFSA despite owning the information that their
beneficiaries list is spurious.
•• Leakages in PDS: a leakage indicates that the food grains do not reach the intended beneficiaries. The leakages may be of
three types:
i. pilferage during transportation of food grains
ii. diversion at fair price shops to non-beneficiaries
iii. exclusion of entitled beneficiaries from the list.
• Storage: According to the CAG audit, the available storage space was inadequate for the allocated quantity of food grains.
• Quality of food grains: People often complain that the quality of the food grains is not up to the mark and that the grains
 21
sometimes have to be mixed with other grains to be edible. Complaints stating that the grains also consist of non-food
particles such as pebbles have also been registered.
The Government should provide strategies for better food storage, and adopt an integrated policy framework to facilitate
agriculture productivity.The usage of Information Technology throughout the process from acquisition of the food grains
till distribution will aid in enhancing the effectiveness of the process.
Information regarding the entire process from the quality of food grains to the storage facilities where the grains were
stored, should be available to the beneficiaries. A one ration card system would be effective in eliminating the confusion,
especially for the migrants, as this would provide the beneficiaries the freedom to choose from the PDS shop of their choice.
Expanding the coverage of Integrated Management of PDS (IMPDS) to all the states.

Flow chart/ Mind Map

national food security act, 2013

Increase the availability, access, utilization, and stability of food

•• Identification of eligible households

•• Issuing ration cards to them
•• Distribution of foodgrain entitlements to eligible households
through fair price shops (FPS)
•• Issuance of licenses of Fair Price Shop dealers and their monitoring
•• Setting up effective grievance redressal mechanism
•• Neccessary strengthening of Targeted Public Distribution System

Global security and Global security and

stability of the nation stability of the nation

Enhance the overall Enhance the overall

health of the public health of the public
 National Food
Security Act Passed

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 Unit C : General Studies -3

AGRICULTURE IN THE
1.1
1 PREVEDIC AND VEDIC ERA

If agriculture goes wrong, nothing else will have a chance to go right.

-M. S. Swaminathan

INTRODUCTION 5500 BCE (Sumerians start organized agri-

culture)
Agriculture in the Indian sub-continent began way
back in 9000 BC. However, more information of crop 5400 BCE (Archaelogical proof for domesti-
cultivation could be obtained from the ‘Indus Valley’ cation of chicken)
or ‘Harappan’ civilization. Systematic information 5400 BCE (Linear band keramik culture in
on crops is available in the Vedas. Vedic agriculture Europe)
in Ancient India had many developments in science, 5000 BCE (Africa grows rice, sorghum)
mathematics, civilization, and Agriculture.
Especially, the Vedic people skilled in cultivation 4000 BCE (Ploughs make an appearance in
and succeed in Agriculture. The people started the Mesopotamia)
agricultural practices such were ploughing, sowing, 3000 BCE (Maize is domesticated in Amer-
reaping and harvesting on auspicious days only. Few icas)
of the people made the crop fields as their modern 3000 BCE (Turmeric is harvested at Indus
laboratories and studied the nature of crops and Valley).
plants. The Vedic Agriculture performed properly by
2737 BCE (Tea is discovered)
understanding the weather and monsoons.
2000 BCE (1st windmill in Babylon)
HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE 1000 BCE Sugar processing in India
DEVELOPMENT 500 BCE Row cultivation in China
9500 BCE (Earliest evidence for domesticat- YEAR 200 (Multi-tube seed drill invented in
ed wheat) China)
8000 BCE (Evidence for cattle herding) YEAR 700 (Arab Agriculture Revolution)
7000 BCE (Cultivation of barley; animals are YEAR 1000 (Coffee originates in Arabia)
domesticated) YEAR 1492 (Columbian exchange changes
6500 BCE (Cattle domestication in Turkey) agriculture)
6000 BCE (Indus valley grows from wheat to YEAR 1599 (1st Practical Green House is
cotton and sugar) created)

1 Agriculture Sector of India

 2

YEAR 1700 (Bristish Agricultural Revolution) YEAR 1892 (First practical gasoline powered
YEAR 1700 (Charles Townshend popularizes) tractor)
14/3/1794 (Cotton gin is invented) YEAR 1900 (Birth of industrial agriculture)
YEAR 1800 (Chemical fertilizer began to be YEAR 1930 (First aerial photos for agriculture)
used) YEAR 1939 (DDT becomes a rage)
YEAR 1837 (John Deere invents steel plough) YEAR 1944 (Green Revolution begins in
YEAR 1860 (Hay cultivation changes) Mexico)
YEAR 1866 (Gregor Mendel describes Mende- YEAR 1972 (Organic movement starts taking
lian inheritance) roots)
YEAR 1879 (Milking machine replaces hand YEAR 1996 (Commercial cultivation of geneti-
milking) cally modified plants)

This topic is important from the Indian history point of view where understanding in the content of this chapter can be
quoted as examples in Mains answer writing. Sometimes, Prelims question can be asked from the Indian history on the
social and economic aspects in Ancient India connecting to Agriculture of that time.

THE VEDIC PERIOD In Rigveda two land types:

• Fertile (apnaswati) and barren (artana)
The Vedic period or Vedic age is the period in the
history of the northern Indian subcontinent between In Later Vedic literature two land types :
the end of the urban Indus Valley Civilization and a • Alkaline (Ushara) and non-alkaline (anushara)
second urbanization which began in the central Indo-
Gangetic Plain. The Rigveda laid down two processes of Soil
There are four Vedas, viz., Rig, Sama,Yajur, and Conservation:
Atharva Vedas . (A) Arable land lying fallow (khila) by turn and
Each Veda is further divided into four parts: letting it as pasture ground
• Brahmanas, (B) Practice of two-field and three-field systems.
• Samhitas, The Rigveda referred to burning and cutting of forest
• Aranyakas and land, a method followed also in the subsequent
• Upanishadas. periods.

Land Ownership was with tribal chief or tribe as a

RIGVEDA PERIOD whole, and individual orfamily in the unstable land
In Rigveda Period the farmers occupied more number economy.
in the society, they used to cultivate the land and
produce agricultural products under the land lord. Individual tenures associated with land under private
ownership and given generally to single cultivator
The farmers’ status was more in Atharva Vedic came into existence.
period.
In Rigveda period, two types of irrigation:
They cultivated the crops based on the advice of the (i) Natural irrigation by river water distributed over
saints. arable field by means of channels.

Agriculture Sector of India 2

 3

(ii) Artificial irrigation by wells when the water was They wore acquainted with sowing, harvesting and
lifted by means of stone wheel, ghati-chakra or threshing, and knew about the different seasons.
ghati-yantra.
Yajurveda (1200 B.C.-1000 B.C.) referred irrigation Vedic Aryans seem to have been a pastoral people.
by dam or reservoir and by canal.
Most of their wars were fought for the sake of cows.
Atharvaveda (c. 1000 B.C.) narrated about canal
irrigation. The term for war in the Rig Veda, is gavisthi or
search for cows.
The other texts of the Vedic literature referred to
large-scale use of irrigation by well and reservoir
The cow seems to have been the most important
dam.
form of wealth.
The Rigveda referred to a kind of tribute (bali) paid
Whenever we hear of gifts made to priests it is stated
to the king.
in terms of cows and women slaves and never in
This tribute is taken as ‘agricultural tax’. terms of the measurement of land.

The Yajuryeda mentions, samahartra and bhagadugha The Rig Vedic people may have occasionally
in the sense of collector of king’s customary share in occupied pieces of land, but land did not form a well-
agricultural produce. established type of private property.

Atharvaveda share of produce was 1/16th of The Rig ‘Veda mentions such artisans as the
agricultural yield, instead of 1/6th of the later period. carpenter, the chariot-maker, the weaver, the leather
The Atharvaveda for the first time mentions the worker, the potter, etc.
system of loan in grains (apamityaka) and its return
as repayment of debt. This indicates that they practised all, these crafts.

The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of The term ayas used for copper or bronze shows that
agriculture. metal-working was known.
Ploughshare is mentioned in the earliest part of the
Rig Veda though some consider it an interpolation. But we have no clear evidence of the existence of
Possibly this ploughshare was made of wood. trade.

There are many references to agricultural practises in Rig Vedic age. This can be quoted as example in writing Mains
answer in the context of past development in agriculture in India.

CROP HUSBANDRY IN THE PRE-VEDIC However, information on cultivation of crops as part

ERA of the agricultural system became more vivid during
the ‘Indus Valley’ civilization popularly known as
Agriculture began as early as 9000 BC in the Indian
‘Harappan civilization’ which flourished during
sub-continent and crops like wheat, barley and jujube
2300-1600 BC in western Punjab and Sind province
were domesticated during that time.
of the Indian subcontinent.

3 Agriculture Sector of India

 4

The excavation by D.R. Sahni in AD 1921 at Among fruits, evidence of availability of seeds
‘Harappa’ and R.D. Banerjee in AD 1923 at and fruits suggested the cultivation of date, lotus,
‘Mohenjo-daro’, discovered two major cities with coconut, pomegranate, lemon and melons during
rich cultural heritage. Harappan civilization.
The ‘Harappan’ culture eventually spread to eastern
Punjab, western Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, western Neolithic culture existed as early as 2300 BC.
Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
Six geographical places viz., north-western region
The excavation revealed wheat and barley cultivation of Pakistan (Baluchistan, Swat and upper Sind
as part of their agricultural system. valley), northern regions (Kashmir and Kangra
region in Himachal Pradesh), central-eastern (Chota
Nagpur plateau and surrounding regions of Uttar
Among various species of wheat, grains of Triticum
Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal), north-
aestivum, T. compactum and T. spherococcum were
eastern (Assam, Chittagong and sub-Himalayan
recovered from the Mohenjo-daro site.
region including Darjeeling), north Bihar (Saran)
and southern peninsular region (especially Andhra
Barley grains of Hordeumvulgare var. nudum and
Pradesh and Karnataka) of India, have the evidence
H. vulgare var. hexastichum were also found at of neolithic cultures.
Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, respectively.
The evidence from excavation of Burzahom site
Both the crops being originated in central Asia, it in Kashmir revealed weed seeds and suggested the
was concluded that ‘Indus Valley’ civilization had possibility of wheat and barley crops in the northern
contacts with the ‘Mesopotamian’ civilization. neolithic culture.

Among pulses, chickpea grains were recovered from In the southern peninsular region, the evidence at
the Harappan site; and sesame, amongst oilseeds, Hallur, Karnataka suggested that ragi (1800 BC) was
possibly introduced from Africa or Mesopotamia a crop of choice.
was also cultivated during Harappan civilization.
Among pulses, grains of horse gram (1780-1500 BC)
The seeds of mustard, Brassica juncea were also were collected from Tekkalakota, Karnataka.
recovered from Chanu-daro site indicating its
cultivation in Sind. The grains recovered from Maharashtra also
A small fragment of cotton cloth collected from suggested the cultivation of various minor millets.
Mohenjo-daro suggested that Indus Valley The evidence collected from Navdatoli in Tamil Nadu
civilization was the earliest to spin and wove cotton described that green gram, black gram (1500 BC)
fibres. and lentil (1500 BC) were cultivated as agricultural
crops.
The fibre quality depicted that those were similar
Besides, sorghum among millets, linseed and castor
to coarse Indian cotton species like Gossypium
among oilseeds, and ber and amla among fruits were
arboreum and G. herbaceum.
also cultivated.
Cotton cloths produced by the Harappans were used In eastern regions, evidence of cultivation of both
as the main export materials with Mesopotemian cultivated rice (Oryzasativa) and wild rice (O.
civilization in exchange of silver and woollen rufipogon), wheat, barley, pea and green gram were
garments. found at Chirand, Bihar.

Agriculture Sector of India 4

 5

Evidence from Pandu Rajar Dhibi in West Bengal Mohenjo-daro (Larkana) districts, from Punjab and
also confirmed that rice was a popular choice of food. Sindh province, respectively.
People from these periods raised and used animals
Besides, banana, sugarcane and yam were also for games and recreation.
cultivated.
The evidence of cultivation of rice in India dates Numerous livestock products were consumed
back to 2300 BC at Lothal, Gujarat; Rangpur, Gujarat namely, milk, curd, ghee, etc.
(2000-1800 BC); Chirand, Bihar (2000-1300 BC);
Pandu Rajar Dhibi, West Bengal (2000-1001 BC);
The animal skin and hides were also documented for
Navdatoli, Tamil Nadu (1550-1400 BC); Hastinapur
(1100-800 BC) and Atranji-khera (1200-600 BC) in having important uses.
Uttar Pradesh.
Importance of cattle, pig, fish and other animals
The first evidence of growing of jowar was found in including tortoise as food is vastly mentioned during
Ahar, Rajasthan during 1725 BC. Harappan period although fish was the main animal
food for people during this period.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY DURING PRE- Excavations of various paintings, seals and stamps
VEDIC ERA AND THE HARAPPA and scripts recovered from the Indus valley
Valuable information pertaining to ancient animal civilization provided tremendous knowledge about
keeping were revealed from the archaeological their culture and animal husbandry ethos but many of
evidences dating back to Harappa (Montgomeri) and the scripts on the seals have not been decrypted fully.

This connects Art and Culture with Animal husbandry. This can be asked in Prelims exam.

CROP HUSBANDRY IN THE VEDIC ERA During the early vedic era (1500-1000 BC), the
Rig-Veda, the oldest book of the Aryans mentioned
barley, white and black coloured sesame, sugarcane,
CROP HUSBANDRY IN THE VEDIC ERA cucumber and bottle gourd.

Aryans occupied area of eastern Afghanistan, North- Though Harappans grew wheat and cotton, early
West Frontier province, Kashmir, Punjab, and parts Aryans, possibly, did not grow them and stuck to
of Sind and Rajasthan. barley as their homeland food.

The land was named as ‘Saptasindhavah’ after seven Rice finds no mention in the early vedic literature.
rivers viz.,
• Sutlej, They came to know about rice after they expanded
• Beas, their territory to Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
• Ravi, During the later vedic periods (1000-600 BC), vedic
• Chenab, literatures like Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda and Atharva-
• Jhelum, Veda were composed.
• Indus and
• Sarasvati Mahabharata and Ramayana were also written during
flowing through the most fertile land. this period.

5 Agriculture Sector of India

 6

The cultivated and wild rice, barley, wheat, maize, were not available, there was a practice to generate
bajra, foxtail millet, proso millet, barnyard millet, pastures for cows by clearing the forest lands.
kidney beans, lentils, sesame and Coix have found
their mention in these literatures. It is written that the cows were milked thrice a day,
indicating their utility for milk and availability of
Generally, two crops were grown during the year. quality germ plasm, pastures/grazing lands. Cattle
were considered as symbol of wealth.
The earliest evidence of growing bajra has been Aryans fought wars with local tribes for acquiring
found from Rangpur, Gujarat during 1100-800 BC. their cows, a valuable asset, and named these wars
as “Gavishti”.
A clear mention of sowing of barley during winter
season and maturity in summer is made, while rice Evidence exists that Aryans also kept dogs for
planting in rainy season with harvesting in autumn guarding houses and for hunting of boars and
season.
preferred cow over buffalo for giving milk.
Beans and sesame were grown during the onset of
A ‘Nandi’ or the breeding bull was selected based
summer rain and harvested during the colder months
onseveral characters of body and the mother’s
in winter.
history of milking.
Cucumber was also possibly cultivated during the
time. Management practices like castration of male
animals were also practiced during the Vedic era and
The soil was plowed several times. Seeds were oxen were used for farm transport, ploughing and
broadcast. irrigation of agricultural fields.

Fallowing and a certain sequence of cropping were Small ruminants and their importance had been
recommended. clearly documented during this period, where goat
was mostly kept for milk and sheep for wool.
Cow dung provided the manure. Irrigation was
practiced. In the sacred text of Rigveda, material used to feed
domestic animals are mentioned which includes
barley, sugarcane, and deoiled sesame cake.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY DURING VEDIC
AND POST-VEDIC ERA The science of animal Ayurveda was also documented
In the Vedic period, animals gained more importance. during the Vedic period.

It was during Vedic period in India, cows were The information about curing the cow through
cherished as religious entity and were referred as medicinal herbs and dietary supplements is
‘Aghanya’ i.e., not to be killed. believed to be written in some of the Vedic hymns.
Atharvaveda mentions the treatment of various cow
“Vedic people regarded cow as the source of their ailments through the use of animal Ayurveda.
good fortune, happiness, and good health” – Rigveda. Vedic people also used surgical methods such as
We have plentiful information on the status of animal grafting, removal of foreign bodies, treatment of
keeping, care and management in the Rigveda. dislocations, fractures and fistula for managing the
animal diseases.
According to it, people used to feed their cows on
nearby pastures to their homes. If sufficient pastures The Aryan people in later period of Vedic age, also
known as Iron Age witnessed the composition of two

Agriculture Sector of India 6

 7

great epics of Hindus - Ramayana and Mahabharata It was during this period when milk and its products
which also mention the management of animal especially milk butter assumed importance and tax
diseases using medicine, oils, herbs, and also cure was paid to the king in terms of butter.
through surgical corrections performed by trained
Vaidhyas. Gopashtami was started by Krishna where worship
of cows was done on a specific day after Deepawali.
It was during this period, the use of cow dung as Panchagavya which includes five things, namely
manure in the agricultural fields was noticed. cow milk, curd and ghee prepared from cow milk,
cow dung and cow urine, gained importance during
It’s the Gopala or Krishna (900–1000 BC) era where
this period and was practiced in religious rituals.
we found the information about ‘Gaupalan’and ‘Gau
Sanrakshan’.
The religious texts, namely, ‘Shrimad Bhagwat’,
Govinda was another name given to Krishna poetry and paintings of the era depicted the role and
(meaning the protector of cows). importance of cow husbandry in the society.

• Vedic society slowly grew larger, it began the transition from a semi-nomadic life into
a settled existence.
• As agriculture became more important families began settling into permanent
habitation.
• In addition to the traditional staple crops of wheat and barley, rice is mentioned for
the first time, beginning its slow spread into India.

• Agriculture began as early as 9000 BC in the Indian sub-continent and crops like
wheat, barley and jujube were domesticated during that time.
• Valuable information pertaining to ancient animal keeping were revealed from the
archaeological evidences dating back to Harappa (Montgomeri) and Mohenjo-daro
(Larkana) districts, from Punjab and Sindh province, respectively.
• Aryans occupied area of eastern Afghanistan, North-West Frontier province, Kashmir,
Punjab, and parts of Sind and Rajasthan.

The land was named as ‘Saptasindhavah’ after seven It was during Vedic period in India, cows were
rivers viz., cherished as religious entity and were referred as
• Sutlej, ‘Aghanya’ i.e., not to be killed.
• Beas,
• Ravi, The Aryan people in later period of Vedic age, also
• Chenab, known as Iron Age witnessed the composition of two
• Jhelum, great epics of Hindus - Ramayana and Mahabharata
• Indus and which also mention the management of animal
• Sarasvati diseases using medicine, oils, herbs, and also cure
flowing through the most fertile land. through surgical corrections performed by trained
Vaidhyas.

7 Agriculture Sector of India

 (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 good health.
Solution: A Which of the above statements is/are
Q9. Which of the statements is/are correct: correct:
1. The earliest evidence of growing bajra (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
has been found from Assam during 1100- (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
800 BC.
Solution: C 8

Q1. Discuss the agricultural products farmers used to cultivate during Rigveda Period.
Q2. Explain the crops cultivation during the ‘Indus Valley’ civilization popularly known as ‘Harappan
civilization’ ?
Q3. Discuss the evidence of cultivation of rice in India and the significance of rice ?
Q4. Valuable information pertaining to ancient animal keeping were revealed from the archaeological
evidences dating back to Harappa. Critically evaluate the statement.
Q5. As agriculture became more important families began settling into permanent habitation. Discuss
suggesting suitable examples.

9 Agriculture Sector of India

 Agriculture in Prevedic
and Vedic Era

ISBN : 9789395985284
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 2 NATIONAL INCOME
OF INDIA

Introduction

Taxation is a vital instrument in the fiscal armoury of the government. By taxing NCERT TOPICS COVERED
the well-to-do classes of society according to their capacity1, the government
CLASS 12
collects the revenue and then spends on services which are beneficial to the
community as a whole. Taxing people is not a new phenomenon developed by National Income Accounting
the modern governments. It is interesting to notice that even primitive and ancient •• The Product or Value Added Method
societies could boast taxation in order to discharge their public obligations and •• Expenditure Method
meet the needs of security. •• Income Method
•• Gross Domestic Product
The profit of a merchant or the livestock of an agriculturist were subjected to
some sort of taxation in the ancient days. During the Vedic times, the principle •• Net Domestic Product
of taxation or the method of meeting expenditure by resorting to taxation was a •• Net National Product
recognised necessity and an important government function in whatever form it •• National Income (NI)
might have been enforced.

National income measures the volume of commodities and Pre-Independence Estimate of National Income
services turned out during a given period, counted without
• Dadabhai Naoroji was the first to estimate the national
duplication. It is also referred to as net national product at
factor cost (NNP). Thus, a total of national income measures income of India. According to his estimate, national
the flow of goods and services in an economy and reflects the income during 1867- 68, was ` 340 crore and per capita
progress of the country. income was ` 20.
Alternatively, national income may be defined as “the • William Digby gave the estimate of national income of
aggregate factor income (i.e., earning of labour and property) India in 1897-98 as ` 390 crore and per capita income of
which arises from the current production of goods and ` 17.
services by the nation’s economy”. The nation’s economy • Findlay Shirras, gave the estimate of national income in
refers to the factors of production i.e., labour and property, 1911 was ` 1942 crore and per capita income was ` 80.
supplied by the normal residents of the national territory. • Dr. V.K.R.V. Rao, the well-known expert on national
National Income is the net output of commodities and income, estimated national income of British India
services flowing during the year from the country’s during 1925-29 at ` 2301 crore and per capita income at
productive system into the hands of the ultimate consumer or
` 78.
into net addition of the country capital goods. In other words
national income is the money value of all goods and services • R.C. Desai’s estimates of national income and per capita
produced during a given period of time. income for the year 1930-31 were ` 2809 crore and ` 72
In India national income is measured by employing a respectively.
combination of product, income and expenditure methods. All these estimates, though valuable, suffered from lack of
In fact for different sectors of Indian economy the choice of adequate data and were not strictly comparable because of
method depends on the availability of statistical data. different methods and coverage employed. In spite of such
 11
limitations, all these estimates do reflect the poverty and in a country where the number of income-tax payers is
economic backwardness of India before independence. large. It can be used in India if it is helped by ad hoc
inquiries into the income of labourers, petty shopkeepers
Growth Rate of Per Capita Income During 1860-1950 and other groups of workers whose incomes are not
Time Period Rate of Growth liable to income-tax.
1860-1885 1.1 National Income = Compensation of employees + capital
incomes on operating surplus + mixed incomes + net factor
1885-1905 -0.3 income from abroad.
1905-1925 1.3 Income method is used specially in the services sectors. The
1925-1945 -0.1 sectors covered by it are:
1945-1950 0.5 (1) Unregistered manufacturing,
Post-Independence Estimates of National Income (2) Electricity, gas and water supply,
After attaining independence in 1947 the official estimates of (3) Transport, storage and communication,
national income began to be prepared. (4) Trade, hotels and restaurants,
• The first attempt in this direction was the appointment
of the National Income Committee on August 4, 1949 (5) Banking and insurance,
under the Chairmanship of Prof. Prasanta Chandra (6) Real estate, ownership of dwellings and business services,
Mahalanobis, with Prof. D.R. Gadgil and Prof. (7) Public administration and defence, and
V.K.R.V. Rao as its members.
• This committee submitted its first report in 1951 and the (8) Other services
final report in 1954. 2. Product (output) Method: It is also known as ‘Inventory
• In its first report, the committee gave official estimates Method’ or ‘Commodity Service Method’. In this method two
of national income for 1948-49 besides giving the approaches- final product approach and value added approach
conceptual framework of national income computation. are adopted.
• In the final report, the committee published revised (i) Final Product Approach. According to this approach,
estimates for 1948-49 and fresh estimates for 1949-50 sum total of market value of all goods and services produced
and 1950-51 both at current and constant prices (with by all productive units in the domestic economy in an
1948- 49 as the base year). accounting year is estimated by multiplying the gross product
with market prices.
• The committee also suggested methods and procedures
to be followed for the preparation of estimates of (ii) Value Added Approach. This method measures
national income. contribution of each producing enterprises to production
in the domestic territory of a country in a accounting
• Following the recommendation of the National Income
year. According to this approach, net value added by all
Committee, the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO)
the producing units during an accounting year within the
was set up in 1950 to collect required data for national
domestic territory is summed up. This gives us value of net
income estimation on a regular basis.
domestic product at factor cost or domestic income.
• In 1954, the Government of India set up an official
agency by the name of Central Statistical Organization Production method is employed in the commodity production
(CSO) for estimation of national income. CSO published sectors. These sectors are:
the first issue of white paper on national income in the (1) Agriculture,
year 1956 and since then it has been publishing regularly
annual official estimates for national income under the (2) Forestry and logging,
title ‘National Accounts Statistics’. (3) Fishing,
• CSO functions under the Ministry of Statistics and (4) Mining and quarrying, and
Programme Implementation, Government of India.
(5) Registered manufacturing.
Estimates of national income, both at current and
constant prices, are prepared along with various related 3. Expenditure Method. From the expenditure viewpoint,
macro-aggregates over a number of years. National Income is the sum total of expenditure incurred on
Methods of Estimating National Income goods and services during one year in a country. It includes
Three methods are usually adopted to calculate national private consumption expenditure (C), domestic private
income. Another one is the combined method: investment (I), net foreign investment (X-M) and government
expenditure (G).
1. The Income Method. This method measures national
income at the phase of factor payments made to primary National Income = C + I + G + (X-M)
factor for the use of their factor services. This is based 4. A Combination of the Income and Inventory Methods:
on income-tax statistics. The income-tax figures are The two methods were combined by Dr. Rao with fair
supplemented by figures of average earnings of various success in India. He has used government estimates of
groups of labourers. Such a method will be more useful agricultural produce, tabulated figures of mineral, industrial
 12
and forest produce, available data on milk and milk products, 3. Net National Product (NNP)
income-tax statistics as well as figures of incomes of junior NNP is obtained by subtracting depreciation value (i.e.
government servants and of those industrial workers whose capital stock consumption) from GNP.
wages are published regularly. He has supplemented these by In equation form :
ad hoc inquiries in other direction.
NNP = GNP – Depreciation.
Concepts of National Income
The various concepts of national income are as follows: 4. National Income
1. Per Capita Income GNP is based on market prices of produced goods
It is a measure of the amount of money that is being which includes indirect taxes and subsidies. NNP can be
earned per person in a certain area. calculated in two ways-
National Income (i) at market prices of goods and services
PCI = (ii) at factor cost
Population
When NNP is obtained at factor cost, it is known
2. Gross National Product (GNP) as National Income. National Income is calculated
Gross National Product refers to the money value of by subtracting net indirect taxes (i.e. total indirect tax-
total output or production of final goods and services subsidy) from NNP at market prices. The obtained value
produced by the nationals of a country during a given is known as NNP at factor cost or National income. So,
period of time, generally a year. NNP at factor cost or National Income
In the calculation of GNP, we include the money value = NNP at market price – (Indirect Taxes – Subsidy)
of goods and services produced by nationals outside
NNPFC or NI = NNP(mp) – Indirect Tax + Subsidy.
the country. Hence, income produced and received by
nationals of a country within the boundaries of foreign 5. Personal Income
countries should be added in Gross Domestic Product Personal income is that income which is actually
(GDP) of the country. Similarly, income received by obtained by nationals.
foreign nationals within the boundary of the country Personal income is obtained by subtracting corporate
should be excluded from GDP. taxes and payments made for social securities provision
In equation form: from national income and adding to it government
transfer payments, business transfer payments and net
GNP = GDP + X – M
interest paid by the government. So,
where,
X = Income earned and received by nationals within Personal Income = National income – undistributed
the boundaries of foreign countries. profits of corporation – payments for social security
M = Income received by foreign nationals within the country. provisions – corporate tax + government transfer
payments + Business transfer payments + Net interest
If X = M, then GNP = GDP. paid by government.
Similarly, in a closed economy It should always be kept in mind that personal income
X=M=0 is a flow concept.
then also GNP = GDP
In equation form : 6. Disposable Personal Income
When personal direct taxes are subtracted from personal
GNP = GDP + NFIA
income, the obtained value is called disposable personal
Where NFIA = Net Factor Income from abroad income (DPI). So,
also, NFIA = Factor incomes received from abroad DPI = [Personal income] – [Direct Taxes]
— Factor income paid to abroad.
A Graphical Representation of relationship between
It is to be noted here that in a closed economy which various measures.
does not deal with outside world, has no NFIA, i.e.
GNPMP
its NFIA is equal to Zero. Hence, for such countries,
GDP = GNP NNPMP = GNPMP – Depreciation
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
NNPFC = NNPMP – Indirect taxes
It is the total money value of all final goods and services + Subsidies
produced within the geographical boundaries of the country
during a given period of time. So, domestic product emphasis Personal Income = NNPFc
the total output which is raised within the geographical +Net transfer payment
boundaries of the country, national product focuses not only
on the domestic product but also on goods and services Disposable income
= Personal Income – Direct Taxes
produced outside the boundaries of a nation.
 13
Sectoral Developments structural change is imminent and it is the pace of change that
becomes a matter of interest. Share of agriculture and allied
Resources move across sectors in response to changes in
sectors in the total GVA of the country has declined from
relative prices causing different sectors of the economy to
2009-14 to 2014-19 mainly on account of relatively higher
grow at different rates. A high growth of GDP does not attract
growth performance of tertiary sectors. This is a natural
much attention to sectoral contribution to growth as much
outcome of the development process that leads to faster
as low growth of GDP does. Yet, at all levels of growth,
growth of non-agricultural sectors.

Table : Sectoral Shares in GVA (per cent)

2009-10 to 2013-14 2014-15 to 2018-19 2019-20 2020-21 2021-21
2018-19 (1st RE) (PE) (1st AE)
Agriculture, forestry & fishing 18.3 17.4 16.1 18.4 20.19 18.8
Industry 32.3 29.6 29.6 26.7 25.92 28.2
Mining & Quarrying 3.2 2.4 2.4 1.9 1.63 2.3
Manufacturing 17.5 16.6 16.4 14.7 14.43 15.4
Electricity, Gas, Water Supply &
2.4 2.6 2.8 2.6 2.70 2.5
Other Utility Services
Construction 9.2 8.0 8.0 7.4 7.16 8.0
Services 49.4 52.9 54.3 55.0 53.89 53.0
Trade, Hotel, Transport, Storage,
Communication 17.5 18.3 18.3 18.9 16.42 16.9
and Services Related to Broadcasting
Financial, Real Estate & Professional 19.2 20.9 21.3 21.2
22.05 20.9
Services
Public Administration, Defence and
12.7 13.7 14.7 14.9 15.42 15.2
other Services
Source: National Statistical Office (RE-Revised Estimates, PE-Provisional Estimates, AE-Advanced Estimates)

The contribution of industrial activities to GVA has also by 11.8% in this financial year. The manufacturing,
declined from 2009-14 to 2014-19. Manufacturing sector, construction and mining sub-sectors went through the
which contributes more than 50 per cent of industrial GVA, same swing although the utilities segment experienced a
has driven the decline while the share of construction sector more muted cycle as basic services such as electricity and
has also moderated. Services sector has moved ahead faster, water supply were maintained even at the height of the
distancing itself further from agriculture and industry. national lockdown. The share of industry in GVA is now
Financial, real estate and professional services has driven estimated at 28.2%.
the increase in the contribution of service sector followed Services account for more than half of the Indian economy
by public administration. Even globally, the services sector and was the most impacted by the COVID-19 related
has supported global growth partly offsetting the decline in restrictions, especially for activities that need human contact.
manufacturing activity. Although the overall sector first contracted by 8.4% in
2020-21 and then it is estimated to grow by 8.2% in 2021-
Sectoral Trends
22, it should be noted that there is a wide dispersion of
The agricultural sector was the least impacted by the performance by different sub-sectors. Both the finance/
pandemic related disruptions. It is estimated to grow 3.9% in real estate and the public administration segments are now
2021-22 on top of 3.6% and 4.3% respectively. This sector well above pre-COVID levels. However, segments like,
now accounts for 18.8% of GVA. Travel, trade and Hotels are yet to fully recover. It should be
In contrast to the steady performance of the primary added that the stop-start nature of repeated pandemic waves
sector, the industrial sector went through a big swing by makes it especially difficult for these sub-sectors to gather
first contracting by 7% in 2020-21 and then expanding momentum.
 14
Table : Growth of GVA and GDP at constant (2011-12) prices (per cent)
2019-20 2020-21 2021-22 Percentage points
Change in growth in 2021-22
over 2020-21
1st RE PE 1st AE [Increase (+)/Decrease (–)]
GVA at basic prices 4.1 –6.2 8.6 +14.8
Agriculture & Allied Sectors 4.3 3.6 3.9 +0.3
Industry –1.2 –7.0 11.8 +18.8
Mining & quarrying –2.5 –8.5 14.3 +22.8
Manufacturing –2.4 –7.2 12.5 +19.7
Electricity, Gas, Water supply & other utility services 2.1 1.9 8.5 +6.6
Construction 1.0 –8.6 10.7 +19.3
Services 7.2 –8.4 8.2 +16.6
Trade, hotel, transport, communication and services 6.4 –18.2 11.9 +30.1
related to broadcasting
Financial, real estate & professional services 7.3 –1.5 4.0 +5.5
Public administration, defence and other services 8.3 –4.6 10.7 +15.3
Source: National Statistical Office
Note: RE - Revised Estimates, PE - Provisional Estimates, AE - Advance Estimates
Gross Value Added (GVA) and GDP Growth However, an equally strong recovery was seen in imports.
(Demand trends) Total consumption is estimated to have grown by 7.0% in
2021-22 with government consumption remaining the biggest
Latest Advance estimates suggest full recovery of all contributor as in the previous year. Government consumption
components on the demand side in 2021-22 except for is estimated to grow by a strong 7.6% surpassing pre-
private consumption. When compared to pre-pandemic pandemic levels. Private consumption is also estimated to
levels, recovery is most significant in exports followed by have improved significantly to recover 97% of corresponding
Government consumption and gross fixed capital formation. pre-pandemic output level.
Table: Annual Real Growth in Demand Side of GDP and its components (%)
Components 2019-20 (1st RE) 2020-21 (PE) 2021-22 (1st AE) Recovery over 2019-20
Total Consumption 5.9 –7.3 7.0 99.2
Government Consumption 7.9 2.9 7.6 110.7
Private Consumption 5.5 –9.1 6.9 97.1
Gross Fixed Capital Formation 5.4 –10.8 15.0 102.6
Exports –3.3 –4.7 16.5 111.1
Imports –0.8 –13.6 29.4 111.8
GDP 4.0 –7.3 9.2 101.3
Source: NSO
Note: RE – Revised Estimates; PE – Provisional Estimates; AE – Advanced Estimates
and February 2021, wholesale inflation was lower than retail
IAS Mains Previous Year Question inflation, while between March 2021 and December 2021,
Q. Define potential GDP and explain its determinants. wholesale inflation remained above the retail inflation. WPI
What are the factors that have been inhibiting India inflation during the current year was higher than the CPI
from realizing its potential GDP?  [UPSC-2020] but there was also a significant widening of the divergence.
In December 2021, WPI based inflation rate was 8% points
higher than the retail inflation.
Inflation Consequent to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic,
production activity remained muted in 2020-21 and global
The YoY inflation rate based on the WPI and the CPI-C crude oil prices reached record lows due to lack of demand.
recorded a divergence since June 2019. Between June 2019 Therefore, the WPI based inflation rate touched a low of
 15
1.3% in 2020-21. With economic activity picking up in the two indices can also be explained through the conceptual
2021-22 and edging up of global crude prices, the low base difference in their purpose and design and the price behavior
of 2020-21 led to WPI inflation reaching a peak of 14.2 % of the different components of the two indices. CPI reflects
in November 2021 and 12.5% during April-December the buying behavior of consumers, derived based on the
2021 (as against 0.04% during April-December 2020-21). household consumption patterns using NSS Household
Therefore, the high WPI based inflation rate in 2021, is Consumer Expenditure Survey, and reflects price movements
largely attributable to the low base of the preceding year. at the retail level. On the other hand, WPI based inflation
On the other hand, retail inflation that had remained high rate is based on the share of the respective items in total
during 2020-21 due to supply chain disruptions and high wholesale transactions in the economy at the first point of
food inflation, moderated in 2021-22 on account of effective sale. Therefore, while the weight of items in CPI-C are based
supply side management, resulting in a divergence between on the consumption pattern of consumers and households, in
WPI and CPI based inflation. case of WPI series, weights of the item basket are derived by
While the base effect could be one of the reasons for the calculating the net traded value to the domestic production by
divergence in the WPI and CPI, the current divergence in adding net imports to domestic production.

Table : Share of sectors in Nominal GDP (Percent)

Sectors 2019-20 2020-21 2021-22 Percentage points change in share in
2021-22 over 2020-21
1st RE PE st
1 AE [Increase (+)/Decrease (–)]
Total consumption 71.7 71.1 69.7 –1.4
Government consumption 11.2 12.5 12.2 –0.3
Private consumption 60.5 58.6 57.5 –1.1
Gross Fixed Capital Formation 28.8 27.1 29.6 +2.5
Net exports –2.5 –0.5 –3.0 –2.5
Exports of goods & services 18.4 18.7 20.1 +1.4
Imports of goods & services 21.0 19.2 23.1 +3.9
Source: National Statistical Office
Note: RE - Revised Estimate, PE - Provisional Estimate, AE - Advance Estimate

audio visual and related services, freight transport services,

IAS Mains Previous Year Question telecommunications, computer and information services.
Q. Among several factors for India’s potential growth, From a demand perspective, India’s total exports are expected
savings rate is the most effective one. Do you agree? to grow by 16.5% in 2021-22 surpassing pre-pandemic levels.
What are the other factors available for growth Imports also recovered strongly with revival of domestic
potential? [UPSC-2017] demand and continuous rise in price of imported crude and
metals. Imports are expected to grow by 29.4% in 2021-22
surpassing corresponding pre-pandemic levels.
Investment, as measured by Gross Fixed Capital Formation
(GFCF) is expected to see strong growth of 15% in 2021- IAS Mains Previous Year Question
22 and achieve full recovery of pre-pandemic level. Q. Do you agree with the view that steady GDP growth
Government’s policy thrust on quickening virtuous cycle of and low inflation have left the Indian economy in good
growth via capex and infrastructure spending has increased shape? Give reasons in support of your arguments.
capital formation in the economy lifting the investment to
 [UPSC-2019]
GDP ratio to about 29.6% in 2021-22, the highest in seven
years.
India’s exports of both goods and services have been Difficulties in measuring national income
exceptionally strong so far in 2021-22. Merchandise exports •• Non Monetary Transactions
have been above US$ 30 billion for eight consecutive
months in 2021-22, despite a rise in trade costs arising •• Problem of Double Counting
from global supply constraints such as fewer operational •• Black Money / The Underground Economy
shipping vessels, exogenous events such as blockage of Suez •• Petty Production
canal and COVID-19 outbreak in port city of China etc. •• Public Services
Concurrently, net services exports have also risen sharply, •• Transfer Payments
driven by professional and management consulting services,
•• Capital Gains or Loss
 16
•• Wages and Salaries paid in Kind Residents and Domestic Territory: Normal residents are
•• Price Changes those persons who ordinarily reside in a country and whose
•• Second hand transactions; economic interest lies in that country. Domestic Territory
•• Environment damages; refers to the geographical or political boundary of a country
•• Calculation of depreciation; excluding foreign embassies and international institutions
•• Inadequate and unreliable statistics; etc. (e.g. WHO, UN etc.) located within the geographical territory.
National income is defined as the value of final goods and
Terms Associated with National Income
services produced by the normal residents of a country.
Final Goods and Intermediate Goods: Final goods are those Monetary Expression: National income is always expressed
goods which are sold to the final users during the year. Final in monetary terms. It adds together the value of all final
users may be consumers or producers. Intermediate goods are goods and services produced in a country during a year.
those goods which are used by the producers as inputs into a Since we cannot add together unlike items, such as apples and
further stage of production. oranges, services of doctors and barbers, they are expressed
Current Output: National income measures the value of by assigning monetary value of these services.
currently produced goods and services. It excludes ‘pure Flow: National income is a flow concept. It is the flow of
exchanges’ transactions such as sale and purchase of second goods and services. A flow is a quantity which is measured
hand goods since such sales do not reflect the current over a period of time. National income is a very important
production whereas national income relates to current flow variable in economics. Conventionally, national income
production only. is expressed over one year.

Practice Questions for Mains

1. Taxation is a hot topic which always generates controversies and exhilaration among the people. Why?
2. Thus, “incomes policies” as have been adopted by many countries, are certain sets of policies which aim at regulating the
evolution of money incomes directly, and hence the level of aggregate demand in the economy. Comment.
3. Unfortunately India, though it is passing through an era of planned economic development, she has not been able to
formulate and implement an appropriate incomes policy. How much is true of the following comment?
4. Incomes policy is ‘ m&pessary to attain some degree of price stability and to realise the objective with regard to social
justice. Present substantive measures to support the argument?
 National Income of India

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 3 Ecosystem

Sarcogyps Calvus
(Red-headed Vulture)
Critically Endangered Species in India

Learning Outcomes from the Chapter Analysis of the Chapter

• What are the functions of ecosystem? • This chapter explains about the mechanism involved in
• Productivity through the mechanisms involved in the ecosystem.
Ecosystem. • It explains the processes involved in various ecosystem.
• Physical function or energy flow involving trophic level • Food web and food chains have been clearly explained
information’s of the ecosystem. to bring out the difference between the two.
• Involvement of Biogeochemical functions in the • Various type of threats to the grassland ecosystem have
Ecosystem. been explained.
• Biotic and Abiotic functions of the ecosystem. • Processes involved in conservation various types of
• What are ecological pyramids? ecosystem.
• What are food webs?
• Various kinds of ecosystem.
• What are the threats to the forest ecosystem?
• How can forest ecosystems be conserved?

Issues to Ponder
• Ecosystem degradation • Resource utilisation - • Ecological succession - • Food chains - Flow
- Impact of degradation Effect of exploitation of Impact on biodiversity ............ of it disturbs
on resources • Forest ecosystem - ecosystem.
• Food webs - • Ecological pyramids - Inner mechanism of • Grassland ecosystem
• Land soil realms Importance of species Ecosystem. - Mechanism behind
• Evolution. • Inorganic aspects • Climatic regimes ........... ......
• Producers • Decomposers or • Macro consumers
detrivores

of biomes, for example. They’re organized very generally, based

Introduction on the types of plants and animals that live in them. Within each
forest, each pond, each reef, or each section of tundra, there are
An ecosystem can be visualised as a functional unit of nature, many different ecosystems.
where living organisms interact among themselves and also with
the surrounding physical environment. Living or biotic factors Many ecologists regard the entire biosphere as a global
include plants, animals, and other organisms. Non-living or ecosystem, as a composite of all local ecosystems on Earth.
abiotic factors include rocks, temperature, and humidity. Since this system is too much big and complex to be studied at
one time, it is convenient to divide it into two basic categories,
Every factor in an ecosystem depends on every other factor, namely the terrestrial and the aquatic. Forest, grassland
either directly or indirectly. Ecosystem varies greatly in size from and desert are some examples of terrestrial ecosystems;
a small pond to a large forest or a sea. The whole surface of pond, lake, wetland, river and estuary are some examples of
Earth is a series of connected ecosystems. Ecosystems are often aquatic ecosystems. Crop fields and an aquarium may also be
connected in a larger biome. Biomes are large sections of land, considered as man-made ecosystems.
sea, or atmosphere. Forests, ponds, reefs, and tundra are all types
Ecosystems The Nitrogen Cycle
itrogen is a critical element for life. Without it,
cosystems include the populations of living things that make up a community and their interactions plants could not live, and thus animals could not
with the nonliving elements of the environment (the biotope). Although each ecosystem is N exist. Air is made up of 70% nitrogen, but plants
uniquely variable and complex, all ecosystems exhibit two conditions: (1) a unidirectional flow of cannot use it in its gaseous form. Plants can only take
in certain nitrogen compounds found in the soil.
E
energy that originates with the Sun and permits all the various organisms to live and develop and (2) a
1. Dead animals and the waste products of living Nitrogen is reserved
cyclic flow of various materials. These materials, such as nutrients, originate in the environment, pass in the atmosphere.
animals contain nitrogen that some bacteria
through organisms in the environment, and return once again to the environment.
and fungi can convert into ammonia (NH3) and
ammonium (NH4).
Food Webs and Energy Flows 2. Other kinds of bacteria convert these
True food webs are established in each ecosystem. compounds into nitrites (NO2 ) . Nitrates are
There are primary producers, primary and secondary toxic to plants.
consumers, and decomposers. The energy flow in such 3. Other kinds of bacteria convert some of
food webs begin with the Sun. the nitrites into nitrates (NO3–). Nitrates are
absorbed by plants and used for growth.
Chemical fixation by lightning

4. Plant cell also convert the nitrates into

Every time energy passes from one trophic level ammonium. Ammonium can be combined Animal waste Matter
to another. there are important losses. Each with carbon to make amino acids, proteins,
and other compounds needed by the plants. Decomposers
consumer gains only 10% of the energy that
5. Animals obtain nitrogen by eating plants. This (bacteria/ fungi)
resides in its prey. nitrogen is eventually returned to the soil.
PRIMARY PRODUCERS 6. Losses: A large portion of the nitrogen is lost
from the cycle. Human activity, fire and water
Bacteria return nitrogen to the atmosphere.

Plants on land and algae Ammonia (NH3)

in the water take solar remove nitrogen from the ecosystem. Some Ammonium (NH4)
bacteria convert nitrogen in the soil to nitrogen
energy and transform
gas, which escapes into the atmosphere.
it into chemical energy. Nitrites 
They make up the first
(NO )2

trophic level in the food Of all organic material on

Earth, 99% corresponds to Nitrates NO
web. plants and algae. The rest, in (3 )
animals, does not exceed !%.
DECOMPOSERS
These organisms
(such as fungi, worms,
bacteria and other The carbon Cycle
microorganisms) are arbon is a basic constituent of all organic compounds. The most import-
specialized to make use ant source of carbon for living organisms is carbon for living organisms is
of the sources of energy carbon dioxide (CO2), which makes up almost 0.04% of the air.
(such as cellulose and
nitrogen compounds)
C
Carbon dioxide is incorporated into living Herbivores ingest the ogranic
that cannot be used things by means of plant photosynthesis. compounds made by plants
by other animals. Plants use photosynthesis. Plants and reuse them. They also
use photosynthesis to form organic eliminate carbon dioxide
Decomposers feed compounds. In addition, plants expel through respiration.
carbon dioxide through respiration.
on detritus and other
waste products, usch as TERITARY CONSUMERS When a carnivore eats a
These are the carnivores that Atmospheric herbivore, it reuses carbon by
feces and dead animals. eat other carnivores. Some on CO2 incorporating this compound
sti Re
As they consume these food chains have as many as bu sp into its body. Carnivores also
m ira
eliminate carbon dioxide
five trophic s levels. Co tio
materials, decomposers Photosynthesis n through respiration.
return ingredients
that circulate in the Not every ecosystem has the
Sun as its principal source of The decomposers
Respiration

food web to the

energy. Once scientists were release carbon
environment as new Plants dioxide into the
able to explore the great
depths of the ocean, they Petroleum, coal, atmosphere through
inorganic material. natural gas respiration.
began to discover ecosystems Fossilization Food
whose primary producers
are bacteria that use the Factories and automobiles
heat from the Earth’s interior burn carbon deposited
0.1% PRIMARY CONSUMERS as their primary source of underground in the form of
energy. These organisms live hydrocarbons and release it
The amount of solar These consumers are the herbivoroes that eat the primary under extreme conditions, in as carbon dioxide into the
energy reaching the producers. Primary consumers require part of the chemical dark habitats under very high atmosphere.
pressures, with temperatures
Earth’s surface that is energy that they derive from primary producers to live. that can exceed 570° F Prehistoric Animals Humans
(300° C).
used by living things. Another part is stored within their bodies, and a third part
is eliminated without being used.
19
 20

CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM
An ‘Ecosystem’ is a region with a specific and recognizable Some ecosystems are fairly robust and are less affected by a
landscape form such as forest, grassland, desert, wetland or certain level of human disturbance. Others are highly fragile and
coastal area. The nature of the ecosystem is based on its are quickly de- stroyed by human activities. Mountain ecosys-
geo- graphical features such as hills, mountains, plains, rivers, tems are extremely fragile as degradation of forest cover
lakes, coastal areas or islands. It is also controlled by climatic leads to severe erosion of soil and changes in river courses. Island
conditions such as the amount of sunlight, the temperature ecosystems are easily affected by any form of human activity
and the rainfall in the region. The geographical, climatic and which can lead to the rapid extinction of sev- eral of their
soil characteristics form its non-living (abi- otic) component. unique species of plants and ani- mals. Evergreen forests and
These features create condi- tions that support a community coral reefs are also examples of species rich fragile ecosystems
of plants and animals that evolution has produced to live in which must be protected against a variety of human activities
these specific conditions. The living part of the ecosystem is that lead to their degradation. River and wetland ecosystems
referred to as its biotic component. can be seriously affected by pollution and changes in surround-
Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial or land- based ing landuse.
ecosystems, and aquatic ecosystems in water. These form the
two major habitat condi- tions for the Earth’s living organisms.
All the living organisms in an area live in com- munities Consider ecosystem as relevancy to environment. Look
of plants and animals. They interact with their non-living for geographical conditions those are suitable for
environment, and with each other at different points in time environment. These things helps both is Environment
for a large num- ber of reasons. Life can exist only in a small and Geography as subjects. A question on this relevancy
pro- portion of the earth’s land, water and its atmo- sphere. was asked in 2019.
At a global level the thin skin of the earth on the land, the sea
and the air, forms the bio- sphere.
Understanding Ecosystems
At a sub-global level, this is divided into bio- geographical
realms, eg. Eurasia called the palaeartic realm; South and Natural ecosystems include the forests, grass- lands, deserts,
South-East Asia (of which India forms a major part) is the and aquatic ecosystems such as ponds, rivers, lakes, and the sea.
Oriental realm; North America is the Nearctic realm; South Man modified ecosystems include agricultural land and urban or
America forms the Neotropical realm; Africa the Ethiopian industrial land use patterns.
realm; and Australia the Australian realm. Each ecosystem has a set of common features that can be
At a national or state level, this forms biogeo- graphic regions. observed in the field:
There are several distinctive geographical regions in India- ‘What does the ecosystem look like?’
the Himalayas, the Gangetic Plains, the Highlands of Central One should be able to describe specific fea- tures of the different
India, the Western and Eastern Ghats, the semi-arid desert ecosystems in ones own surroundings. Field observations must
in the West, the Deccan Plateau, the Coastal Belts, and be made in both urban and natural sur- roundings.
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These geographically • What is its structure?
distinctive areas have plants and animals that have been Is it a forest, a grassland, a water body, an agricultural area,
adapted to live in each of these regions. a grazing area, an urban area, an industrial area, etc.?
At an even more local level, each area has sev- eral structurally What you should see are its different char- acteristics. A
and functionally identifiable eco- systems such as different types forest has layers from the ground to the canopy. A pond
of forests, grass- lands, river catchments, mangrove swamps in has differ- ent types of vegetation from the periphery to
deltas, seashores, islands, etc. to give only a few examples. Here its center. The vegetation on a mountain changes from its
too each of these forms a habi- tat for specific plants and base to its summit.
animals. • What is the composition of its plant and animal species?
Ecosystems have been formed on land and in the sea by List the well-known plants and animals you can see. Document
evolution that has created species to live together in a specific their abundance and numbers in nature: very common,
region. Thus ecosys- tems have both non-living and living common, uncommon, rare. Wild mammals will not be seen
compo- nents that are typical to an area giving it its own in large numbers, cattle would be common. Some birds are
special characteristics that are easily observed. common – which are the most common species? Insect spe-
Definition: The living community of plants and animals in cies are very common and most abundant. In fact there are so
any area together with the non-liv- ing components of many that they cannot be easily counted.
the environment such as soil, air and water, constitute the • ‘How does the ecosystem work’?
ecosystem. The ecosystem functions through several biogeochemical
 21
cycles and energy transfer mechanisms. Observe and If tracked back to their source, one finds that the resources
document the components of the ecosystem which con- were originally obtained from nature and natural ecosystems.
sists of its non-living or abiotic features such as air, water, Our insensitiv- ity to using resources carefully has produced
climate and soil. Its biotic com- ponents, the various plants societies that nature can no longer sustain. If one thinks
and animals. Both these aspects of the ecosystem inter- act before wasting resources such as wa- ter, reusing and recycling
with each other through several functional aspects to form paper, using less plas- tics that are non-degradable, culminatively
Nature’s ecosystems. Plants, herbivores and carnivores can this can have positive implications on the integrity of our
be seen to form food chains. All these chains are joined natural resource base and conserve the resources that nature
together to form a ‘web of life’ on which man depends. provides.
Each of these use energy that comes from the sun and Ecosystems and man: Every region of our earth has different
pow- ers the ecosystem. ecosystems based on its climatic conditions and geographical
Ecosystem Degradation feature. There are terrestrial ecosystems on land and aquatic
eco- systems in water.
Ecosystems are the basis of life itself! The natu- ral ecosystems
in the wilderness provide a vari- ety of products and are regions
Resource Utilisation
in which a num- ber of vital ecological processes are present, Most traditional societies used their environment sustainably.
without which human civilization would not be able to exist. Though inequality in resource utili- zation has existed in every
Ecosystems are however frequently disrupted by human actions society, the number of individuals that used a large proportion
which lead to the extinction of species of plants and animals of resources was extremely limited. In recent times the
that can live only in the different natural ecosystems. Some spe- proportion of ‘rich’ people in affluent soci- eties, grew rapidly.
cies if eliminated seriously affect the ecosystem. These are called Inequality thus became a se- rious problem. Whereas in the
‘keystone’ species. Extinction occurs due to changes in land use. past many re- sources such as timber and fuel wood from the
Forests are deforested for timber, wetlands are drained to forest were extracted sustainably, this pattern has drastically
create more agricultural land and semi arid grasslands that are changed during the last century. The economically better off
used as pastures are changed into irrigated fields. Pollution from sections began to use greater amounts of forest products,
industry and waste from urban settings can also lead to ex- while those people who lived in the forest became increasingly
tinction of several species. poor. Similarly the building of large irrigation projects led to
The reason for the depletion of natural resources is twofold – our wealth in those areas that had canals, while those who hand
rapidly exploding population that needs to sustain itself on to re- main dependent on a constant supply of water from the
resources, and the growth of affluent societies, which consume river itself, found it difficult to survive.
and waste a very large proportion of resources and energy. The key to this issue is the need for an ‘equi- table’ distribution
Increasing extraction of resources is at the cost of natural of all types of natural re- sources. A more even sharing of
ecosystems, leading to a derangement of their important resources within the community can reduce these pressures on
functions. Each of us in our daily lives use a variety of resources. the natural ecosystems.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Since each ecosystem has a non-living and a liv- ing part that are linked
Structural aspects to each other, one needs to look around us and observe this closely.
Components that make up the structural as- pects of an This is an important aspect that is a vital part of our lives.
ecosystem include: The non-living components of an ecosystem are the amount of
1. Inorganic aspects – C, N, CO2, H2O. water, the various inorganic sub- stances and organic compounds,
2. Organic compounds – Protein, Carbo- hydrates, Lipids – and climatic conditions such as rainfall and temperature,
link abiotic to bioticaspects. which depend on geographical conditions and location which is
3. Climatic regimes – Temperature, Mois- ture, Light & also related to the amount of sunlight. The living organisms in
Topography. an ecosystem are inseparable from their habitat.
4. Producers – Plants. The living component of plant life ranges from extremely
5. Macro consumers – Phagotrophs – Largeanimals. small bacteria, which live in air, wa- ter and soil, algae which
live in fresh and salt water, to the terrestrial plants which range
6. Micro consumers – Saprotrophs, absorbers – fungi.
from grasses and herbs that grow after the monsoon every year,
Functional aspects to the giant long-lived trees of the forest. The plants convert
1. Energy cycles. energy from sunlight into organic matter for their growth.
2. Food chains. They thus function as producers in the ecosystem. The liv-
3. Diversity-interlinkages between organ- isms. ing component of the animal world ranges from microscopic
4. Nutrient cycles-biogeochemical cycles. animals, to small insects and the larger animals such as fish,
5. Evolution. amphibia, reptiles, birds and mammals. Man is just one of the
1.8 million species of plants and animals that inhabit the earth.
 22

PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS AND DECOM- POSERS

Every living organism is in some way dependent on other live on other fish and marine animals. Animals that live in the
organisms. Plants are food for herbivorous ani- mals which are sea range in size from microscopic forms to giant mammals
in turn food for carnivorous animals. Thus there are different such as the whale.
tropic levels in the ecosys- tem. Some organisms such as fungi Decomposers or detrivores are a group of or- ganisms consisting
live only on dead material and inorganic matter. of small animals like worms, insects, bacteria and fungi,
Plants are the ‘producers’ in the ecosystem as they manufacture which break down dead organic material into smaller particles
their food by using energy from the sun. In the forest these and finally into simpler substances that are used by plants as
form commu- nities of plant life. In the sea these include tiny nutrition. Decomposition thus is a vital function in nature, as
algal forms to large seaweed. without this, all the nutri- ents would be tied up in dead
The herbivorous animals are primary consum- ers as they live matter and no new life could be produced.
on the producers. In a forest, these are the insects, amphibia, Most ecosystems are highly complex and con- sist of an
reptiles, birds and mammals. The herbivorous animals include for extremely large number of individuals of a wide variety of
example hare, deer and elephants that live on plant life. They species. In the species-rich tropical ecosystems (such as in our
graze on grass or feed on the foliage from trees. In grasslands, country), only a few species are very common, while most spe-
there are her- bivores such as the blackbuck that feed on grass. cies have relatively few individuals. Some spe- cies of plants
In the semiarid areas, there are species such as the chinkara or and animals are extremely rare and may occur only at a few
Indian gazelle. In the sea, there are small fish that live on algae locations. These are said to be ‘endemic’ to these areas.
and other plants. When human activities alter the balance in these ecosystems,
At a higher tropic level, there are carnivorous animals, or the “perturbation” leads to the disappearance of these
secondary consumers, which live on herbivorous animals. In uncommon species. When this happens to an endemic
our forests, the carnivorous ani- mals are tigers, leop- ards, species that is not widely distributed, it becomes extinct
jackals, foxes and small wild cats. In the sea, carnivorous fish for all time.

ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Every ecosystem has several interrelated mecha- nisms that affect them energy. A large part of this energy is used up for day to
human life. These are the wa- ter cycle, the carbon cycle, the day functions of these ani- mals such as breathing, digesting
oxygen cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the energy cycle. While food, support- ing growth of tissues, maintaining blood flow
every ecosystem is controlled by these cycles, in each ecosystem and body temperature. Energy is also used for activities such
its abiotic and biotic features are distinct from each other. as looking for food, finding shel- ter, breeding and bringing up
All the functions of the ecosystem are in some way related to young ones. The carnivores in turn depend on herbivorous ani-
the growth and regeneration of its plant and animal species. mals on which they feed. Thus the different plant and animal
These linked processes can be depicted as the vari- ous cycles. species are linked to one another through food chains. Each food
These processes depend on energy from sunlight. During chain has three or four links. However as each plant or animal
photosynthesis carbon di- oxide is taken up by plants and can be linked to several other plants or animals through many
oxygen is released. Animals depend on this oxygen for their different linkages, these interlinked chains can be depicted as a
res piration. The water cycle depends on the rainfall, which complex food web. This is thus called the ‘web of life’ that shows
is necessary for plants and animals to live. The energy cycle that there are thousands of interrelation- ships in nature.
recycles nutrients into the soil on which plant life grows. Our The energy in the ecosystem can be de picted in the form of a food
own lives are closely linked to the proper functioning of these pyramid or energy pyramid. The food pyramid has a large base of
cycles of life. If human activities go on altering them, humanity plants called ‘produc- ers’. The pyramid has a narrower middle
cannot survive on our earth. section that depicts the number and bio mass of herbivorous
The Energy Cycle animals, which are called ‘first order consumers’. The apex depicts the
small biomass of carnivorous animals called ‘second order consumers’.
The energy cycle is based on the flow of energy through
Man is one of the animals at the apex of the pyramid. Thus
the ecosystem. Energy from sunlight is converted by
to support mankind, there must be a large base of herbivorous
plants themselves into growing new plant material which
animals and an even greater quantity of plant material.
includes leaves, flow- ers, fruit, branches, trunks and
roots of plants. When plants and animals die, this ma terial is returned to
Since plants can grow by converting the sun’s energy directly the soil after being broken down into simpler substances by
into their tissues, they are known as producers in the ecosystem. decomposers such as insects, worms, bacteria and fungi so that
The plants are used by herbivorous animals as food, which gives plants can absorb the nutrients through their roots.
 23
Animals excrete waste products after digesting food, which goes ecosys- tems. Their characteristics are specific to the plant
back to the soil. This links the energy cycle to the Nitrogen and animal communities in the region. This is related to the
cycle. geographical features of the area, the climate and the chemical
composition of the soil. Together the cycles are responsible
Integration of cycles in Nature
for maintaining life on earth. If mankind disturbs these cycles
These cycles are a part of global life processes. These beyond the limits that nature can sustain, they will eventually
biogeochcemical cycles have specific fea- tures in each of the break down and lead to a degraded earth on which man will
ecosystems. These cycles are however linked to those of adjacent not be able to survive.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecological succession is a process through which ecosystems tend produce a more or less stable state at the end of the suc-
to change over a period of time. Succession can be related to cessional stages. Developmental stages in the ecosystem thus
seasonal environ- mental changes, which create changes in consist of a pioneer stage, a series of changes known as serel
the community of plants and animals living in the ecosystem. stages, and finally a climax stage. The successive stages are
Other successional events may take much longer periods of related to the way in which energy flows through the
time extending to sev- eral decades. If a forest is cleared, it biological system. The most fre- quent example of successional
is initially colonized by a certain group of species of plants and changes occur in a pond ecosystem where it fluctuates from a
animals, which gradually change through an orderly process of dry terrestrial habitat to the early colonisation stage by small
community development. One can predict that an opened up aquatic species after the mon- soon, which gradually passes
area will gradually be converted into a grassland, a shrubland through to a ma- ture aquatic ecosystem, and then reverts
and finally a woodland and a forest if permitted to do so without back to its dry stage in summer where its aquatic life remains
human interference. There is a tendency for succession to dormant.

FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECO- LOGICAL PYRAMIDS

The transfer of energy from the source in plants through a The Ecological Pyramids
series of organisms by eating and being eaten constitutes
In an ecosystem, green plants – the producers, utilize energy
food chains. At each transfer, a large proportion of energy is
directly from sunlight and convert it into matter. A large
lost in the form of heat. These food chains are not iso- lated
number of these organ- isms form the most basic, or first
sequences, but are interconnected with each other. This
‘trophic level’ of the food pyramid. The herbivorous animals
interlocking pattern is known as the food web. Each step of
that eat plants are at the second trophic leveland are called
the food web is called a trophic level. Hence green plants oc-
primary consumers. The preda- tors that feed on them
cupy the first level, herbivores the second level, carnivores the
form the third trophic level and are known as secondary
third level and secondary carni- vores the fourth level. These
consumers. Only a few animals form the third trophic level
trophic levels to- gether form the ecological pyramid.
consisting of carnivores at the apex of the food pyramid. This
The Food Chains is how energy is used by living creatures and flows through
the ecosystem from its base to the apex. Much of the energy
The most obvious aspect of nature is that en- ergy must pass is used up in activities of each living organism.
from one living organism to an- other. When herbivorous animals
INTRODUCTION, TYPES, CHARACTERIS- TIC FEATURES,
feed on plants, energy is transferred from plants to animals. In an
ecosystem, some of the animals feed on other living organisms,
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
while some feed on dead or- ganic matter. The latter form the Types of Ecosystems
‘detritus’ food chain. At each linkage in the chain, a major part of
the energy from the food is lost for daily ac- tivities. Each chain Terrestrial Ecosystems Aquatic Ecosystems
usually has only four to five such links. However a single species Forest Pond
may be linked to a large number of species. Grassland Lake
The Food Webs Semi and areas Wetland
Deserts River
In an ecosystem there are a very large number of interlinked
Mountains Delta
chains. This forms a food web. If the linkages in the chains that
make up the web of life are disrupted due to human activities islands Marine
that lead to the loss or extinction of species, the web breaks For each of these ecosystems we need to un- derstand 4 basic
down. issues:
 24
Ecosystem goods and services What is a forest ecosystem?
Direct Values: These are resources that people depend upon The forest ecosystem has two parts:
directly and are easy to quantify in economic terms. • The non-living or abiotic aspects of the forest: The type
• Consumptive Use Value - Non-market value of fruit, fodder, of forest depends upon the abiotic conditions at the site.
firewood, etc. that are used by people who collect them Forests on mountains and hills differ from those along
from their surrounds.] river valleys. Vegetation is specific to the amount of
• Productive Use Value - Commercial value of timber, fish, rainfall and the local temperature which varies according
medicinal plants, etc. that people collect for sale. to latitude and altitude. Forests also vary in their plant
Indirect Values: These are uses that do not have easy ways to communities in response to the type of soil.
quantify them in terms of a clearly definable price. • The living or the biotic aspects of the for- est: The plants
• Non-consumptive use value - scientific research, bird- and animals form communities that are specific to each
watching, ecotourism, etc. forest type. For instance coniferous trees occur in the
• Option value - maintaining options for the future, so that Himalayas. Mangrove trees occur in river deltas. Thorn
by preserving them one could reap economic benefits in trees grow in arid areas. The snow leopard lives in the
the future. Himalayas while the leopard and tiger live in the forests
• Existence value - ethical and emotional aspects of the of the rest of India. Wild sheep and goats live high up
existence of wildlife and nature. in the Himalayas. Many of the birds of the Himalayan
Terrestrial ecosystems in their natural state are found in different forests are different from the rest of India. Evergreen
types of forests, grasslands, semiarid areas, deserts and sea forests of the Western Ghats and North East India are
coasts. Where the land is intensively used, these have been most rich in plant and animal species.
gradually modified over several thousand years into agricultural The biotic component includes both the large (macrophytes)
and pastoral regions. In the re- cent past they have been rapidly and the microscopic plants and animals.
converted into intensively irrigated agricultural ecosystems or into Plants include the trees, shrubs, climbers, grasses, and herbs
urban and industrial centers. Though this has increased production in the forest. These include species that flower (angiosperms),
of food and pro- vides the raw material for ‘consumer’ goods that we and non-flow- ering species (gymnosperms) such as ferns, bryo-
use, the overuse and misuse of land and natural ecosystems has led phytes, fungi and algae.
to a serious degradation of our environment. The unsus- tainable use The animals include species of mammals, birds, reptiles,
of environmental goods such as soil, water, fuelwood, timber from amphibians, fish, insects and other in- vertebrates and a variety
forest, grasses and herbs from grasslands for grazing and re- of microscopic animals.
peatedly burning the grass, degrades these natu- ral ecosystems. As the plant and animal species are closely de- pendent on
Similarly, improper use of re- sources can destroy the services that each other, together they form dif- ferent types of forest
the natu- ral ecosystems provide. These processes of na- ture such communities. Man is a part of these forest ecosystems and the
as photosynthesis, climate control, pre- vention of soil erosion are local people depend directly on the forest for several natural
disturbed by many human activities. When our human population resources that act as their life support systems. People who do
was small, most ecosystems could supply all our needs. Resources not live in the forest buy forest products such as wood and
were thus used ‘sustainably’. As industrial ‘development’ led to a paper, which has been extracted from the forest. Thus they
very great increase in consumption of resources, the short term use forest produce indirectly from the market.
economic gains for people became an in- dicator of progress, Forest types in India: The forest type depends upon the abiotic
rather than long term eco- logical benefits. This has resulted in factors such as climate and soil characteristics of a region.
an ‘unsus- tainable use’ of natural resources. Forests thus disappear, Forests in India can be broadly divided into Coniferous forests
rivers run dry, deserts begin to spread, and air, water and soil and Broadleaved forests.
become increasingly pol- luted as by-products of development. They can also be classified according to the na- ture of their
Human well being itself is then seriously affected. tree species – evergreen, deciduous, xerophytic or thorn trees,
Forest Ecosystem mangroves, etc. They can also be classified according to the most
abundant species of trees such as Sal or Teak forests. In many
Forests are formed by a community of plants which is
cases a forest is named after the first three or four most
predominantly structurally defined by its trees, shrubs,
abundant tree spe cies.
climbers and ground cover. Natural vegetation looks vastly
different from a group of planted trees, which are in orderly Coniferous forests grow in the Himalayan moun- tain region, where
rows. The most ‘natural’ undisturbed forests are located mainly the temperatures are low. These forests have tall stately trees with
in our National Parks and Wild- life Sanctuaries. The landscapes needle- like leaves and downward sloping branches so that the
that make up various types of forests look very different from snow can slip off the branches. They eral months. Some even get
each other. Their distinctive appearance is a fas- cinating aspect two monsoons, such as in Southern In- dia. Evergreen plants shed
of nature. Each forest type forms a habitat for a specific a few of their leaves throughout the year. There is no dry leafless
community of animals that are adapted to live in it. phase as in a deciduous forest. An evergreen for- est thus looks
 25
green throughout the year. The trees overlap with each other to Deciduous forests are found in regions with a moderate
form a continuous canopy. Thus very little light penetrates down amount of seasonal rainfall that lasts for only a few months.
to the forest floor. Only a few shade loving plants can grow in the Most of the forests in which Teak trees grow are of this type.
ground layer in areas where some light fil- ters down from the The deciduous trees shed their leaves during the win- ter and
closed canopy. The forest is rich in orchids and ferns. The barks of hot summer months. In March or April they regain their fresh
the trees are covered in moss. The forest abounds in ani- mal life leaves just before the monsoon, when they grow vigorously in
and is most rich in insect life. response to the rains. Thus there are periods of leaf fall and canopy
Broadleaved forest have cones instead of seeds and are called regrowth. The forest frequently has a thick undergrowth as
gymnosperms. light can penetrate easily onto the forest floor.
Broadleaved forests have several types, such as evergreen forests, Thorn forests are found in the semi- arid regions of India. The
deciduous forests, thorn forests, and mangrove forests. trees, which are sparsely distributed, are surrounded by open
Broadleaved forests have large leaves of various shapes. grassy areas. Thorny plants are in a mix of saline and fresh
Evergreen forests grow in the high rain- fall areas of the Western water. They grow luxuriantly in muddy areas covered with silt
Ghats, North Eastern India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. that the rivers have brought down. The mangrove trees have
These forests grow in areas where the monsoon lasts for sev- breathing roots that emerge from the mudbanks.

Forest Communities
Forest type Plants Examples Common Animal Examples Rare Animal Examples
Himalayan Coniferous Pine, deodar Wild goats and sheep, Snow leopard, Hangul,Himalayan
Himalayan black bear. brown bear,Musk deer, Himalayan
Himalayan Broadleaved Maple, oak Wolf.

Evergreen North-east, Jamun, Ficus, Tiger, Leopard, Sambar, Malabar Pigmy Hog, Rhino,
Western Ghats, Andaman Dipterocarpus whistling thrush, Malabar Pied Liontailed macaque
& Nicobar hornbill, tree frogs.
Deciduous – Dry Teak, Ain, Tiger, Chital, Barking deer,
Terminalia
Moist Sal Babblers, Flycatchers, Hornbills.
Thorn and scrub, Babul, Ber, Neem Blackbuck, Chinkara, Fourhorned Wolf, Bustard, Florican,Bustards,
Semiarid forests antelope, Partridge, Monitor
lizard.
Mangrove Delta Avicenia Crocodile, shorebirds – sandpipers, Water monitor lizard.
Forests plovers, fish, crustacea.

Forest utilisation: Natural forests provide local people with a variety Forest products that are collected by people include food such
of products if the forest is used carefully. Over-exploitation for as fruit, roots, herbs and me- dicinal plants. People depend on
fuel wood or timber, and conversion to monoculture plan tations fuelwood to cook food, collect fodder for domestic animals, cut
for timber or other products, impover- ishes local people as the building material for housing, collect medicinal plants that
economic benefit goes to people who live elsewhere. The entire have been known for generations for several ailments and use a
resource base on which local people have tradi tionally survived vari- ety of non timer forest products such as fiber, cane, gum,
for generations, is rapidly de stroyed. Eventually the forest is to make household articles. Wood from different species of trees
completely de graded. have special uses. For instance a soft wood is used for the yok of
Natural forest ecosystems play an important role in controlling a bullock cart while a very hard wood is used for its axil. These
local climate and water regimes. It is well-known that under the forest products are of great economic value as they are collected,
canopy of a natu- ral forest, it is cooler than outside the forest. sold and mar- keted. Forest dwellers and agricultural people use
During the monsoon, the forest retains mois- ture and slowly these goods directly. Other people get them indirectly from the
releases it through perennial streams during the rest of the market. Traditional types of agriculture needs forest material
year. Plantations fail to perform this function adequately. The such as branches and leaves, which are burnt to form wood
loss of forest cover in the catchments of a river thus leads to ash which acts as a fertiliser for crops such as rice.
irreversible changes such as excessive soil erosion, large run-off Urban people use these forest resources indi- rectly as all their
of surface water dur- ing monsoons leading to flash floods, food and other goods come from agricultural areas that are
and a shortage of water once the monsoons are over. dependent on the neighbouring forests.
 26
Forest services include the control of the flow of water in streams exploited beyond what they can pro- duce the forest canopy
and rivers. Forest cover re- duces surface runoff of rainwater is opened up, the eco- system is degraded, and its wildlife is
and allows ground water to be stored. Forests prevent ero- seriously threatened. As the forest is fragmented into small
sion of soil. Once soil is lost by erosion, it can take thousands patches its wild plant and animal species become extinct. These
of years to reform. Forests regu- late local temperature. It is can never be brought back. Extinction is forever.
cooler and more moist under the shade of the trees in the What if the forests disappear?
forest. Most importantly, forests absorb carbon diox- ide and
release oxygen that we breathe. When forests are cut down tribal people who depend directly
on them for food and fuelwood and other products find it
The wild relatives of our crop plants and fruit trees have very difficult to sur- vive. Agricultural people do not get
special characteristics in their genes which are used to develop enough fuelwood, small timber, etc. for making houses and
new crops and newer varieties of fruit. These newer varieties farm implements. Urban people who de- pend on food from
devel- oped from wild relatives give greater yields or are agricultural areas, which in turn depend on neighbouring forest
more resistant to diseases. New industrial products are being ecosystems have to pay a higher price for food as human
produced from the wild plants of the forest. Many of our new population grows.
medi- cines come from wild plants. Insects that live and breed in the forest such as bees,
butterflies and moths decrease in abun- dance once forests
Direct uses of Forest products
are degraded. As their num- bers decrease they are unable
Fruits – mango, jamun, awla Roots – Dioscoria to effectively pollinate agricultural crops and fruit trees. This
Medicine – Gloriosa, Foxglove leads to a decrease in agricultural yields.
Fuelwood – many species of trees and shrubs Small timber for The rain that falls on deforested land flows di- rectly into
building huts and houses Wood for farm implements nearby rivers. Thus water is not re- tained under the
Bamboo and cane for baskets ground. People thus do not get a sufficient quantity of water
Grass for grazing and stall feeding livestock throughout the year. The exposed soil is rapidly washed away
Indirect uses of forest products during the rains once the protective forest cover is removed. Thus
agriculture is seriously affected in such areas. In deforested areas,
Building material for construction and furni-ture for the urban the water in streams is brown in colour as soil is washed away
sector while water in forested streams is crystal clear.
Medicinal products collected and processedinto drugs
Wild animals lose their habitat. This leads to extinction of our
Gums and resins processed into a variety ofproducts precious species. Residual for- ests must be protected from
Raw material for industrial products andchemicals being destroyed any further if all the diverse species of plants
Paper from bamboo and softwoods and animals are to be kept for future genera tions.

What are the threats to the forest ecosystem? How can forest ecosystems be conserved?
We can conserve forests only if we use its re- sources carefully.
As forests grow very slowly, we cannot use more resources This can be done by using al- ternate sources of energy instead
than they can produce during a grow- ing season. If timber of fuelwood. There is a need to grow more trees than are cut
is felled beyond a certain limit the forest cannot regenerate. down from forests every year for timber. Affor- estation needs
The gaps in the forest change the habitat quality for its ani- to be done continuously from which fuelwood and timber
mals. The more sensitive species cannot survive under these
can be judiciously used.
changed conditions. Overutilizing forest resources is an
unsustainable way of mis- using our limited forest resources. The natural forests with all their diverse species must be
We are now creating more and more goods that are manu- protected as National Parks and Wild- life Sanctuaries where all
factured from raw material from the forest. This leads to the plants and animals can be preserved.
forest degradation and finally changes the ecosystem into Grassland ecosystems
wasteland. Wood is illegally extracted from many forests
leading to a highly disturbed ecosystem. A wide range of landscapes in which the veg- etation is mainly
formed by grasses and small annual plants are adapted to
Developmental activities such as rapid population growth
India’s various cli matic conditions. These form a variety of grass-
together with, urbanisation, industrialisation and the increasing
use of con- sumer goods, leads to over utilisation of forest land ecosystems with their specific plants and animals.
produce. Forests are shrinking as our need for agricultural land What is a grassland ecosystem?
increases. It is estimated that India’s forest cover has decreased
from about 33% to 11% in the last century. The increasing use of Grasslands cover areas where rainfall is usually low and/or the
wood for timber, wood pulp for paper and the extensive use soil depth and quality is poor. The low rainfall prevents the
of fuelwood results in continual forest loss. Forests are also growth of a large number of trees and shrubs, but is sufficient to
lost by mining and building dams. As the forest re- sources are support the growth of grass cover during the monsoon. Many
 27
of the grasses and other small herbs become dry and the part Grasslands are not restricted only to low rainfall areas. Certain
above the ground dies during the summer months. In the next grassland types form when clear- ings are made in different
monsoon the grass cover grows back from the root stock and forest types. Some are located on the higher steep hill slopes
the seeds of the previous year. This change gives grasslands a with patches of forest that occur along the streams and in
highly sea- sonal appearance with periods of increased growth depressions. The grasslands are related to repeated fires that
followed by a dormant phase. do not permit the forest to grow.
A variety of grasses, herbs, and several species of insects, birds The grasses are the major producers of biomass in these regions.
and mammals have evolved so that they are adapted to these Each grassland ecosystem has a wide variety of species of grasses
wide-open grass covered areas. These animals are able to live in and herbs. Some grass and herb species are more sensitive to
conditions where food is plentiful after the rains, so that they excessive grazing and are suppressed if the area is over grazed.
can store this as fat that they use during the dry period when Others are destroyed by re peated fires and cannot regenerate.
there is very little to eat. Man began to use these grasslands as Thus over- used or frequently burnt grasslands are de- graded
pas tures to feed his livestock when he began to domesticate and are poor in plant species diversity.
animals and became a pastoralist in ancient times.
How are grasslands used?
Grassland Types in India: Grasslands form a variety of ecosystems
that are located in differ- ent climatic conditions ranging from Grasslands are the grazing areas of many rural communities.
near desert conditions, to patches of shola grasslands that occur Farmers who keep cattle or goats, as well as shepherds who keep
on hillslopes alongside the extremely moist evergreen forests sheep, are highly dependent on grasslands. Domestic animals are
in South India. In the Hima- layan mountains there are the high grazed in the ‘common’ land of the village. Fod- der is collected
cold Hima- layan pastures. There are tracts of tall elephant grass and stored to feed cattle when there is no grass left for them
in the low-lying Terai belt south of the Himalayan foothills. to graze in sum- mer. Grass is also used to thatch houses and
There are semi-arid grass- lands in Western India, parts of farm sheds. The thorny bushes and branches of the few trees
Central India, and in the Deccan Plateau. that are seen in grasslands are used as a major source of
fuelwood.
The Himalayan pasture belt extends upto the snowline.
The grasslands at a lower level form patches along with Overgrazing by huge herds of domestic livestock has degraded
coniferous or broadleaved forests. Himalayan wildlife many grasslands. Grasslands have diverse species of insects that
require both the forest and the grassland ecosystem as pollinate crops. There are also predators of these insects such as
important parts of their habitat. The animals migrate the small mammals like shrews, reptiles like lizards, birds of prey,
up into the high altitude grasslands in summer and move and amphibia such as frogs and toads. All these carnivorous
down into the forest in winter when the snow covers the animals help to control insect pests in adjoining agricultural
grassland. These Himalayan pastures have a large variety lands.
of grasses and herbs. Himalayan hill slopes are covered with What are the threats to grassland ecosystems?
thousands of colourful flowering plants. There are also a
large number of medicinal plants. In many areas grasslands have been used for centuries
The Terai consists of patches of tall grasslands interspersed by pastoral communities. Overutilization and changes
with a Sal forest ecosystem. The patches of tall elephant grass, in landuse of the ‘common grazing lands’ of rural
which grows to a height of about five meters, are located in communities has lead to their degradation. The grassland
the low-lying waterlogged areas. The Sal forest patches cover cover in the country in terms of permanent pastures now
the elevated regions and the Hi- malayan foothills. The Terai covers only 3.7 percent of land. A major threat to natural
also includes marshes in low-lying depressions. This ecosys- tem grasslands is the con- version of grasslands into irrigated
extends as a belt south of the Himalayan foothills. farmlands. In the Deccan, grasslands have been altered
to irrigated farms and are now mainly used to grow
The Semi-arid plains of Western India, Cen- tral India and the
sugarcane. After continuous irrigation such land becomes
Deccan are covered by grass- land tracts with patches of thorn
forest. Several mammals such as the wolf, the blackbuck, the saline and useless in a few years. More recently many of
chinkara, and birds such as the bustards and floricans are these residual grassland tracts have been converted into
adapted to these arid conditions. The Scrublands of the Deccan industrial areas. This provides short-term economic gains
Plateau are cov- ered with seasonal grasses and herbs on which but result in long-term economic and ecological losses.
its fauna is dependent. It is teaming with insect life on which the Grasslands have a limited ability to support do- mestic
insectivorous birds feed. animals and wildlife. Increasing this pres- sure by increasing
The Shola grasslands consist of patches on hillslopes along with the number of domestic ani- mals reduces the ‘naturalness’
the Shola forests on the Western Ghats, Nilgiri and Annamalai of the grassland ecosystem leading to its degradation.
ranges. This forms a patchwork of grassland on the slopes and Most grassland ecosystems are highly modified by human
forest habitats along the streams and lowlying areas. activities. Cattle, sheep and goat graz- ing, and lighting
 28
repeated fires affects grasslands adversely. Changing the How can Grassland Ecosystems be Conserved?
grasslands to other forms of landuse such as agriculture, tree
plan tations and industrialisation forms a serious threat to Grasslands should not be overgrazed and areas of the
this highly productive ecosystem. Thus some of the grassland grasslands should be closed for grazing. It is better to collect
patches which are in a less disturbed state and have retained grass for stall feeding cattle. A part of the grassland in an
their spe- cial plants and animals need to be urgently pro area must be closed every year so that a rotational grazing
tected. pattern is established. Fires must be prevented and rap-
idly controlled. In hilly areas soil and water man- agement
Degradation of grasslands due to over grazing by cattle, in each micro-catchment helps grass lands to return to a
sheep and goats occurs if more than a critical number of natural highly productive ecosystem.
domestic animals are present in the grasslands. When
To protect the most natural undisturbed grassland
animals overgraze the area, the grasses are converted into
ecosystems, Sanctuaries and National Parks must be created.
flat stubs with very little green matter. Degraded grass- lands
Their management should fo- cus on preserving all their
have fewer grass species as the nutritious species are entirely unique species of plants and animals. Thus they should not
used up by the large number of domestic animals. They are be converted into plantations of trees. The open grassland
thus unable to regenerate. is the habitat of its specialised fauna. Planting trees in
When fires are lit in the grasslands in summer, the burnt grass these areas reduces the natural features of this ecosystem
gets a fresh flush of small green shoots which the domestic resulting in the destruction of this unique habitat for wildlife.
animals graze on. If this is done too frequently the grasslands What should we do?
begin to deteriorate. Finally grasslands become bare, the soil
is solidly compacted by trampling, or is washed away during • There is a need to preserve the few natural grassland
the monsoon by rain and whipped into dust storms during areas that still survive by creating National Parks
the hot dry summer. The land is degraded, as there is no grass and Wildlife Sanctuaries in all the different types of
grasslands.
to hold the soil in place. It becomes a wasteland.
• Animals such as the wolf, blackbuck, chinkara and birds
Why are our grassland species vanishing? such as bustards and floricans have now become rare
all over the country. They must be carefully protected
Most people feel that it is only our forests and its wildlife that in the few National Parks and Wildlife Sanc- tuaries that
is disappearing. However, other natural ecosystems such as have natural grassland habitats as well as outside these
grasslands are dis- appearing even more rapidly. Protected Areas.
• We need to create an awareness among people that
Many of the grassland species have disappeared from several
grasslands are of great value. If we are all concerned
parts of India in which they were found 50 or 60 years ago. about our disappear- ing grasslands and their wonderful
The Cheetah is ex- tinct in India. The Wolf is now highly wildlife, the Government will be motivated to pro- tect
threatened. Blackbuck and chinkara are poached for meat. them.
Birds such as the beautiful Great Indian Bustards are vanishing. • Keeping grasslands alive is a National prior- ity.
Unless grassland species are protected they will vanish from
their shrinking habitat, as natural and undisturbed grasslands Desert Ecosystem
are left in very few locations. If these animals and birds are
Desert and semi arid lands are highly specialised and sensitive
killed or their habitat is reduced fur- ther, their extinction will ecosystems that are easily de- stroyed by human activities.
rapidly follow. The species of these dry areas can live only in this specialised
habitat.
What if our Grasslands Disappear?
What is a desert or a semi-arid ecosystem?
If our grasslands are lost we will lose a highly specialised
ecosystem in which plants and ani- mals have been Deserts and semi arid areas are located in West- ern India
adapted to these habitat condi- tions over millions of and the Deccan Plateau. The climate in these vast tracts is
years. Local people will not be able to support their extremely dry. There are also cold deserts such as in Ladakh,
livestock herds. which are located in the high plateaus of the Himalayas. The
The extinction of species is a great loss to Man- kind. most typical desert landscape that is seen in Rajasthan is in
The genes of wild grasses are extremely useful for the Thar Desert. This has sand dunes. There are also areas
developing new crop varieties. New medicines could well covered with sparse grasses and a few shrubs, which grow
be discovered from wild grassland plants. It is possible if it rains. In most areas of the Thar the rainfall is scanty and
that genes from wild herbivores such as wild sheep, goats sporadic. In an area it may rain only once every few years. In
and antelopes may be used for developing new strains of the adjoining semi arid tract the vegetation consists of a few
domestic animals. shrubs and thorny trees such as kher and babul.
 29
The Great and Little Rann of Kutch are highly specialised Kutch, areas of the little Rann, which is the only home of the
arid ecosystems. In the summers they are similar to a desert Wild Ass, will be destroyed by the spread of salt works.
landscape. However asDesert and Semi arid eco systems these Development Projects alter the desert and arid landscape.
are low-lying areas near the sea, they get converted to salt There is a sharp reduction in the habi- tat available for its
marshes during the monsoons. During this period they attract specialised species bringing them to the verge of extinction.
an enormous number of aquatic birds such as ducks, geese, We need a sus- tainable form of development that takes the
cranes, storks, etc. The Great Rann is famous, as it is the only special needs of the desert into account.
known breeding colony of the Greater and Lesser Flamingos
in our country. The Little Rann of Kutch is the only home of
Aquatic ecosystems
the wild ass in India. The aquatic ecosystems constitute the marine environments
Desert and semi arid regions have a number of highly of the seas and the fresh water systems in lakes, rivers, ponds
specialized insects and reptiles. The rare animals include the and wetlands. These ecosystems provide human beings with
Indian wolf, desert cat, desert fox and birds such as the Great a wealth of natural resources. They provide goods that people
Indian Bustard and the Florican. Some of the commoner birds collect for food such as fish and marine salt water. There
include partridges, quails and sandgrouse. is very little fresh water on earth, which is a key resource
for people all over the world. Crustaceans. Natural aquatic
How are desert and semi-arid ecosystems used?
systems such as riv- ers and seas break down chemical and
Areas of scanty vegetation with semi-arid scru- bland have organic wastes created by man. However, this function has
been used for camel, cattle and goat grazing in Rajasthan and limitations, as the aquatic ecosystem cannot handle great
Gujarat, and for sheep grazing in the Deccan Plateau. quantities of waste. Beyond a certain limit, pollution destroys
Areas that have a little moisture, such as along the this natural function.
watercourses, have been used for growing crops such as If aquatic ecosystems are misused or over uti- lized, their
jowar, and bajra. The natural grasses and local varieties of ability to provide resources suffers in the long term. Over-
crops have adapted to growing at very low moisture levels. fishing leads to a fall in the fish catch. River courses that
These can be used for genetic engineering and devel- oping are changed by dams to provide electricity affect thousands
arid land crops for the future. of people who do not get a continuous supply of water
What are the threats to desert ecosystems? downstream for their daily use. When wetlands are drained,
their connected rivers tend to cause floods. These are all
Several types of development strategies as well as human
examples of un- sustainable changes in the use of natural
population growth have begun to affect the natural ecosystem
re- sources and nature’s ecosystems that are de- pendent on
of the desert and semi arid land. Conversion of these lands
hydrological regimes.
through extensive irrigation systems has changed several of
the natural characteristics of this region. The canal water Water is an important factor in all our ecosystems. Several
evaporates rap idly bringing the salts to the surface. The ecosystems exist in freshwater and marine salt water. There
region becomes highly unproductive as it becomes saline. is very little fresh water on earth, which is a key resource for
Pulling excessive groudwater from tube wells lowers the people all over the world.
water table creating an even drier environment. Thus human
What is an aquatic ecosystem?
activities destroy the naturalness of this unique ecosystem.
The special species that evolved here over millions of years In aquatic ecosystems, plants and animals live in water. These
may soon become extinct. species are adapted to live in different types of aquatic habitats.
The special abiotic features are its physical aspects such as the
How can desert ecosystems be conserved? quality of the water, which includes its clar- ity, salinity, oxygen
Desert ecosystems are extremely sensitive. Their ecological content and rate of flow. Aquatic ecosystems may be classified as
balance that forms a habitat for their plants and animals is being stagnant ecosystems, or running water ecosystems. The
easily disturbed. Desert people have traditionally protected mud gravel or rocks that form the bed of the aquatic ecosystem
their mea- gre water resources. The Bishnois in Rajasthan are alter its charac- teristics and influence its plant and animal spe-
known to have protected their Khejdi trees and the blackbuck cies composition. The aquatic ecosystems are classified into
antelope for several genera- tions. The tradition began when freshwater, brackish and marine ecosystems, which are based
the ruler of their region ordered his army to cut down trees on the salinity levels.
for his own use. Several Bishnois were said to have been The fresh water ecosystems that have running water are
killed while trying to protect their trees. streams and rivers. Ponds, tanks and lakes are ecosystems
There is an urgent need to protect residual patches of this where water does not flow. Wetlands are special ecosystems
ecosystem within National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in which the water level fluctuates dramatically in different
in desert and semi arid areas. The Indira Gandhi Canal in seasons. They have expanses of shallow water with aquatic
Rajasthan is destroying this important natural arid ecosys- vegetation, which forms an ideal habitat for fish, crustacea
tem, as it will convert the region into intensive agriculture. In and water birds.
 30
Types of Aquatic ecosystems
Fresh water ecosystems Marine ecosystems
Flowing water Still water Brackish water Saline water
Streams Rivers Ponds, Deltas Coastal Deep ocean
wetlands, shallows
lakes Coral reefs

Marine ecosystems are highly saline, while brack ish areas energy from the sun. This is transferred to the microscopic
have less saline water such as in river deltas. Coral reefs animals, which feed on the algae. There are fish that are
are very rich in species and are found in only a few shallow herbivorous and are dependent on algae and aquatic
tropical seas. The richest coral reefs in India are around the weeds. The small animals such as snails are used as food
Andaman and Nicobar islands and in the gulf of Kutch. by small carnivorous fish, which in turn are eaten by larger
Brackish water ecosystems in river deltas are covered by carnivorous fish. Some specialised fish, such as catfish, feed
mangrove forests and are among the world’s most productive on the detritus on the muddy bed of the lake.
ecosystems in terms of biomass production. The largest Energy cycles through the lake ecosystem from the sunlight
mangrove swamps are in the Sunderbans in the delta of the that penetrates the wa- ter surface to the plants. From plants
Ganges. en- ergy is transferred to herbivorous animals and carnivores.
Animals excrete waste products, which settle on the bottom
The Pond ecosystem
of the lake. This is broken down by small animals that live
The pond is the simplest aquatic ecosystem to observe. in the mud in the floor of the lake. This acts as the nutrient
There are differences in a pond that is tempo- rary and has material that is used by aquatic plants for their growth.
water only in the monsoon, and a larger tank or lake that is an During this pro- cess plants use Carbon from CO2 for their
aquatic ecosystem throughout the year. Most ponds become growth and in the process release Oxygen. This Oxygen is
dry after the rains are over and are covered by ter- restrial then used by aquatic animals, which filter water through
plants for the rest of the year. their respiratory system.
When a pond begins to fill during the rains, its life forms such Stream and River ecosystems
as the algae and microscopic animals, aquatic insects, snails, Streams and rivers are flowing water ecosystems in which
and worms come out of the floor of the pond where they all the living forms are specially adapted to different rates
have remained dormant in the dry phase. Gradually more of flow. Some plants and ani- mals such as snails and other
complex animals such as crabs frogs and fish return to the burrowing ani- mals can withstand the rapid flow of the hill
pond. The vegetation in the water consists of floating weeds streams. Other species of plants and animals such as water
and rooted veg- etation on the periphery which grow on the beetles and skaters can live only in slower moving water.
muddy floor under water and emerge out of the surface of Some species of fish, such as Mahseer, go upstream from
the water. rivers to hill streams for breeding. They need crystal clear
As the pond fills in the monsoon a large num- ber of food water to be able to breed. They lay eggs only in clear water
chains are formed. Algae is eaten by microscopic animals, so that their young can grow suc- cessfully.
which are in turn eaten by small fish on which larger As deforestation occurs in the hills the water in the streams
carnivorous fish depend. These are in turn eaten by birds that once flowed throughout the year become seasonal. This
such as kingfishers, herons and birds of prey. Aquatic insects, leads to flash floods in the rains and a shortage of water once
worms and snails feed on the waste material excreted by the streams dry up after the monsoon.
animals and the dead or decaying plant and animal matter. The community of flora and fauna of streams and rivers
They act on the detritus, which is broken down into nutri- depends on the clarity, flow and oxy- gen content as well
ents which aquatic plants can absorb, thus com- pleting the as the nature of their beds. The stream or river can have a
nutrient cycle in the pond. The tem- porary ponds begin to sandy, rocky or muddy bed, each type having its own species
dry after the rains and the surrounding grasses and terrestrial of plants and animals.
plants spread into the moist mud that is exposed. Ani- mals
such as frogs, snails and worms remain dor- mant in the mud, Marine ecosystems
awaiting the next monsoon. The Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal
Lake ecosystem constitute the marine ecosystems around peninsular India.
In the coastal area the sea is shallow while further away, it is
A lake ecosystem functions like a giant perma nent pond. A deep. Both these are different ecosystems. The producers in this
large amount of its plant material is the algae, which derives ecosystem vary from microscopic algae to large seaweeds. There
 31
are millions of zoop- lankton and a large variety of invertebrates on natu- ral river ecosystems. While water from dams used
on which live fish, turtles and marine mammals. for irrigation has lead to economic pros- perity in some areas,
The shallow areas near Kutch and around the Andaman and in semiarid areas that are artificially irrigated the high level of
Nicobar Islands are some of the most incredible coral reefs in evaporation leads to severe salinisation as salts are brought
the world. Coral reefs are only second to tropical evergreen for- up into the surface layers of the soil. This makes such lands
ests in their richness of species. Fish, crustacea, starfish, jellyfish gradually more and more saline and unproductive.
and the polyps that deposit the coral are a few of the thousands What are the threats to aquatic ecosystems?
of species that form this incredible world under the shallow sea.
Deforestation of adjacent mangroves leads to silt being Water pollution occurs from sewage and poorly managed solid
carried out to sea where it is depos- ited on the coral waste in urban areas when it enters the aquatic ecosystem of
which then dies. There are many different types of coastal lakes and riv- ers. Sewage leads to a process called eutrophi-
ecosystems which are highly dependent on the tide. cation, which destroys life in the water as the oxygen content
The marine ecosystem is used by coastal fisherfolk for fishing is severely reduced. Fish and crustacea cannot breathe and
which forms their livelihood. In the past, fishing was done at are killed. A foul odour is produced. Gradually the natural
a sustainable level. The marine ecosystem continued to main flora and fauna of the aquatic ecosystem is destroyed.
tain its abundant supply of fish over many gen- erations. Now In rural areas the excessive use of fertilisers causes an increase
with intensive fishing by using giant nets and mechanised in nutrients, which leads to eutrophication. Pesticides used in
boats, fish catch in the Indian Ocean has dropped significantly. adjacent fields pollute water and kills off its aquatic animals.
Chemical pollution from industry kills a large number of life
Seashore ecosystems forms in adjacent aquatic eco- systems. Contamination by heavy
Beaches can be sandy, rocky, shell covered or muddy. On each metals and other toxic chemicals affects the health of people
of these different types, there are several specific species who live near these areas as they depend on this water.
which have evolved to occupy a separate niche. There are
different crustacea such as crabs that make holes in the sand. CASE STUDY
Various shore birds feed on their prey by prob- ing into the Threats to wetlands in Assam
sand or mud on the sea shore. Almost 40% of all wetlands in Assam are under threat. A survey
Several different species of fish are caught by fishermen. In conducted by the Assam Remote Sensing Application Center
many areas the fish catch has de- creased during the last (ARSAC), Guwahati, and the Space ResearchCenter, Ahemadabad,
decade or two. has revealed that 1367 out of 3513 wetlands in Assam are
under severe threat due to invasion of aquatic weeds and
How are aquatic ecosystems used?
several developmental activities. The wetlands of Assam form
Man uses aquatic ecosystems for the clean fresh- water on thegreatest potential source of income for theState in terms of
which his life is completely dependent. We need clean water fisheries and tourism. Though the wetlands of Assam have the
to drink and for other domestic uses. Water is essential for ca-pacity of producing 5,000 tones of fish perhectare per year,
agriculture. Fisherfolk use the aquatic ecosystems to earn around 20,000 tones of fish have to be imported to meet local
a livelihood. People catch fish and crabs. They also collect de-mands. This is primarily due to poor wetlandmanagement.
edible plants. This is used locally as food or for sale in the
market. Over fishing leads to a serious decline in the catch How can aquatic ecosystems be conserved?
and a long-term loss of income for fisherfolk.
For sustainable use of an aquatic ecosystem, water pollution
Marshes and wetlands are of great economic importance for
must be prevented. It does not make sense to allow water to
people who live on their fish, crustacea, reeds, grasses and
be polluted and then try to clean it up.
other produce.
Modern man impounds water in dams to be able to store f the aquatic ecosystem from a flowing water ecosystem to a static
it throughout the year. Agriculture and industry are highly eco- system destroys its natural biological diversity. Thus dams
dependent on large quanti- ties of water. However this leads across rivers decrease the popula- tion of species that require
to problems for tribal people who have lived there before the running water, while favouring those that need standing water.
dams were built as they are displaced to build large dams. Aquatic ecosystems, especially wetlands, need protection by
These dams make rich people richer in the farmland and including them in Sanctuaries or National Parks in the same way
supports people in large urban centres that use enormous in which we protect natural forests. These sanctuaries in aquatic
quanti- ties of water. The poor tribal folk become even poorer ecosystems protect a variety of forms of life as well as rare fish
as the natural resources they depend on are taken away as which are now highly endangered such as the Mahseer. Wetland
their lands are submerged under the water of the dam. Sanctuaries and National Parks are of greatest importance as
Dams are built across rivers to generate elec- tricity. A this is one of the most threat- ened of our ecosystems. As the
large proportion of this energy is used by urban people, proportion of the earth’s surface that is naturally covered by
by agriculturists in irrigated farmlands and in enormous wetlands is very small compared to forests or grasslands, the
quantities for indus- try. Large dams have serious ill effects wetland ecosystems are very highly threatened.
 Ecosystem

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 33

Institutional and Policy

4 Framework for Disaster
Management in India
Topics Snapshots
4.1 National Level 4.4 National Early Warning System
4.2 State Level Plan Implementation 4.5 PM 10-Point Agenda For Disaster Risk Reduction
4.3 Preparedness and Response

INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK: INTRODUCTION

The institutional and policy mechanisms for carrying out response, relief and rehabilitation have been well-established since
Independence. These mechanisms have proved to be robust and effective insofar as response, relief and rehabilitation are
concerned.
National Disaster Management Institutional Mechanism

Overall Coordination
Ministry of Home Affairs

Designated Nodal
Ministries (Disaster
Specific)
Top Level Decision
Making
National Disaster
Management
Authority (NDMA)
Cabinet National Crisis
Committee Management
on Security Committee
(CCS) committee
(NCMC) National
Executive
Committee
(NEC)

State Armed Forces National National

Governments/ & Central Institute Disaster
UTs Armed Police of Disaster Response
Forces (CAPF) Management Force (NDRF)
(NIDM)

Figure 4.1: National-level disaster management-basic institutional framework

Note: This represents merely the institutional pathways for coordination, decision-making and communication for disaster
management and does not imply any chain of command.

4.1 NATIONAL LEVEL

• At National Level, the Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal Ministry for all matters concerning disaster management. The
overall coordination of disaster management vests with it.
• The Central Relief Commissioner (CRC) in the Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal officer to coordinate relief operations
for natural disasters.
• The CRC receives information relating to forecasting/warning of a natural calamity from India Meteorological Department
(IMD) or from Central Water Commission of Ministry of Water Resources on a continuing basis.
• The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) and the National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) are the key committees
involved in the top-level decision-making regarding disaster management.
• The NDMA is the agency responsible for the approval of the NDMP and facilitating its implementation.
34

• Figure 4.1 provides a schematic view of the basic institutional structure for DM at national level.
Note: The figure represents merely the institutional pathways for coordination, decision-making and communication for
disaster management and does not imply any chain of command.

• The DM Act does not have any provisions for notifying any disaster as a ‘national calamity’ or a ‘national disaster’.
• In most cases, state governments will be carrying out disaster management with the central government playing a supporting role.
Generally, the central agencies will participate on the request from the state government. Within each state, there is a separate
institutional framework for disaster management at the state-level.
• The DM Act of 2005 provides for the setting up of Disaster Management Authorities (DMA) at national (NDMA), the state (SDMA) and
the district (DDMA) levels.
• If the situation requires the direct assistance from central government or the deployment of central agencies, the central
government will provide all necessary support.
Table 4.1: Key National-Level Decision-Making Bodies for Disaster Management

Name Composition Vital role

1. Cabinet Committee Prime Minister, minister of Defence, • Evaluation from a national security perspective,
on Security (CCS) Minister of Finance, Minister of Home if an incident has potentially security
Affairs, and minister of External Affairs implications
• Oversee all aspects of preparedness, mitigation and
management of chemical, biological, Radiological and
Nuclear (CBRN) emergencies and of disasters with
security implications
• Review risks of CBRN emergencies from time to
time, giving directions for measures considered
necessary for disaster prevention, mitigation,
preparedness and effective response
2. National Crisis • Cabinet Secretary (Chairperson) • Oversee the Command, Control and Coordination
Management • Secretaries of Ministries/ of the disaster response
committee (NCMC) Departments and agencies with • Give direction to the Crisis Management Group as
specific DM responsibilities deemed necessary
• Give direction for specific actions to face crisis
situations
3. National Disaster • Prime Minister (Chairperson) • Lay down policies, plans and guidelines for
Management • Members (not exceeding nine, disaster management
Authority (NDMA) nominated by the Chairperson) • Coordinate their enforcement and
implementation throughout the country
• Approve the NDMP and the DM plans of the
respective Ministries and Departments of
Government of India
• Lay down guidelines for disaster management to
be followed by the different Central Ministries,
Departments and the State Governments
 35

Name Composition Vital role

4. National Executive • Union Home Secretary (Chairperson) • To assist the NDMA in the dischare of its
Committee (NEC) • Secretaries to the GOI int he Ministries/ functions
Departments of Agriculture, Atomic • Preparation of the National Plan
Energy, Defence, Drinking Water and • Coordinate and monitor the implementation of
sanitation, the National Policy
• Environment, Forests and Climate • Monitor the implementation of the National
Change Finance (Expenditure), Health Plan and the plans prepared by the Ministries of
and Family Welfare, Power, Rural Departments of the Government of India
Development, Science and Technology, • Direct any department or agency of the Govt. to
Space, Telecommunications, Urban make available to the NDMA or SDMAs such men,
Development, Water Resources, River material or resources as are available with it for
Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, emergency response, rescue and relief
The Chief of the Intergrated Defense • Ensure compliance of the directions issued by
Staff of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, the Central Government
ex officio as members. • Coordinate response in the event of any
• Secretaries in the Ministry of threatening disaster situation of disaster
?External Affairs, Earth Sciences, • Direct the relevant Minostries/ Departments of
Human Resource Development, the GOI, the State Governments and the SDMAs
Mines, Shipping, Road Transport and regarding measures to be taken in response to
Highways, Chairman, Central Water any specific threatening disaster situation or
Commission and Secretary, NDMA are disaster.
Special invitees to the meetings of the • Coordinate with relevant Central Ministries/
NEC. Departments/Agencies which are expected to assist
the affected State as per protocols and Standard
Operating Procedures (SOPs)
• Coordinate with the Armed Forces, Central
Armed Police Forces (CAPF), the National
Disaster Response Force (NDRF) and other
uniformed services which comprise the GOI’s
response to aid the state authorities.
• Coordinate with all relevant specialized
scientific institutions/agencies responsible for
providing early warning and monitoring
• Coordinate with SDRF, civil defense volunteers,
home guards and fire services, through the
relevant administrative departments of the
State Governments

5. National Disaster Specially trained force headed by Assist the relevant State Government/District
Response Force a director General Structured like Administration in the event of an imminent hazard
(NDRF) paramilitary forces for rapid deployment event or in its aftermath
6. National Institute Union Home Minoster; Vice chairman, • Human resource development and capacity
of Disaster NDMA Members including Secretaries of building for disaster management within the
Management various nodal Ministries and departments broad policies and guidelines laid down by the
(NIDM) of government of India and State NDMA
Governments and heads of national • Design, develop and implement training
levels scientific, research and technical programmes
organizations, besides eminent scholars, • Undertake research
scientists and practitioners.
36

Name Composition Vital role

• Formulate and implement a comprehensive
human resource development plan
• Provide assistance in national policy
formulation, assist other research and training
institutes, state governments and other
organizations for successfully discharging their
responsibilities
• Develop educational materials for dissemination
• Promote awareness generation

It is my advice to all the Aspirants to remember merely the institutional pathways for coordination, decision-
making and communication for disaster management at National & State Level. You must be clear how does this whole
network works along with their key composition and vital role.

4.2 STATE LEVEL

• As per the DM Act of 2005, each state in India/ Union Territory (UT) shall have its own institutional framework for disaster
management. Each State/UT will have one nodal department for coordination of disaster management, referred here after
as DM department (DMD), although the name and department is not the same in each State/UT.
• Among other things, the DM Act, mandates that each State/UT shall take necessary steps for the preparation of State/UT
DM plans, integration of measures for prevention of disasters or mitigation into State/UT development plans, allocation
of funds, and establish EWS.
• Depending on specific situations and needs, the State/UT shall also assist the Central Government and central agencies in
various aspects of DM.
• Each state shall prepare its own State Disaster Management Plan. The DM Act mandates the setting of a State Disaster
Management Authority (SDMA) and a similar system in each Union Territory.
• At the district level, District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA), the District Collector or District Magistrate or the
Deputy Commissioner, as applicable, will be responsible for overall coordination of the disaster management efforts and
planning.
State Level Disaster Management coordination Mechanism

Central Government National Disaster

Ministries/ Management Authority
Departments State (NDMA)
Government

State Disaster State Executive State Disaster

Response Committee Management
Force (SDRF) (SEC) Authority (SDMA)

Rellef
Commissioner/
Nodal Department
State Emergency
Operation Centre
State
(SEOC) District Disaster
Department/
Line Agencies Management
Authority (DDMA)

Arencies With
Disaster management
Responsibilities
Figure 4.2: State-level disaster management-basic institutional framework
 37

NOTE: The figure represents merely the institutional pathways for coordination, decision making and communication for
disaster Management and does not imply any chain of command.

4.3 PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE

• Response measures are those taken immediately after receiving early warning from the relevant authority or in anticipation
of an impending disaster, or immediately after the occurrence of an event without any warning.
• The primary goal of response to a disaster is saving lives, protecting property, environment, and meeting basic needs of
human and other living beings after the disaster. Its focus is on rescuing those affected and those likely to be affected by
the disaster.
• The UNISDR (2016) defines response as:
“Actions taken directly before, during or immediately after a disaster in order to save lives, reduce health impacts, ensure public
safety and meet the basic subsistence needs of the people affected”
• Effective, efficient, and timely response relies on disaster risk -informed preparedness measures, including the development
of the response capacities of individuals, communities, organizations, countries and the international community.
• The institutional elements of response often include the provision of emergency services and public assistance by public
and private sectors and community sectors, as well as community and volunteer participation.
“Emergency services” are a critical set of specialized agencies (include civil protection authorities, and police and fire services) that
have specific responsibilities in serving and protecting people and property in emergency and disaster situations.
NOTE: The division between the response stage and the subsequent recovery stage is not clear-cut. Some response actions,
such as the supply of temporary housing and water supplies, may extend well into the recovery stage.

Preparedness, as defined by UNISDR (2016),

“It consist of the knowledge and capacities developed by governments, response and recovery organizations, communities and
individuals to effectively anticipate, respond and recover from the impacts of likely, imminent or current disasters”
• Preparedness action is carried out within the context of disaster risk management and aims to build the capacities needed
to efficiently manage all types of emergencies and achieve orderly transitions from response to sustained recovery.
• Preparedness is based on a sound analysis of disaster risks and good linkages with early warning systems, and includes
such activities as contingency planning, the stockpiling of equipment and supplies, the development of arrangements for
coordination, evacuation, and public information, and associated training and field exercises.
• Local level preparedness of people for disasters can help in mitigating the impacts of disasters and also better response.
ou Kno
oY The related term “readiness” describes the ability to respond quickly and appropriately when required.


w
D

• Based on the preparedness, the response process begins as soon as it becomes apparent that a disastrous event is
imminent and lasts until the relevant authorities declare it as over. Response is carried out during periods of high stress
in highly time-constrained situations with limited information and recourses. It is considered as the most visible among
various phases of disaster management.
• Response includes not only those activities that directly address the immediate needs, such as search and rescue, first aid
and temporary shelters, but also rapid mobilization of various systems necessary to coordinate and support the efforts.
• For effective response, all the stakeholders need to have a clear vision about hazards, its consequences, clarity on plans of
action and must be well versed with their roles and responsibilities.
• In most cases, first responders such as members of Incident Response Teams (IRT) of district, block, or other agencies
(medical fire, police, civil supplies, municipalities) manage emergencies immediately at the local level. If an emergency
escalates beyond their capabilities, the local administration must seek assistance from the district administration or the
State Government. If State Government considers it necessary, it can seek central assistance.

4.4 NATIONAL EARLY WARNING SYSTEM

• The GOI has designated specific agencies (Table 4.2) to monitor the onset of different natural disasters, set up adequate
Early Warning Systems (EWS), and disseminate necessary warnings/ alerts regarding any impending hazard, for all those
hazards where early warning and monitoring is possible with the currently available technologies and methods.
• These agencies provide inputs to the MHA, which will issue alerts and warnings through various communication channels.
The agencies responsible for EWS will maintain equipment in proper functioning order and conduct simulation drills to
test their efficacy.
38

• On their part, the relevant State Government and district administration shall disseminate such alerts and warnings on the
ground through all possible methods of communications and public announcements.
Table 4.2: Central Agencies Designated for Natural Hazard-Specific Early Warnings

S. N. Hazard Ministry Agency

1. Avalanches MOD Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment (SASE)
2. Cold Wave MOES India Meteorological Department (IMD)
3. Cyclone MOES India Meteorological Department (IMD) Regional Specialized
Meteorological Centre (RSMC) Tropical Cyclone Warning
Centres (TCWC) for different regions
4. Drought MAFW Central Drought Relief commissioner (CDRC) and Crop
Weather Watch group (CWWG)
5. Earthquake MOES India Meteorological Department (IMD)
6. Epidemics MHFW Ministry fo Health and Family Welfare (MHFW)
7. Floods MOJS Central Water Commission (CWC)
8. Heat Wave MOES India Meteorological Department (IMD)
9. Landslides MOM Geological Survey of India (GSI)
10. Tsunami MOES India National Centre for Oceanic Information Services
(INCOIS)

Always Advisable to be careful about Ministries. In Exam, most of the times examiner twists the ministry to trap
you. Also try to prepare various schemes ministry wise (refer PIB website for this)

4.5 PRIME MINISTER’S TEN-POINT AGENDA FOR DISASTER RISK REDUCTION

The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi, enunciated a Ten-Point Agenda in his inaugural speech at the Asian Ministerial
Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction 2016, which has also been incorporated in the NDMP.

S. N. Agenda Point
1. All development sectors must imbibe the principles of disaster risk management
2. Risk coverage must include all starting from poor households to SMEs to multi-national corporations to nation states
3. Women’s leadership and greater involvement should be central to disaster risk management
4. Invest risk mapping globally to improve global understanding of Nature and disaster risks
5. Leverage technology to enhance the efficiency of disaster risk management efforts
6. Develop a network of universities to work on disaster-related issues
7. Utilise the opportunities provided by social media and mobile technologies for disaster risk reduction
8. Build on local capacity and initiative to enhance disasters risk reduction
Make use of every opportunity to learn from disasters and to achieve that there must be studies on the lessons after
9.
every disaster
10. Bring about greater cohesion in international response to disasters

The ten key elements consist of the following:

1. All development sectors must imbibe the principles of disaster risk management: This will ensure that all development projects
- airports, roads, canals, hospitals, schools, bridges – are built to appropriate standards and contribute to the resilience of
communities they seek to serve. Over the next couple of decades, most of the new infrastructure in the world will come up in Asia.
This points to the need for ensuring that all the infrastructure development conforms to the best available standards of disaster
safety. Such an approach is a smart strategy, which will pay off in the long term. It is necessary that all the public investments
must incorporate disaster risk considerations. In India, the ‘housing for all’ programme and ‘smart cities’ initiatives represent such
opportunities. India will work with other partner countries and stakeholders to build a coalition or mechanism for promoting
 39

disaster resilient infrastructure in the region. This will help generate new knowledge for hazard risk assessment, disaster resilient
technologies and mechanisms for integrating risk reduction in infrastructure financing.
2. Risk coverage must include all, starting from poor households to SMEs to multi-national corporations to nation states: It is
necessary to work towards risk coverage for all – starting from poor households, it must cover small and medium enterprises as
well as large multi-national corporations. Currently, in most countries of the region, penetration of insurance is limited only to
a narrow section, mostly in the middle and upper-middle income groups. It is necessary to think big and innovatively to widen
the risk insurance cover. States have an important role in not just regulating but also encouraging coverage for those who need it
the most. Some bold steps have been taken to ensure financial inclusion and risk insurance for the poorest. The Jan Dhan Yojana
has brought millions of people into the banking system. The Suraksha Bima Yojana provides risk insurance to millions who need
it the most. The newly launched Fasal Bima Yojana (crop insurance) will provide risk cover to millions of farmers. These are the
basic building blocks of resilience at the household level.
3. Women’s leadership and greater involvement should be central to disaster risk management: It is necessary to encourage
greater involvement and leadership of women in disaster risk management. Women are disproportionately affected by disasters.
They also have unique strengths and insights. India must train a large number of women volunteers to support special needs
of women affected by disasters. There is also need for women engineers, masons and building artisans to participate in post-
disaster reconstruction and promote women self-help groups which can assist in livelihood recovery.
4. Invest in risk mapping globally to improve global understanding of Nature and disaster risks: For mapping risks related to
hazards such as earthquakes, there are widely accepted standards and parameters. Based on these, India has mapped seismic
zones, with five as highest seismic risk and two as low risk. For disaster risk related to other hazards such as chemical hazards,
forest fires, cyclones, different types of floods, India needs to adopt globally accepted standards and categories. This will help
India to ensure that there is a shared understanding of the nature and severity of disaster risks and compare with that in other
parts of the world.
5. Leverage technology to enhance the efficiency of disaster risk management efforts: An e-platform that brings together
organizations and individuals and helps them map and exchange expertise, technology and resources would go a long way in
maximizing the collective impact.
6. Develop a network of universities to work on disaster-related issues: Since universities have social responsibilities too. Over
the first five years of the Sendai Framework, an effort can be made to develop a global network of universities working together
on problems of disaster risk management. As part of this network, different universities could specialize in multi -disciplinary
research on disaster issues most relevant to them. Universities located in coastal areas could specialize in managing risks from
coastal hazards, and the ones located in the hill cities could focus on mountain hazards.
7. Utilise the opportunities provided by social media and mobile technologies for disaster risk reduction: Social media is
transforming disaster response. It is helping response agencies in quickly organizing themselves and enabling citizens to
connect more easily with authorities. In disaster after disaster, affected people are using social media to help each other. Those
responsible for disaster management must recognize the potential of social media and develop applications relevant to various
aspects of disaster risk management.
8. Build on local capacity and initiative to enhance disaster risk reduction: The task of disaster risk management, particularly
in rapidly growing economies, is so huge that formal institutions of the state can at best be instrumental in creating
the enabling conditions. Specific actions have to be designed and implemented locally. Over the last two decades, most
community-based efforts have been confined to disaster preparedness and contingency planning for the short term. It
is necessary to expand the scope of community-based efforts and support communities to identify local risk reduction
measures and implement them. Such efforts reduce risk and create opportunities for local development and sustainable
livelihoods. Localization of disaster risk reduction will also ensure that good use is made of the traditional best practices
and indigenous knowledge. Response agencies need to interact with their communities and make them familiar with the
essential drill of disaster response. For example, if a local fire service visits one school in its area every week, it would
sensitize thousands of children over a period of one year.
9. Make use of every opportunity to learn from disasters and, to achieve that, there must be studies on the lessons after
every disaster: After every disaster there are studies and reports on lessons learnt that are rarely applied. Often the
same mistakes are repeated. It is necessary to have a vibrant and visual system of learning. The United Nations could
start an international competition of documentary films that record disaster events, their scale, and relief, rehabilitation,
reconstruction and recovery afterwards. Post -disaster recovery is an opportunity to not just ‘build back better’ in terms of
40

physical infrastructure, but also in terms of improved institutional systems for managing risk. For this, it is necessary to
put in place systems that can quickly provide risk assessments. India must work with partner countries and multilateral
development agencies to establish a facility for technical support to post-disaster reconstruction of houses.
10. Bring about greater cohesion in international response to disaster: In the aftermath of a disaster, disaster responders
pour in from all over the world. This collective strength and solidarity could be enhanced further if the activities are
organised under a common umbrella. The United Nations could think of a common logo and branding under which all
those who are helping with relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction operate.

Practice Questions for Mains

1. As per your understanding after reading the whole chapter, what is the primary goal of response to a disaster? How is it
done and why is it crucial?
 (200 words)
2. Discuss, Prime Minister’s Ten-Point Agenda for Disaster Risk Reduction. How it can help India achieving Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs)?
(200 words)
 Institutional and Policy
Framework for Disaster
Management in India

ISBN : 9789395761680
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LASER AND ITS
APPLICATIONS
5
This section has been covered under the following segments–

1. Introduction 6. Conclusion
2. Laser Applications I: Defence 7. Exercises
3. Laser Applications II: Civil
4. Laser Applications III :Miscellaneous
5. Research & Development in Laser Field

INTRODUCTION It is this coherency that makes all the difference to make the
laser light so narrow, so powerful and so easy to focus on
No other scientific discovery of the 20th century has been
a given object. The light with such qualities is not found in
demonstrated with so many exciting applications as laser
nature.
acronym for (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation). The basic concepts of laser were first given A high degree of directionality and monochromatic is also
by an American scientist, Charles Hard Townes and two associated with these light beams. Therefore, in a laser beam
Soviet scientists, Alexander Mikhailovich Prokhorov and the light waves not only are in the same phase but also have
Nikolai Gennediyevich Basov who shared the coveted the same colour (wavelength) throughout their journey. The
Nobel Prize (1964). However, TH Maiman of the Hughes beam of the ordinary light spreads out very quickly. On the
Research Laboratory, California, was the first scientist who other hand, the laser beam is highly collimated and spreads
experimentally demonstrated laser by flashing light through very little as it travels through space; even after travelling
a ruby crystal, in 1960. to the surface of the moon the spread of laser light has
been found to be only about 3 km across. Hypothetically, if
Laser is a powerful source of light having extraordinary
ordinary light was able to travel to the so moon, its beam
properties which are not found in the normal light sources
would have fanned out to such an extent leading to a
like tungsten lamps, mercury lamps, etc. The unique property
diameter of the light on the moon as much as 40, 000 km.
of laser is that its light waves travel very long distances with
e very little divergence. In case of a conventional e source Another remarkable feature of laser is the concentration
of light, the light is emitted in a jumble of e separate waves of its energy to extremely high intensities, the intensity
that cancel each other at random and hence can travel remaining almost constant over long distances because
very short distances only. An analogy can be made with a of low divergence. If a laser beam with a power of a few
situation where a large number of pebbles are thrown It into megawatts (106 W) is focused by a lens at a spot with a
a pool at the same time. Each pebble generates a wave of diameter of 1/1000th of a centimeter, the beam intensity
its own. Since the pebbles are thrown at random, the waves increases to a few hundred billion watts per sq. cm. This
generated by all the pebbles cancel each other and as a result concentrated energy is so intense that it easily ionizes the
they travel a very short distance only. On the other hand, if atmospheric air to create sparks. With the beam focused
the pebbles are thrown into a pool one by one at the same from a high power laser, even the hardest material like
place and also at constant intervals of time, the waves thus diamond can be melted in a fraction of a second.
generated strengthen each other and travel long distances. These unique characteristics of laser have made it an
In this case, the waves are said to travel coherently. In laser, important tool in various applications. The initial notable
the light waves are exactly in step with each other and thus application of laser was made c on the lunar ranging
have a fixed phase relationship. experiment of Apollo II Mission of 1969, when an array of
 43
retro reflectors was mounted on the surface of the moon directed towards a target and the reflected light from the
and pulses from a ruby laser were sent from the earth. The target is received by an optical system and detected. The
reflected beams were received by suitable detectors and by time taken by the laser beam for the to and fro travel from
measuring the time taken by the pulses in going from the the transmitter to the target is measured. When half of the
earth to the moon and back, the distance of the moon from time thus recorded is multiplied by the velocity of light, the
the earth was calculated to an accuracy of 15 cm. product gives the range, i.e., the distance of the target.
After the first demonstration of laser in 1960, new The laser range finder is superior to microwave radar as
applications of lasers in the various fields are announced the former provides better collimation or directivity which
almost every day. Laser finds applications in the fields of makes high angular resolution possible. Also, it has the
communication, Industry, medicine, military operations, advantage of greater radiant brightness and the fact that this
scientific research, etc. Besides, laser has already brought brightness is highly directional even after travelling long
great benefits in surgery, photography, holography, distances, the size of the emitting system is greatly reduced.
engineering and data storage. The high monochromaticity permits the use of optical band
pass filter in the receiver circuit to discriminate between the
LASER APPLICATIONS I: DEFENCE signal and the stray light noise.
Laser Range Finder Laser-Guided Anti-Tank Missile (ATM)
To knock down an enemy tank, it is necessary to range it A missile can be guided and controlled by an infrared beam
very accurately. Because of its high intensity and very low emitted from a laser, with extremely small divergence. This
divergence even after travelling quite a few kilometres, laser can be achieved in four ways:
is ideally suited for this purpose. The laser range finders
(i) The laser beam is used to illuminate the target tank; the
using neodymium and carbon dioxide lasers have become
anti-tank missile (ATM) then homes on to the target, as the
a standard item for artillery and tanks. These laser range
latter has become a source of back-scattered radiation.
finders are light weight and have higher reliability and
superior range accuracy as compared to the conventional (ii) The laser beam is used to provide guidance instructions
range finders. to the missile, i.e. it provides the command link.

The laser range finder works on the principle of a radar. (iii) The missile rides the laser beam which is kept pointing
It makes use of the characteristic properties of the laser along the collision course to the target.
beam, namely, monochromaticity, high intensity, coherency, (iv) The missile itself carries a laser scanner and seeker for
and directionality. A collimated pulse of the laser beam is active homing on to the target.

Underwater Laser
Lasers can also be used as a source of underwater give a well-defined picture because the sonar beam is
transmission. For this purpose, a laser giving radiation in broadened or scattered by sea water. A difference in the
the blue-green region is most suitable as the transmission saltiness of water can cause the sonar beam to bend and
in this region is maximum for sea water. The attenuation make the target appear where it is not. Another problem of
in underwater transmission is due to (i) absorption by using sonar is that it gives away to the enemy the position
materials in water, (ii) scattering by suspended particles, of the ship from which it is transmitted.
and (iii) variation in optical density along the light path. Lasers can also be used for communication between
The blue-green lasers have assumed much importance in submarines ensuring absolute privacy and in guidance
the systems related to naval applications. systems for torpedoes and other unmanned underwater
At present, the submarines have to rely on a sonar to find vehicles. Recent underwater laser communication has
the enemy crafts and to avoid the underwater objects. been established via satellite, i.e., from ground-to-satellite
This has serious limitations. The whales, dolphins and and then to underwater station.
other marine life give false signals. A typical sonar cannot

In the first case, the laser target designator is a pulsed electronic equipment. This enables the gunner to aim the
Nd:YAG laser. The laser beam is so modulated that the infrared guidance beam for firing the missiles.
receiver, a four quadrant detector in the missile, is able to
The system in which the missile is a beam rider designed to
calculate any divergence of the missile trajectory from the
ride the laser pointing in the direction of the target, is more
beam axis and correct the deviation by altering the fins of
attractive and missile can carry four detectors at the wing
the missile. The guidance unit consists of both optical and
tips looking towards the rear of the missile. The detectors
 44
determine the central axis of the laser beam and keep the range and rapid reaction time, the characteristics required
flight path of the missile along it. The wavelength of the for missile guidance.
laser should be such that is the least absorbed by the plume –– The ring laser gyroscope basically consists of a ring
of the sustainer motor. Thus in a laser designator, the laser cavity around which two laser light beams travel
by virtue of its narrow beam illuminates a chosen target. A in opposite directions. The operation of the ring
receiver in a bomb or a missile seeks the target illuminated laser gyroscopes is based on the so called Sagnac
from the scattered laser radiation and homes on to it. In the effect by which rotation of an object is sensed by
Vietnam war and in the recent Iraqi war, the Americans used an interferometric technique. A schematic diagram
laser guided missiles with pinpoint accuracy to destroy the of the ring laser gyroscope.
enemy targets. –– In a triangular cavity of a quartz block, laser beam is
split into two light beams with the help of suitable
Laser Radar (Lidar)
mirrors. These two light beam travel in opposite
When the laser beam is used for a radar application, it is directions in the same path of the cavity, one in
called lidar. The details, which could not be achieved earlier the clockwise and the other in the anti-clockwise
with microwave radars, can now be obtained with lidar. direction. The two light beams then pass through a
Besides, the laser beam can be focused with lenses and beam splitter and a beam combiner, behind which
mirrors easily whereas microwaves need huge antenna a readout detector is placed. If the cavity which
for focusing. As a beacon or a radar, the advantages of is acting as an interferometer is stationary, the
utilising small antenna and components are obvious. With two light beams travel the same distance in the
a lidar, the dimension and the distance of the target can be opposite directions without any path difference
obtained with higher accuracy, which is not possible with and hence no interference takes place. However,
the conventional microwave radar. The lasers used in lidars if the block is rotated clockwise about an axis
are of carbon dioxide, Q-switched neodymium, or gallium through the centre and perpendicular to the
arsenide semiconductor type. plane of the interferometer, the beam travelling
in the clockwise direction travels a path length
The great advantage of the use of carbon dioxide lasers for
slightly more than the beam travelling in the
radar application is their capacity to produce high power
anti-clockwise direction. When these two light
output with requisite the spectral purity. The coherent
beams recombine at the beam combining prism,
carbon dioxide laser tips radar functions essential like
interference takes place due to the path difference;
a coherent microwave radar except for the fact that the
the interference fringes displaced in the field of
carbon dioxide laser beam has a frequency of a few thousand
view are proportional to the amount of rotation of
times more than that of the X-band radar and at it a sharp
the block. The laser gyroscope uses a helium-neon
beam width of a few microradians. The high frequency
gas laser to generate monochromatic radiation
of the carbon dioxide laser also produces high Doppler
in the two directions inside the triangular quartz
shift even from slow-moving targets. The fine beam width
block. Two photo detectors sense the direction
and high Doppler the shift give the carbon dioxide laser
and the rate of rotation. The output is proportional
an unparalleled imaging capability. This radar system is
to the input angle. The whole system is a single
used for and measuring radial velocities to track low-flying
plane, rate integrating gyroscope and is capable of
aircraft and slow-moving objects. Since the laser beam is
measuring rotation rates of the order of 1/10,000
very much attenuated by rain, fog, or snow, the lidar can
degree/hour.
perform well only in good weather conditions.
The main use of the ring laser gyroscope is for inertial
Ring Laser Gyroscope
navigation. It is being used in inertial guidance of aircraft,
The ring laser gyroscope is an extremely useful instrument ships, and missiles; flight control; and gun-fire pointing.
for sensing and measuring very small angles of rotation
Air Reconnaissance
of the moving objects. It has now replaced the mechanical
gyroscopes used in most of the aircraft (both civil and Lasers can be used as a secretive illuminators for aerial
military) he and also in long range guided missiles. The reconnaissance during night with high precision. Earlier it
main advantages of the ring laser gyroscope are: (I) non- was done using a camera, equipped with either magnetic
existence of moving parts, (ii) high g capability, and (iii) flares or powerful strobe lights with their cumbersome
higher reliability as compared to the mechanical gyroscope. power supplies. For this purpose, a helium-neon laser
In addition, the laser gyroscope is capable of wide dynamic or a gallium arsenide semiconductor laser is used. Two
 45
properties of the laser, namely, its narrow beam and its much reliable. Using a lensless diode array, a laser beacon
radiance or brilliance are of importance in this particular can made multi-directional. The laser beacons are light
application. in weight, efficient and have long life. Another advantage
is that the pulses can be used ground beacons so that the
Communications
airdropping of supplies can be done at the given locations
A very useful and interesting application of laser is in the efficiently.
field of communications, which takes advantage of its wide
Weapon Firing Simulator
bandwidth and narrow beam width over long distances. The
laser beams can be created in a range of wavelengths from If we take into account the cost of ammunition and large
land that is required to fire it, basic training of the tank
the ultraviolet to the infrared regions of the electromagnetic
gunners is very expensive. A simulator technique, which
spectrum. The colour of the emitted light is relatively not
does not sacrifice the acquisition of the basic skills during
important. The infrared region is preferred by the military,
trials, has been developed in which the main weapon has
as it is more difficult to detect. The advent of semiconductor
been replaced by a laser. The technique is known as the
lasers has made possible the use of lasers for signal
weapon firing simulator.
transmission. They are excited directly by electric cur-rent
to yield a laser beam in the invisible infrared region. The simulator, installed in the machine gun mount of the
vehicle, produces a single burst intense red light when the
A particular aspect of laser transmission, which makes it firing circuit of main weapon is activated. On seeing this
preferable to the ordinary radio waves for military purposes bright spot of light, which is visible momentarily in optical
is the strict secrecy provided by the narrow beam width. system of the vehicle, the trainee is able to lay his gun sights
Since no unwanted reception outside the narrow bundles of accurately to track the targets. It also enables one to check
rays is possible, a high degree of secrecy can be maintained the accuracy and proficiency of the crew in operating the
between two points, and thus, an interception-proof vehicle's main weapons system.
communication network can be realised. Besides, laser
LASER APPLICATIONS II: CIVIL
communication system is immune from jamming and from
interference by spurious radio noise. Since a laser beam can be controlled and located much
more precisely than an arc or a flame, the intense heat
The optical laser has a great potential for use in long distance generated by its absorption in various materials is used for
communication. Since the capacity of a communication high precision welding, drilling, and micromachining. No
channel is proportional to the frequency band width, at distortion is caused in the material welded by laser because
optical frequencies, the information carrying capacity is it produces minimum shrinkage. Traditional welding has
many times more than that is possible at lower frequencies. its limitations; certain materials cannot be welded by the
This and the fact that the laser is a generator of highly conventional means. Laser technology has enabled reliable
coherent beams which are powerful and sharply directed, welding of gold with silicon and germanium, aluminium
make it ideally suited for communications. with nickel, tantalum with copper and several other metals
Laser Proximity Fuze used in electronic equipment.

The proximity fuze, developed in the US using a solid-state With laser, it is even possible to join metallic and non-metallic
material. Introduction of microcircuits into electronic
laser, detonates the missile warhead when it comes within
equipment and thin film technology necessitated reliable
the range of its target. The higher manoeuvrability of the
spot welding like microwelding used in microelectronic
missile is expected to improve its performance a great deal circuits and watch parts. In such cases where heat-affected
in close in aerial combat. It is also claimed that the proximity zone is minimum and welds of microsize are required, spot
fuze and the warhead will enable the missile to destroy its welding of high quality can be achieved by lasers without
target without hitting it directly. causing any damage to the delicate metals and ceramics
Laser Beacon being welded. Successful laser welding of high strength
alloy steels, carbon-rimmed steel, tin-plated mild steel, etc
The present infrared light sources, being used as ground has been achieved 2-5 kW continuous wave carbon dioxide
beacons to identify the ground points, are inefficient and not laser.
 46
Laser Drilling
Laser drilling of metals is based on a face-heating of a diamond die in a few minutes as against 20 hours
phenomenon. The absorbed intensity is transformed into taken by conventional methods. There is no wastage in the
heat within the penetration depth of laser radiation. And process and the saving in terms of the cost of diamond dust
when the illuminated spot on the surface reaches boiling helps in recovering the financial outlay on such a drilling
temperature, material removal starts due the processes system. Laser light energy is primarily applied in effecting
of vaporisation and melt expulsion. Laser enables drilling microopenings in rubies and diamonds.
Laser Micromachining
In the recent years, lasers have also found applications adjacent circuitry. Laser machining is capable of forming
in the field of microelectronics where the laser beam tiny electronic circuit patterns directly on to ceramic
interacts directly with circuit boards and semiconductor substrates in one step. The process makes use of a laser
chips containing memory and logic circuits. Such laser assisted by a computer so that it is programmed to
processing applications have made possible due to describe type of circuit pattern to be machined.
development of lasers with increasing stability, high Modern lasers and their associated automatic control
repetition rates, wavelengths well into ultraviolet region, equipment are being used for trimming the electrical
and short pulse durations. These features make it possible circuits. The techniques used to switch and move the
to heat discrete micrometer-sized regions reliably and laser beam are automatically controlled, every operation
repeatedly to very high temperatures. When applied to is designed with object of saving time. For example, it can
be arranged to test parts of the circuit while the beam
local regions of a silicon chip, laser heating can occur
position is being changed. Faster trimming operations can
without producing damage to neighbouring material or also be achieved by using laser at a higher power.

Laser Cutting there are high additional costs.

Continuous wave lasers like carbon dioxide gas lasers are Medium and high carbon plain steels more than 0.3 per cent
extensively used for cutting a wide range of materials, such carbon are generally well suited to laser hardening. Their
as graphite, diamond, tungsten, carbide, all metallic foils,
maximum hardness is a function of their carbon content,
ceramics, sapphire, and ferrite. In most cases, continuous
cutting is carried out with assist gases like oxygen, carbon mount of alloying elements, such as chromium manganese
dioxide, or air, which produces both mechanical and or molybdenum increases the hardenability. The advantage
chemical action intensifying the thermal effects. This gas- of laser hardening of steels is the possible substitution
assisted cutting is applicable to the metals of thickness up to for expensive alloy steels. With the development of new
5 mm with cut-widths down to 30 μm. The most promising techniques, lasers are now also being used to harden several
field of laser cutting is the cutting of steels of small thickness other industrial products.
(several millimeters) and also of non-metallic materials.
Normally for hardening a track width few millimeters,
Use of laser cutters in the garment industry, a new and very
useful application of the lasers, has been introduced recently an output of more than 1 kW from the laser is considered
in the developed countries. With the aid of computers, lasers desirable. Recent many laboratories engaged in laser
can cut clothing many times faster than the tailors using old application and research work all over the world, multi
techniques. It is now possible to slice the through several watt lasers have been installed. For heat treatment and
layers of thick cloth accurately and in a short time using a
laser cutter. The laser system also consists of a computer, hardening, usually a continuous wave beam from a carbon
programmed with cutting instructions and patterns for dioxide laser is used. To avoid accidents, safety precautions
various to garments. The laser beam, focused on the material like use of laser goggles are essential.
cuts through the fabric, leaving impeccably he smooth edges.
Metrology
Laser Hardening
With its high degree of coherence monochromaticity, laser
The principle of laser hardening is the irradiation of is ideally suited in metrology the science and system
material surface for a short time. Heat is conducted into of measurements for measuring lengths, velocities and
a metal causing quick heating of a thin layer. During the optical characteristics of various media. An accurate
heating period, a high temperature gradient is built up in the method of measuring distances is in terms wavelength of
surface zone followed by a rapid self-quenching by the cool light. A conventional technique uses an instrument called
sub-surface material. The complete hardening d cycle takes interferometer for optical measurements (surface flatness,
about 1 to 2 s. The conventional surface hardening processes, parallelism of mirrors, variation of refractive index, etc).
such as flame hardening or induction hardening, often cause
Using a helium-neon gas laser as the light source in the
a amount of distortion so that the work I becomes waste or
interferometer, the highest accuracies are possible in the
 47
US coast and geodetic survey teams to map about 5 per cent long distances. An optical fibre consists of an inner cylinder
more terrain in a given time while improving the accuracy to of glass called the core, surrounded by a cylindrical shell of
within 1 cm in 10 km. glass of lower refractive index, called the cladding.
The spectra-Physics of the US has developed a geodimeter Optical fibres may be classified in terms of the refractive
which uses helium-neon gas laser. The instrument called index profile of the core and whether one mode (single mode
geodilite combines the unique properties of laser light and fibre) or many modes (multimode fibre) are propagating
automatic precision receiver electronics into an instrument in the fibre. If the core, which is typically made of a high-
capable of greater accuracy, longer range and faster silica-content glass, has a uniform refractive index, it is called
measurements. a step-index fibre. If the core has a non-uniform refractive
Civil Engineering index that gradually decreases from the centre towards the
core-clad interface, the fibre is called a graded-index fibre.
The negligible divergence of the laser beam stimulated a
The cladding surrounding the core has a uniform refractive
number of ideas for providing hitherto impossible accuracy
index that is slightly lower than the refractive index of the
and sensitivity in the alignment of tools. Serving as an optical
core region. If the core diameter is very much reduced so
axis, the beam guides the machines used for levelling the
that only one ray can pass through the fibre, it is called a
concrete facing of the airfields, checking the verticality of
monomode step-index fibre (or single mode fibre).
the framework of tall buildings, sinking mines, and cutting
tunnels from two ends and joining them without tilt. Optical fibre communications are also( being used for
industrial applications, such as process control in nuclear,
Laser direction finders are widely used in coal mines. In
petrochemical, chemical and food industries and numerical
view of the high rate of digging in coal mining, the biggest
control in large data systems in airways, shipping, railways,
difficulty is to maintain accurately the given direction, which
gas and oil transportation.
is achieved using a highly directional laser beam. Similarly,
geodolite is used for the detection and measurement of the Another industrial use of fibre optics is computer
deformation of large dams and bridges. applications. Fibres are ideally suited for internal links that
require very high data rates of the order of gigabits per
Optical Fibre Communication
second (Gb/s). Auxiliary equipment require lower data rates
The communication using light as signal carrier and optical and hence can be handled both by fibres or copper wires.
fibres as a transmission medium is termed optical fibre Fibres offer the added advantage of longer distance network
communication. Since the first commercial installation and error-free operation; because their transmission is
of a fibre optic system in 1977, the applications of optical unaffected by the electromagnetic noise. They will be used
fibre communication have increased enormously. Today, in greater volume as inter- and intra-computer links.
every major long distance telecommunication company is
Optical fibres are also very useful in Defence applications.
spending millions of dollars on optical fibre communication
Fibres can be used for data links in aircraft with tremendous
systems. In a optical fibre communication system, voice,
or data are converted into a coded pulse of light using a reduction in weight and increased information capacity.
suitable light source. This stream is carried by optical fibres Such aircraft include surveillance and attack aircraft and
to a regenerating or receiving station. At the final receiving strategic air command bombers. Similar applications exist
station, the light pulses are converted into electrical signals, for inter- and intra-ship communications, submarine mobile
decoded, and then converted into the form of original command centres, ship-to-satellite communication links and
information. all types of missile guidance systems. All the above types of
applications exist today, making the military applications a
In future, fibre optics is going to be the choice for many
large market for fibre optics communications.
communications applications. The biggest advantage of a
light wave system is its tremendous information carrying Another interesting application is for sensors. In general,
capacity. There are already systems that can carry several a sensor system consists of an electronic control module,
thousand simultaneous conversations over a optical fibres, sensor head and fibre optic cable. The sensor head senses
thinner than human hair. In addition to this extremely high pressure, temperature, velocity and reaction and converts it
capacity, the light guide cables are light weight, immune into a change in the optical signal which is then analysed to
to electromagnetic interference, and very cheap when measure the desired change by the electronic control unit.
compared to copper cables. Lasers have great potential in TV and the cinema. Instead
Optical fibres used in communication waveguides made of of microwaves as the carrier, laser beam can be used for the
transparent dielectrics whose function is to guide light over transmission of television programmes through optical fibre
 48
cables. Since the channel capacity is very high, many TV into a sharp and detailed three-dimensional image of b- the
programmes can be accommodated in a single laser beam. object. The image looks like a solid object hanging in space
Data Storage in three dimensions; the viewer may change the angle of
view by moving his head from side to side or up and down.
The storage of higher density of data is possible by using
optical techniques. The storage medium is generally a thin Holography is being used for non-destructive testing,
film of metal whose optical properties change when it is holographic information storage, display devices and
illuminated with a powerful write laser. The less powerful pattern matching procedures for a such tasks as credit card
read laser reads the change in optical property as the and identity card verification. Holographic methods can
required information. Since laser beam can be focused on also be used for is secret communication of information by
the spots smaller than one micro diameter, it takes less recording e the holograms of secret documents, maps and
than one square micro record one bit of information, i.e., objects, and restructuring the images only at the receiver end.
100 million per square cm. Laser video and compact disc Interference holography can be used to measure accurately
examples of such data storage media in the entertainment how structures deform under the effect of mechanical stress
market. The magnetic data storage vices like the present or thermal gradient.
day video cassettes in market cannot have such high density Standard holograms may be used in industrial production
data age. However, the main drawback of optical storage is processes to check high precision components with regard
that it is not erasable; such eras optical discs are expected to to their shape dimensional accuracy.
come into the market within a few years.
Medical Applications of Lasers
Holography Lasers are extensively used in medicine and surgery. The
Another important application of laser beam is the production first practical application was in eye surgery, where laser
of true three-dimensional pictures in space without the was used to weld detached retina and photocoagulate
use of lens. The record of' this three-dimensional image of the blood vessels that grow into the region in front of the
the object on a film is called a hologram. For this pose, the retina, thereby blocking vision. The laser beam easily passes
phenomenon called interfere produced due to interaction through transparent portions of the eye, including Cornea
of two beam monochromatic light waves under certain and lens to the region of its intended use where its energy
conditions, is used. The interference pattern is produced by is absorbed for treatment. Retina is a sensitive membrane
mixing two beams of the laser light. Laser light is split into inside the eyeball. Its detachment from the surrounding
two beams. One beam called the reference beam, is directed choroid coat initiates due to a hole in the retina caused by an
toward photographic plate. The other beam is directed injury or degenerative changes during the old age.
towards the object to be recorded, so that is reflected from
This makes the thick fluid vitreous humour seep and fill itself
the object. The referred beam and the reflected beam are
between the retina and chord oat. The pressure between the
made to with each other to form an interference patter the
retina and choroid coating damages the retina which Soon
photographic plate.
gets detached from the optic nerve at the back of the to
To get a high quality hologram, radiation of in high coherence cause blindness.
is required. Generally, the helium-neon gas laser which gives
Before the invention of laser, this delicate operation was
highly coherent and its continuous output beam, is used for
done by irradiation of the eye with a xenon arc lamp or even
this purpose. Sometimes, high power pulses from a solid-
by focusing the sunlight on to the choroid coat. This method
state laser like ruby laser, are also used. The exposure time,
involved exposure time to concentrate sufficient he the site
in the case of continuous gas lasers may be from several
of the detached retina. The process cumbersome, painful
seconds to a few minutes whereas a giant pulsed laser
and relatively slow; be the patient had to be anaesthetised to
requires only a few nanoseconds.
prevail eye from moving. Using a high energy pulsed laser,
The holograms are recorded on special le photographic like Nd:YAG, the intense laser light focused as a tiny spot at
plates with good resolution. The plate is developed and the detached retina 'welding' it to the underlying choroid
fixed in the usual way. There is a kind of magic about the coat of the a short time (of the order of one-thousandth
hologram. With naked eye, it does not give any picture of the of a second). The operation is painless and doe affect the
object but only an exposed negative with grayish random surrounding healthy tissues. Laser also be used to burn out
patterns on the surface. When it is positioned in its holder small tumours on the surface of the eye and also those in the
and viewed in a monochromatic light beam, such as that vessels of the eye. It is being used to treat coma, cataract,
produced by laser, the random patterns are transformed sealing of the retina and even viral diseases of the eye. The
 49
laser cane which is a boon for blind persoi1S operates on the substantial blockage of the coronary artery is observed,
principle of a radar. a laser beam se through the optical fibre could be used to
Two lasers within the cane provide pulses of infrared light vaporise the plaque, opening a clear channel for smooth
which are reflected from points, a short distance in front of flow of blood. This method is called laser angioplasty or
the cane. Each reflected beam returns to a photocell inside vascular recanalisation. Usually argon-ion, Nd:YAG, and
the cane. The two photocells activate pins in the handle. carbon dioxide lasers al used for this purpose.
When the path is smooth, the two pins vibrate steadily. Any Another important use of the fibre-optic laser catheter
hole or other obstacle scatters the light from at- least one of is in the treatment of bleeding ulcers. The laser light can
the lasers and stops the vibrations, thus warning the user. photocoagulate blood, thereby causing the cession of
The device operates on four small batteries which last up bleeding. For this purpose among the three important
to ten hours. It allows a blind person to scan the area ahead lasers (carbon dioxide, Nd:YAG and argonion), the Nd:YAG
of him and have an idea of the object's shape, distance and laser is preferred because it penetrates deep into the tissue
dimensions by variations in pitch and intensity of the tone and its effects are not localised at the surface. Using a
it emits. laser endoscope, small tumours in the urinary bladder are
Lasers are increasingly being used for the treatment of many destroyed. Similarly, Nd:YAG and dye lasers are also used to
different types of cancer. A laser is less damaging than x-ray rapidly heat and shatter urinary stones in the kidney.
therapy and surgery; and in many cases, it is quite effective. Laser can also be used for dental treatment Laser beam is
The use of lasers to remove certain forms of cancerous useful for charring tooth decay through a painless process
growth in the body has heralded an era of knifeless and called laser glazing. The beam from a high repetition pulsed
bloodless surgery. It is very effective in curing the diseases laser can be focused on dark decayed areas of teeth cavities
of gynaecology, ear, nose, throat, tongue, palate, and cheeks. to destroy the infection in the affected areas in a fraction of
It is curative in most early cancers, and in late cancers, it is a second.
useful in reducing the tumours to facilitate surgery. LASER APPLICATIONS III:
Photodynamic therapy (POT), a new exciting form of MISCELLANEOUS
cancer treatment, combines laser with light-sensitive dye, Laser Printing
hematoporphyrin derivative (HPD). This substance, derived
For the last few years, there has been tremendous increase
from the cow's blood, travels throughout the body of the
in the use of computers as an aid to the management,
patient and settles in the malignant tissues. A red light
processing and dissemination of information. The use
from argon pumped dye laser, focused on the area activates
of computers in generating bank statements, insurance,
HPD, and the energized substance releases a highly reactive
telephone and electricity bills as well as publicity brochures
chemical that destroys the cancer cells. Reports indicate
advertising mass-produced goods are typical examples of
that POT is 80 to 90 per cent successful in causing total or
this development. The peripheral device required by the
near-total regression of tumours, even after all other forms
computer for all these applications is the printer. Today, use
of therapy have failed. It is highly selective for a diseased
of computers in large data processing installations places
tissue, leaving healthy cells relatively untouched.
very high demand on printers as regards its speed, character
At some medical centres in the US, researchers have used flexibility, and print quality. The conventional impact
laser to treat colonic and other types of gastrointestinal printers can no longer meet these demands because of their
cancer. Using endoscope, the laser energy is used to destroy limited speed and character flexibility. In the new generation
neoplastic tissue while preserving bowel wall integrity. printers, printing method is based on the principle of
In some cases, rectal polyps were removed using the CW electrophotography. Since the light source in such printers
argon laser, delivered with a power of 4-5 W. With the is a laser, these devices are called laser printers.
development of optical fibres lasers are being used for heart
High-performance laser printers offer three important
surgery. A common problem with the arteries is the build up
advantages:
of plaque on their interior walls. The plaque, consisting fatty
material, calcium, etc, blocks the coronary arteries reducing (i) High printing speed, about 10,000 lines per minute at
the blood flow. This results in Angina pectoris, a condition six lines per inch, which makes it possible to print over
that afflicts millions of people worldwide. If the coronary four million characters in one minute.
artery is partially blocked, the situation can sometimes (ii) Very high degree of flexibility as regards character
be improved by using a method called angioplasty. When generation. Today, the laser printers have character
 50
sets of several hundred different characters. Since phenomena have been photographed with the help of very
the print characters are stored electronically, the short intense light pulses from Q-switched lasers, capable of
only consideration limiting the number of characters exposing up to 9,000 frames per second. Ultrashort pulses
available in the printer is the cost I of the necessary can be used to study ultrafast phenomena and processes,
memory space. such as recombination of electron-hole pairs or excitons in
semiconductors.
(iii) Excellent print quality.
Environmental Studies
Seismography The constituent gases and vapours in the atmosphere can be
In its seismographic application, i.e., detection of earthquakes detected and measured with lasers by means of at least three
and underground nuclear blasts, the instruments using selective mechanisms. These are: (1) selective absorption of
lasers are ten times more accurate than the conventional laser light which spectrally matches the natural absorption
devices. This laser application is based on the principle of characteristics of the molecule, (2) resonance or fluorescence
Doppler shift in the frequency of the light scattered from a scattering of laser light, and (3) Raman scattering.
moving substance. The scattered beam is mixed with the part The absorption lines of water vapour in the atmosphere
of the incident beam in a detector and the beat frequency is are very close to the emission wavelength of ruby lasers. By
determined, which gives the measure of the movement of tuning the wavelength of a ruby lidar, one can observe the
the earth's crust. change in backscatter caused by absorption within the water
High-Speed Photography vapour lines. With the availability of tunable dye lasers, it is
easier to take advantage of resonance scattering which helps
The intense laser light also finds application in high-speed
to identify the constituents of the atmosphere. In recent
photography for recording extremely fast or transient
years, the laser techniques have been well established for
phenomena like the bullet shot by a gun, armour penetration
and the instant of fracturing. Such lightning speed the purpose of environmental monitoring, cloud height
detection, and urban pollution studies.

Scientific Research
Lasers have opened new fields of investigation in science Lasers offer attractive possibilities in terms of the
and technology. It has given physics a versatile tool for the exploration of molecular structure and determination of
study of interaction of light and matter. The powerful beam nature of chemical reactions. A laser beam can initiate
of laser has become an important tool for spectroscopic and hasten a chemical reaction. Since different reactions
analysis. A laser system, known as microprobe, is used for require different wavelengths of light, a 'tunable' laser
exciting emission from solid samples for spectrographic (i.e., a source whose wavelength can be altered as in
analysis. radio tuning) is of immense help to a chemist. Tunable
In 1928, Prof. CV Raman discovered a new phenomenon, lasers, particularly dye lasers, now cover the entire visible
known as Raman Effect. by which molecular structures spectrum and have revolutionised optical spectroscopy.
of different substances can be investigated by passing In photochemistry, lasers with short duration pulses
monochromatic light through them. He found that when are highly useful for inducing and monitoring ultrafast
light passes through a transparent substance, it is scattered chemical reactions more efficiently than by any
and emerges with a change of frequency caused due to the conventional method.
vibration of molecules in the substance. This produces
Laser also finds application in biological research. Using
additional lines (known as Raman lines) in the scattered
laser techniques, biological studies have been carried out
light spectrum. The discovery of laser is a great boon for
in enzymes, proteins, cellular components and isolated
recording the Raman spectra. The use of lasers has enabled
cells, microorganisms, tissue culture, isolated physiological
recording of Raman lines within seconds, which otherwise
would require long exposure times of or few hours using systems individual organs, etc. Using a ruby laser coupled
ordinary light sources. The analysis of Raman lines gives with a microscope, single cells have been irradiated with
the fundamental properties of the substances. laser beams focused on to a spot of the order of one micron
to destroy individual chromosomes, thus making available
Similarly, lasers can also be used for analysing liquids.
a highly delicate instrument for genetic studies.
A laser beam, when passed through a liquid, gives
several colours (wavelengths) and the process is called It is also possible to produce laser beams as narrow as the
fluorescence. The study of the fluorescence spectra thus diameter of a protein molecule and use it to alter genetic
obtained gives the properties of the liquids. properties of living organisms.
 51
Nuclear Fusion teaching institutions also entered into this area. A Study
Thermonuclear fusion is the process by which huge energy Group on Lasers, constituted in 1971 by. DRDO, and INSA
is produced in the sun and .stars. It is the process by which Laser Committee constituted under the Chairmanship of
nuclei of light elements such as deuterium (an isotope of Prof. P Venkateswarlu in 1976 (the author was a member
hydrogen) are fused (or joined) together to produce heavier of the two committees) made detailed studies to assess
elements like helium. In this reaction, a large quantity of the status of R&D work on laser at both international and
energy and neutrons are released. national levels and gave suitable recommendations for
For thermonuclear fusion to take place, a temperature of development of lasers and laser systems in the country.
about one million degrees centigrade is required. Today, this In 1988, Dr DD Bhawalkar, Director, Centre for Advanced
is achieved by the implosion of the atoms of the material by Technology (CAT), Indore, gave a status report on lasers
a focused high energy laser beam. Thermonuclear reaction to the Science Advisory Council to the Prime Minister. Very
has several advantages over the fission process. Firstly, briefly the current status of the laser work in the country is
the immense energy comes from a very small quantity of outlined below:
material. Secondly, the supply of fusion fuel is virtually
inexhaustible as deuterium can be extracted cheaply Ruby, Nd:YAG and Nd:Glass Lasers
from the world's oceans. Thirdly, there is no problem of Laser rods of ruby, Nd:glass, flash lamps and hard coated
atmospheric pollution. It will be simpler and easier to make laser mirrors, have been developed indigenously at the
a hydrogen bomb which will be 'clean', i.e., its explosion will Defence Science Centre (DSC), Delhi, and the solid sate
be free from the lingering effects of radioactive fallout. lasers giving peak power output of a few megawatts have
Fire Detection been developed for Defence applications. BARC has also
Laser's application in fire detection is based on the principle developed these lasers with mainly imported components,
that a laser beam is affected by hot gases emanating from a' Laser range finders with Nd:YAG or Nd:glass as the active
fire. A focused laser beam is directed across an open space element have been developed at Instruments Research
near ceiling level from one side of the room to the other. It Development Establishment(IRDE), Dehradun and DSC.
is reflected back to a photocell from a mirror fixed on the CAT, is developing a high power Nd:glass laser for atomic
opposite wall. Any fire starting below this level will cause energy application.
turbulent hot air to rise. The laser beam, normally steady, Helium-Neon Laser
is refracted by the temperature gradients in the hot gases
and is displaced from its usual position on a photocell. The Helium-Neon lasers of low power output (2- 5 mW) with
deflection can be made to trigger an alarm. Results have lifetimes of a few thousand hours have been developed at IISc,
indicated that the laser beam system is at least as fast as the NPL, and Bharat Electronics Ltd., Bangalore. The technology
most sensitive fire detection systems in use worldwide. has been transferred by NPL to M/s Laser Instruments,
New Delhi and by BARC, Bombay to ECIL, Hyderabad. they
Intrusion Alarm
started production of these lasers commercially about 20
A gallium arsenide diode laser can be used to set up an years back but stopped production since their performance
invisible fence to protect an area. An infrared laser beam is far from satisfactory. BEL also made an attempt about 10
(in combination with an optical detector) can seal a path, years back and stopped production due to lack of sufficient
an area or a volume against infiltrators. When the invisible
technology.
beam is interrupted by an intruder trying to approach the
protected area, it sets off a remote alarm. The laser alarm Carbon Dioxide Laser
has many advantages over the conventional electric alarm. Carbon dioxide lasers giving an output power in the range
The infrared beam, being invisible, cannot be spotted by 10-100 W have been developed at BARC IIT, Kanpur, IRDE
the intruder. The narrowness of the beam minimised false and DSC, Central Electronics Ltd. (CEL) and Jyoti Ltd. have
alarms by the passage of birds, small animals and objects started commercial production of these lasers around 1975
floating in the air. but have stopped production by 1982. CAT has developed
RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT IN LASER FIELD transverse carbon dioxide laser with 3.5 kW power.

The research and development work in the field of lasers Semiconductor Laser
started in our country 28 years back on a very small scale BARC and Solid State Physics Laboratory (SPL), Delhi have
at a few research laboratories of the Defence Research developed low power gallium-arsenide lasers with a view
& Development Organisation, Bhabha Atomic Research to use them for applications in communication and ranging.
Centre, National Physical Laboratory, IIT, Kanpur, and IISc, BARC demonstrated communication over 20 Km distance
Bangalore. Later, a number of research laboratories and using laser. Further work is necessary to develop these
lasers with heterostructures and to improve their efficiency.
 52
Materials countries. Efforts in this area have been so limited in our
Basic laser materials like ruby, Nd:phosphate glass and country that they are not even equal to the efforts made at
lithium niobate are being developed at DSC for Defence one major institution in the USA. Not a single reliable laser
applications, Central Glass and Ceramics Research Institute, system is commercially available in the country. Though
Calcutta (CGCRI), has also developed good quality Nd:silicate some institutions in our country have fabricated some
glass for commercial applications. The development of experimental lasers on a laboratory scale, reliable operation
gallium-arsenide and Nd:YAG crystals is under process at of these lasers has still been a problem. As an outcome of
SPL. Several establishments and institutes like DSC, IRDE, status report of SAC to PM, a National laser Programme
IISc, NPL, BARC, IIT, Kanpur and BEL have established has been started recently. Advantages of lasers for various
optical workshops including coating facilities to fabricate applications in our country are well known and laser
laser components. Good experience has been gained to research has been recognised as one of the frontier areas to
fabricate laser rods and hard coated laser morrors at DSC. be developed in the 8th Five Year Plan. It is high time for our
country to intensify the R&D efforts in the identified areas
CONCLUSION with time bound pro- Grammies and start the production of
There are large gaps in the development of laser technology lasers for mass applications.
and its production between our country and other developed

EXERCISES
1. Laser technology is the 'talk of the day.' Comment.
2. Outline in detail the major applications of laser, especially in context with defence.
 Laser and its
Applications

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 54

6
LEFT-WING EXTREMISM
INTRODUCTION landowners, but had risen in the ranks of the CPI and later the
CPI-M.
India’s remarkable economic development in the last 30 years has
earned it the tag of the fastest growing democracy in the world. Frustrated by the failure of a Communist takeover in India,
However, three major issues in the country have threatened its Mazumdar turned to the example of the Chinese Communist
advancement on the international stage, its development and Party. Not only did Mazumdar denounce the revisionist turn of
its national unity. the Soviet Union and the CPI as being the reason for the failure
of Communism in India, he also affirmed that the revolution in
These are: the Jammu and Kashmir conflict (as old as
India must come from the peasants in rural areas rather than the
independent India itself), the separatist movements in the
working class - as it happened in China under the leadership of
North-Eastern states (which dates back to the early 1950s) and
Mao Zedong.
the Naxalite insurgency (which started in West Bengal in the
late 1960s). HISTORY OF COMMUNIST MOVEMENT IN INDIA
In this chapter, we will discuss in detail every aspects of naxalism The Communist Party of India was formed in 1925 which
along with its cause and measures taken by government. consolidated the ideology of Communism in the South-Asian
region. It aimed at a proletariat-led national revolution against
the Imperial power.
This ideology attracted youth in a large number because of
failure of non-cooperation movement.
The idea the of class struggle and its success in Russia encouraged
youth but due to British oppression and Gandhi’s charismatic
leadership, Gandhi’s ideology enjoyed a lot of support.
Post-Independence, the CPI has established strong presence in
the region around Telangana because of Telangana movement
where land was redistributed among the landless between 1946
and 1951.
Because of different interpretations of socialism and communism,
communist parties kept on disintegrating into number of regional
ORIGIN OF NAXALISM parties. Some felt the necessity to give up arms, while others
The origin of Naxalism can be traced to Naxalbari uprising believed that abandoning the struggle would discredit the CPI
of 1967 where a group of oppressed peasants inspired by the in the eyes of the peasantry. The leadership was hence divided;
Communist ideology arose against the feudal landlords in the some members opted to surrender while others continued the
village. armed-struggle.
Though the incident was spontaneous, the underlying cause of BACKGROUND
the incident needs to be evaluated properly. By 1967, India was
in its 20th year of independence yet the colonial tenancy system A number of left wing extremist (LWE) outfits have been
which India inherited Post-Independence was still problematic. operating in certain remote and poorly connected pockets of
As shown by the 1971 census, nearly 60% of the population the country for a few decades now. In a significant development
was landless. in 2004, the People’s War (PW), then operating in Andhra
Pradesh, and the Maoist Communist Centre of India (MCCI),
While imprisoned in the mid-1960s, a man named Charu
then operating in Bihar and adjoining areas, merged to form the
Mazumdar wrote a set of nine essays that would serve the basis
CPI (Maoist) Party. The CPI (Maoist) Party is the major LWE
for Naxalite ideology. Mazumdar was born in a family of small
 55
outfit responsible for a majority of incidents of violence and After creating a political and governance vacuum, they coerce
killing of civilians and security forces and has been included the local population to join the movement. A strident propaganda
in the Schedule of terrorist organizations along with all its is also carried out against the purported and real inadequacies of
formations and front organizations under the Unlawful Activities the existing state structure. In areas under Maoist domination,
(Prevention) Act, 1967. The CPI (Maoist) philosophy of armed the absence of governance becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy
insurgency to overthrow the government is unacceptable under since the delivery systems are extinguished through killings and
the Indian Constitution and the founding principles of the Indian intimidation. This is the first step in the strategy of the Maoists
State. The government has given a call to the LWE to abjure to seek control the countryside.
violence and come for talks. This plea has been rejected by In the meanwhile, many Front Organizations are created to
them, since they believe in violence as the means to capture facilitate mass-mobilization in semi-urban and urban areas
state power. This has resulted in a spiralling cycle of violence through ostensible democratic means. Most of the front
in some parts of India. The poor and the marginalized sections organizations are led by well-educated intellectuals with a firm
like the tribal are bearing the brunt of this violence. Many well- belief in the Maoist insurgency doctrine. These ideologues
meaning liberal intellectuals fall prey to the Maoist propaganda function as masks to cover the violent nature of the CPI (Maoist)
without understanding the true nature of Maoist insurgency ideology. They also form the propaganda/disinformation
doctrine which glorifies violence and believes in adopting the machinery of the party.
military line to capture power. Between 2004 and 2020, 8,380 They stridently take up issues like ‘displacement of tribals’,
people have been killed by the LWE in different parts of India. ‘corporate exploitation’, ‘human rights violations’ by security
The majority of the civilians killed are tribal’s, often branded as forces, etc. and often make fantastic claims in this regard which get
“police informers” before being brutally tortured and killed. In reported even by the mainstream media. The front organizations
fact, the tribal and the economically underprivileged sections, also skilfully use state structures and legal processes to further
whose cause the Maoists claim to espouse, have been the biggest the Maoist agenda and weaken the enforcement regime. The
victims of the so-called ‘protracted peoples war’ of the CPI important functions of these organisations include recruitment of
(Maoist) against the Indian state. ‘professional revolutionaries’, raising funds for the insurgency,
THE DYNAMICS OF MAOIST INSURGENCY creating urban shelters for underground cadres, providing legal
assistance to arrested cadres and mass-mobilisation by agitating
Some sections of the society, especially the younger generation,
over issues of relevance/ convenience. The front organisations
have romantic illusions about the Maoists, arising out of an
aim to provide short-term democratic subterfuge to cover-up
incomplete understanding of their ideology. The central theme
the totalitarian and oppressive nature of the Maoist ideology.
of Maoist ideology is violence. The Maoist insurgency doctrine
The CPI (Maoist) also have a strategic game-plan to create a
glorifies violence as the primary means to overwhelm the
‘United Front’ with all like-minded insurgent/terrorist outfits
existing socio-economic and political structures. The Peoples
in India. It needs to be remembered that many of these outfits
Liberation Guerilla Army (PLGA), the armed wing of CPI
are supported by external forces inimical to India and the CPI
(Maoist), has been created with this purpose in mind. In the first
(Maoist) consider such alliances as strategic assets.
stage of the insurgency, the PLGA resorts to guerrilla warfare
which primarily aims at creating a vacuum at the grass-roots In a nutshell, the CPI (Maoist), the main LWE outfit in India,
level of the existing governance structures. This is achieved by aims to overthrow the existing democratic state structure with
killing lower-level government officials, police-personnel of the violence as their primary weapon, and mass mobilization and
local police stations, the workers of mainstream political parties strategic united fronts as complementary components and plans
and the people’s representatives of the Panchayati Raj system. to usher in so-called ‘New Democratic Revolution’ in India.
 56

CAUSES OF NAXALISM Economic causes

• Unemployment
The main causes for the rise of Naxalism in India are–
• Poverty
Social Governance • Infrastructure deficit
causes deficit • Poor health infrastructure
Governance deficit
Cause of • Poor implementation of schemes
Naxalis m • Corruption
• Unsatisfactory local government
Political causes
Economic Political • Nexus between local leaders, politicians, police and naxals
causes causes • The forest act 1980 deprives tribals of their rights
Social causes • Poor implementation of Recognition of Forest Rights act
• Violation of human rights 2006.
• Encroachment of land and forced eviction • Issues with respect to the proper implementation of 5th
• Disruption of traditional tribal rights schedule
• Poor land acquisition policy
 57
NAXALISM IN INDIA - A STATE WISE ANALYSIS

Chhattisgarh government and adopted a three-pronged counter-insurgency

Chhattisgarh is the epicentre of Maoist insurgency in India. At their strategy. First, the government overhauled the security strategy
pinnacle, the Naxalites had influence over18 districts in the state, by setting up an elite police team to pursue the rebel leaders.
out of a total 27. The 40,000-sq.-km. Bastar region—made up of Second, they offered a surrender and rehabilitation package to
the Dantewada, Bijapur, Narayanpur, Bastar and Kanker districts— the rebels, promising jobs and entrepreneurial opportunities to
became the nerve centre of Maoist militancy in India. those who would surrender. The third and perhaps most critical
element of the campaign was in the form of comprehensive
Nearly 25,000 sq. km. of Bastar (including Abujmar, the
confidence-building measures with the people living in the
Maoist citadel of the so-called Red Corridor) are believed to be
Maoist-infested Jangalmahal region comprising the districts of
intensively mined by Maoists.
Purulia, West Midnapore and Bankura.
Jharkhand From a peak of 425 Maoist-related violent incidents in 2010, the
At the height of the movement in Jharkhand in the late 2000s, number came down to zero by the end of 2018. According to a
the rebels had a sway in as many as 20 districts across the state. report issued by the state government, more than 250 Maoists
The Jharkhand government formed a special force (the Jharkhand have surrendered before the state police between 2014 and
Jaguar modelled after the Greyhounds of Andhra Pradesh) to lead 2018. There is one district, Jhargram that remains categorized
the anti-Naxal operations. The state government also framed a as “highly affected” by the insurgency.
unique surrender policy for Naxalites. Odisha
Together with central forces, the state launched Operation In the late 2000s, the Maoist influence stretched over 22 of the
Anaconda to weed out Maoists from Saranda and succeeded 30 districts of Odisha. The hotspots of Maoist activities were
in 2011. the most backward and forested, mineral-rich districts with huge
In the last few years, the number of Maoist-related violence— adivasi populations—i.e., Koraput, Malkanagiri, Nabarangapur,
reaching its peak in 2013 with 480 incidents—has declined to Rayagada, Gajapati, Kandhmal and Ganjam and Keonjhar.
53 in 2018. The insurgents also fuelled protests against several mega projects
There has also been a high number of rebels who surrendered on the issues of land acquisition and mining rights, particularly
— as many as 108 in 2018 alone. in the recent Niyamgiri and POSCO projects.
West Bengal Fortifying the police stations, gave police officers rigorous
By early 2000s, the CPI-Maoists had spread over as many as training, and announced a suitable incentive package to police
18 districts of the state. personnel involved in anti-Maoist operations. Importantly,
The government changed the piecemeal approach of the Left thousands of tribal youth from the insurgency-affected areas
 58
were recruited as Special Police Officers (SPOs). The State also GOVERNMENT FIGHT AGAINST NAXALISM:
opened a training school in each of the seven police ranges, SETTING UP A NEW SECURITY DIVISION
supplemented by 17 battalions of Central forces stationed in In order to control naxal violence, government established Left
key Naxal-affected districts. Wing Extremism Division within the Home Ministry.
Over time, Odisha achieved significant progress in managing
About The Division
Left-wing extremism especially in the mineral-rich regions.
This Division was created w.e.f. October 19, 2006. The LWE
Bihar Division implements security related schemes aimed at capacity
The Maoists in Bihar enjoyed widespread support among the building in the LWE affected states. The Division also monitors the
poor and oppressed classes and carried out their agenda through LWE situation and counter-measures being taken by the affected
various means. What sustained the insurgency was Bihar’s failed States. The LWE Division coordinates the implementation of
land reform. various development schemes of the Ministries/Departments of
The government initiated a number of steps including the Govt. of India in LWE affected states. The states of Chhattisgarh,
creation of Special Task Force as well as a Special Auxiliary Jharkhand, Odisha, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
Police for counter-insurgency. The state government revamped Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Kerala are
its surrender and rehabilitation policy to make it more attractive considered LWE affected, although in varying degrees.
for insurgents to lay down their arms. ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE DIVISION
What has perhaps yielded the most significant results was a • Capacity building of states to combat LWE through
series of development and good-governance measures adopted schemes of Ministry of Home Affairs like Security Related
by the government. Expenditure (SRE) scheme, Special Infrastructure Scheme,
Maharashtra Special Central Assistance etc.
• Deployment of Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs) in
Maoists currently hold influence in the districts of Gadchiroli
LWE affected States.
and Gondia, which have areas contiguous with the Dandakaranya
• Providing funds to the CAPFs for strengthening of
region of Chhattisgarh.
infrastructure/Helicopters/civic action, etc.
Compared to several other Maoist-affected states, Maharashtra • Reviewing the security situation in the LWE affected States
has responded with measures comprising both security and and issuing advisories to the State Governments concerned.
developmental components. For example, the State has launched • Providing assistance to State Governments for initiatives
major offensive operations against the Maoists in the Gadchiroli- to combat LWE in the form of funds for items of emergent
Chhattisgarh-Andhra border. nature.
The state has created a district-level force, the C-60 commando, • Coordinating implementation of LWE related Schemes of
which has done commendable work. Similarly, the government other Central Ministries for LWE affected Districts.
has put in place a Surrender and Rehabilitation Policy to
encourage Maoist cadres to re-join society.

ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE DIVISION

Addl. Secr etary (L WE)

Director (LWE-II) Security Advisor

Director (LWE-I) Director (LWEO-I) Director (LWEO-II)
(SCA, SRE, Standing (Analysis/Advisories, (LWE)
(SIS, CAP, Media Plan (Infrastructure, Security
Committee GoM, Parliament Questions (Training, Deployment,
and Development of vital installations etc.)
Coordination, Rtl etc, etc.) Technology etc.)
Schemes etc.)
ACAWEMS

US(LWE-II&III) US(LWE-I&IV) US(LWEO-I) US(LWEO-II)

SO(LEW-II) SO(LEW-III) SO(LWE-I&IV) SO(LWEO-I) SO(LWEO-II) LDC

 59
GOVERNMENT’S APPROACH AND ACTION PLAN have seen a significant decline in LWE violence as well as
TO DEAL WITH LWE the geographical spread of LWE. The declining trend which
As per Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India, subjects started in 2011 continues in 2019 as well. There has been an
of ‘Police’ and ‘Public Order’ are with the State Governments. overall 41% reduction in violent incidents (1136 to 670) and
The Government of India has been supplementing the efforts of 49% reduction in LWE related deaths (397 to 202) in 2019 as
States affected by LWE. The Government of India has adopted compared to 2013. In comparison to 2018 also, the year 2019 saw
an integrated and a holistic approach to deal with the LWE a decline of 19% (833 to 670) in incidents of violence and 15%
insurgency by addressing the areas of security, development and in the number of resultant deaths (240 to 202). The casualties to
promoting good governance simultaneously. To achieve this, a Security Forces declined by 22% (67 to 52) and the number of
National Policy and Action Plan has been put in place that adopts LWE cadres eliminated also declined by 35% (225 to 145). At
a multi-pronged strategy in the areas of security, development, the same time, the developmental outreach by the Government
ensuring rights and entitlements of local communities. of India has seen a large number of LWE cadres shunning the
path of violence and returning to the mainstream.
Simultaneously, focused attention is also paid to the
development. The Government of India has launched special In 2019, Chhattisgarh with 263 incidents and 77 deaths,
schemes for improving the basic infrastructure like road and remains the worst affected State followed by Jharkhand (200
telecom connectivity, and skill upgradation, etc. Besides, incidents and 54 deaths), Maharashtra (66 incidents and 34
the implementation of the Forest Rights Act, especially the deaths), Bihar (62 incidents and 17 deaths), and Odisha (45
provisions pertaining to allotment of title-deeds to individuals incidents and 11 deaths).
and communities is also an area of priority. To give further The underlying philosophy is to enhance the capacity of State
impetus, funds are provided for filling critical infrastructure gaps Governments to tackle the LWE menace in a concerted manner.
in public infrastructure and services which are of urgent nature The overall improvement in the LWE scenario can be attributed
under Special Central Assistance (SCA) scheme for the most to greater presence and increased capacity of the Security Forces
affected LWE districts. across the LWE affected States, better operational strategy and
Resolute implementation of the National Policy and Action better monitoring of development schemes in affected areas.
Plan by the government has resulted in significant improvement The State-wise break up of LWE violence profile is given in
in the LWE scenario across the country. The last six years the table next.
2020
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 upto
31.3.2020

State
Incidents

Incidents

Incidents

Incidents

Incidents

Incidents

Incidents

Incidents

Incidents

Incidents

Incidents
Deaths

Deaths

Deaths

Deaths

Deaths

Deaths

Deaths

Deaths

Deaths

Deaths

Deaths
Andhra 100 24 54 9 67 13 28 7 18 4 35 8 17 6 26 7 12 3 18 5 20 0
Pradesh
Bihar 307 97 316 63 166 44 177 69 163 32 110 17 127 28 99 22 59 15 62 17 5 0
Chhattisgarh 625 343 465 204 370 109 355 111 328 112 466 101 395 107 373 130 392 153 263 77 97 42
Jharkhand 501 157 517 182 480 163 387 152 384 103 310 56 323 85 251 56 205 43 200 54 45 8
M.P. 7 1 8 0 11 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 12 2 3 1 4 0 5 2 4 0
Maharashtra 94 45 109 54 134 41 71 19 70 28 55 18 73 23 69 16 75 12 66 34 9 1
Odisha 218 79 192 53 171 45 101 35 103 26 912 28 86 27 81 29 75 12 45 11 15 4

The geographical spread of LWE violence has also been the States, it is time to consolidate the gains in order to end this
shrinking considerably. In 2019, LWE violence was reported menace once and for all.
from 241 Police stations in 61 districts spread across 9 states
as compared to 291 PSs in 58 districts spread over 9 states in STEPS TAKEN BY GOVERNMENT TO CONTROL
2013. The arc of violence has been considerably restricted NAXALISM
with just 30 districts accounting for 83% of the LWE violence. • The CPI (Maoist) which is the major LWE organization
The Communist Party of India (Maoist) continues to be the responsible for most incidents of violence/casualties has been
most potent among the various LWE outfits in the country and included in the Schedule of terrorist organizations, along with
accounted for more than 87% of total LWE violent incidents and
all its formations and front organizations under the existing
resultant deaths. Amidst increasing reverses, the CPI (Maoist)
Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act 1967.
has been making efforts to expand to new areas along inter-state
borders without any significant success. • Several steps have been taken to strengthen and upgrade
the capabilities of intelligence agencies at the Central and
With the Maoists forced to remain on the back foot in most of
State level. This includes intelligence sharing through Multi-
 60
Agency Centre (MAC) at the Central level and State Multi • Special Central Assistance (SCA) - (For most LWE affected
Agency Centre (SMAC) at the State level on a 24x7 basis. districts) Under the scheme funds are provided to the State
Other steps taken to strengthen the intelligence mechanism to fill the critical gaps in public infrastructure and services,
include setting up of Joint Command and Control Centre at which are of emergent nature and require immediate action.
Jagdalpur and Gaya, strengthening of technical and human • Assistance to Central Agencies for LWE Management
intelligence, better cooperation amongst the Security Forces, Scheme (ACALWEMS)- Under the scheme funds are
district police and intelligence agencies, thrust on generation provided to the CAPFs/Central agencies for hiring of
of real time intelligence and creation/ strengthening of State helicopters by CRPF, payment of bills pertaining to air-lift
Intelligence Bureaus (SIBs) in the LWE affected states. provided by Indian Air Force for counter LWE operations,
• The area of operations of CPI (Maoist) cadres is not confined and for infrastructure support to CAPFs.
to a single state but is spread over several states. Therefore, • For ensuring faster and speedy development in the LWE
better inter-state coordination at various levels on a number affected States, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and
of aspects is essential. The Government of India has taken Climate Change (MoEF&CC) has extended the limit of the
a number of steps to improve inter-state meetings and general approval under Section 2 of the Forest (Conservation)
interactions between the bordering districts of LWE affected Act, 1980 for diversion of forest land up to 40 hectares for
states creating infrastructure of 14 categories relating to schools,
• Majority of casualties to security forces in anti-LWE dispensaries/hospitals, electrical and telecommunication
operations are caused by IEDs. The Ministry of Home Affairs lines, drinking water projects, water/rain harvesting
continues to support extensive counter-IED capacity building structures, minor irrigation canals, non-conventional sources
efforts of CAPFs better inter-state coordination. of energy, skill upgradation/vocational training center, rural
• The Ministry of Home Affairs has also issued a Standard roads.
Operating Procedure (SOP) on ‘Issues related to Explosives/ • The Government of India has been implementing Road
IEDs/Landmines in LWE Affected Areas’ and circulated to all Requirement Plan (RRP-I) since 26.02.2009 for improving
road connectivity in 34 LWE affected districts of 8 States
stakeholders to promote best practices in IED Management.
namely, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Chhattisgarh,
• The LWE affected States have been sanctioned India Reserve
Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha and Uttar
(IR) battalions, mainly to strengthen security apparatus at Pradesh.
their level and also to enable the states to provide gainful • The Government of India has approved a Centrally Sponsored
employment to youth, particularly in the LWE affected areas. Scheme namely “Road Connectivity Project for Left Wing
56 IR battalions were sanctioned to 10 LWE affected states Extremism Affected Areas” (RCPLWEA) on 28.12.2016 to
of which 45 have been raised. In addition, Government has improve the rural road connectivity in the most LWE affected
sanctioned raising of 10 new Specialized India Reserve districts. The Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) is the
Battalions (SIRB) in the LWE states. sponsoring Ministry of the Project.
The following schemes are being implemented by the MHA in • In order to address connectivity issues in LWE areas,
LWE affected areas: a scheme for installation of Mobile Towers is being
implemented by the Department of Telecommunication,
Security Related Expenditure (SRE) Scheme Ministry of Communications.
The Government of India reimburses the LWE affected State • Under the provision of the Scheduled Tribes and Other
Governments the security related expenditure incurred on ex- Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights)
gratia payment to the families of civilian/ security forces killed Act, 2006, 16,04,570 title deeds have been distributed to
in LWE violence, training and operational needs of security individuals and communities to ensure their livelihood and
forces, The SRE Scheme would enhance the capacity of LWE food security, and protect their rights on the forest land in
affected States to fight the LWE menace. 367.26 crore have been 10 LWE affected States.
released in 2019-20. • The Government of India has been implementing two
• Special Infrastructure Scheme schemes, namely, ‘Skill Development in 47 LWE affected
The scheme approved in 2017 is being implemented for districts’ and ‘Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana
strengthening of the State Intelligence Branches (SIBs) and (PMKVY)’, for creating infrastructure and providing
Special Forces of the States. employment linked skill training to youths in LWE affected
• Fortified Police Stations Scheme: The scheme approved in areas.
2010 is being implemented to assist the State governments in • Department of School Education & Literacy (DoSEL),
constructing or strengthening of 400 Fortified Police Stations. Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) has
• Civic Action Programme (CAP) - Under this Scheme, opened 7 new Kendriya Vidyalayas (KVs) and 6 new Jawahar
financial grants are provided to the Central Armed Police Navodaya Vidyalayas (JNVs) in the most LWE affected
Forces (CAPFs) to undertake various welfare activities in districts, which did not have KVs/JNVs. 4 new KVs have
the LWE affected areas. been sanctioned, which will be opened shortly.
 61
The SAMADHAN Scheme
Presiding over a review meeting of the states affected by
Left-Wing Extremism in 2017, then Union Home Minister
Rajnath Singh announced a new strategy against the Maoists—
SAMADHAN.
S-smart leadership,
A-aggressive strategy,
M-motivation and training,
A-actionable intelligence,
D-dashboard-based KPIs (key performance indicators) and
KRAs (key result areas), In April 2017, a total of 26 CRPF personnel were killed and
eight others injured during an encounter that took place at the
H-harnessing technology, Burkapal-Chintagufa area in the middle of the Maoist violence-
A-action plan for each theatre and hit south Bastar area in Chattisgarh.
N- no access to financing.
Reasons for maoists hold despite government actions
• Public support
• Skillful use of IEDs, LMG, AK 47
• Geographic advantages (knowledge of terrain)
• Ideologically attracts a large number of youth
• With their injustice-narrative, they can rally people to their
cause. By providing services to marginalized people, they
attempt to establish some form of legitimacy.
• Issues of exploitation, inadequate employment opportunities,
artificially low wages, geographic isolation and lack of land
reforms are reality
• The CPI (Maoist) has developed close fraternal ties with
North-East insurgent groups like the Revolutionary People’s In March 2017, 12 CRPF jawans were killed in a Maoist attack
Front, People’s Liberation Army of Manipur, Nationalist in insurgency-hit Sukma district in Chhattisgarh. The attack
Socialist Council of Nagaland and United Liberation Front was an ambush. After killing the jawans, the Maoists stole 10
of Assam. weapons from the dead troopers and detonated an IED explosive.

Funding WAY FORWARD

There is little concrete evidence that would suggest a steady flow The Government of India has been addressing the menace
of external funding for the CPI-Maoists. Rather, as outlined in holistically by adopting a multi-pronged approach and the
the document ‘Our Financial Policy’ adopted at the CPI Maoists’ results have been encouraging. The LWE theatre has witnessed
9th Unity Congress in 2007, the sources of funding come from a consistent decline in violence and considerable shrinkage in
membership fees and contributions, extortion and confiscation geographical spread in the last 5 years. The government believes
of wealth and income of the enemy and ‘revolutionary taxes’. that Maoists do not want root causes like underdevelopment to be
These funds aim to cater to three main economic needs: war addressed in a meaningful manner, since they resort to targeting
expenditures, propaganda and the people. As such, the Maoists
have established an elaborate and strict tax collection system. school buildings, roads, railways, bridges, health infrastructure,
However, extortion and racketeering conducted by the Maoists communication facilities, etc. in a major way. By attacking
not only affects individuals, who could see their property burnt development and infrastructure projects, Naxalites directly
or even lose their lives over refusing to contribute to the cause, impede the development of India’s economy, while perpetuating
but also corporations. Evidence suggests that some businesses the cycle of poverty of rural populations themselves. They wish
operating in Maoist areas pay a tax in order to avoid attacks. to keep the population in their areas of influence marginalized, to
This method of extortion highlights hypocrisy on behalf of perpetuate their outdated ideology. Consequently, the process of
the Maoists, and also causes a risk to these companies as they development has been set back by decades in many parts of the
could be prosecuted for terror financing. Recently, some reports country under LWE influence. This needs to be recognized by
have also emerged linking Naxalites to organised crime. For the civil society and the media to build pressure on the Maoists
the insurgents to sustain their activities in the face of India’s
increased counter-insurgency tactics, it would make sense that to eschew violence, join the mainstream and recognize the fact
that the socio-economic and political dynamics and aspirations of
the Maoists have had to evolve and orientate themselves towards
21st century India are far removed from the Maoist world-view.
deeper organised crime networks. Moreover, democracy is all about engagement, talks, discussion
RECENT INCIDENTS OF NAXAL VIOLENCE and deliberations. All stakeholders must engage in positive
discussions and Maoists should be persuaded to surrender but
In April 2021, 22 security personnel lost their lives in most importantly any threats to unity and integrity of India must
Chhattisgarh’s Bijapur Naxal attack. be addressed within the stringent provisions of law of land.
 62

Previous Year’s Questions

1. Article 244 of the Indian Constitution relates to population - are among its most poor and marginalised.
administration of schedule area and tribal area. Analyse Thousands of them were uprooted from their native land
the impact of non-implementation of the provisions of by hydro-electric projects. The fears of these tribals seem
the fifth schedule on the growth of left-wing extremism. to be further aggravated in Tarlakota, another pocket
(200 words) 10 marks (2013) of Malkangiri, where thousands of tribal families were
Ans. Article 244 of Indian Constitution deals with Schedule settled following the Machkund Project since 1964. But
Area and Schedule Tribes. Article 244(75): Provision of unfortunately, they do not have pattas or rights over the
5th Schedule shall apply to administration and control land they till. Their anger had turned them against the
of schedule areas in every state other than Meghalaya, state. Thus, in 1967 when the Naxalbari revolution began
Tripura, Assam and Mizoram. Article 244(2): Provision there was support for it in Malkangiri. But the villagers
of 6th Schedule shall apply to administration of control of never got any land and over the last 40 years, the Naxal
tribal areas of Meghalaya, Tripura, Assam and Mizoram. saviours have become fearful oppressors. Their violence
has kept development out and fuelled greater poverty.
The 5th Schedule deals with special provisions to accelerate
the economic development for the underdeveloped areas Over the last two decades, there has been a massive
inhabited by aboriginal except Assam, Meghalaya, push to this development agenda, which has coincided
Tripura and Mizoram. It made governors the custodians with economic liberalisation and the entry of private
of tribal right. They are mandated to oversee good corporations into tribal areas. This has been met with
governance, development, peace and tranquility in the considerable resistance by tribal communities. Tribal
area and they are assisted by tribal advisory council and protests are being met with violence by the State’s
required to make annual report to the president with paramilitary forces and the private security staff of
recommendations. Furthermore, no legislation would corporations involved. These dismal situations have
apply on 5th Schedule areas unless approved by the paved the way for LWE in tribal areas.
governors. Along with this Art. 275 made special grants- Tribal communities face disregard for their values
in-aid to these areas for economic development is also and culture, breach of protective legislations, serious
provide. material and social deprivation, and aggressive resource
But, at the same time, 5th Schedule was increasingly alienation.
ignored and almost rendered in letter not in spirit. Corrective strategies
Governor’s reports seldom reached the needs of these It is widely acknowledged that a large section of the
areas, if ever done they were not properly deliberated in Indian population, especially the tribal communities,
parliament. Lack of sufficient scheme implementation have not received the full benefits of development
staff and lack of screening of legislation in these areas processes undertaken over the past six decades. Indeed, it
created a situation which gave rise to left-wing extremism is recognised that the tribal population has been adversely
in India (Naxalites). The inefficient implementation of affected by the developmental projects undertaken during
5th Schedule provision had led to huge outcry among this period.
tribals in these areas. As a result, demand to out through Hence, the solution to these issues should enable the
state power over water, forest, land and mineral wealth
tribals to protect their own interests.
has generated in the form of left wing extrimism. Major
affected areas of LWE are Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Andhra • Due share in socio-economic progress for tribal people
Pradesh, etc. and their habitations, including facilities like health,
2. The persisting drives of the Government for development education, livelihood, drinking water, sanitation, roads,
of large industries in backward areas have resulted in electricity and sustainable income, in situ;
isolating the tribal population and the farmers who face • Protecting the land and forest rights of tribal communities
multiple displacements. With Malkangiri and Naxalbari is equivalent to protecting their livelihoods, life and
foci, discuss the corrective strategies needed to win the liberty. This remains one of the critical necessities of a
LWE doctrine affected citizens back into the mainstream welfare state. Therefore, laws protecting tribal land from
of social and economic growth. alienation must be upheld at all costs;
(200 words) 12.5 marks (2015) • The right to natural resources in tribal lands has to be
Ans. Development-induced displacement of human settlement protected. They should only be accessed with the consent
has been an important issue engendering Maoist conflict. of the Gram Sabhas of the villages (both directly affected
Large-scale displacements caused by megadevelopment and in the zone of influence);
projects have intensified the confrontation between the • While tribal lands hold much of the natural and mineral
displaced and the state. wealth of the nation, these resources cannot be alienated
Malkangiri’s tribals - about 58 per cent of the district’s against their will. Moreover, communities who part
 63
with their lands have the right to share in the wealth They stridently take up issues like ‘displacement of
and income so generated from its resources. Hence, a tribals’, ‘corporate exploitation’, ‘human rights violations’
reasonable share of the wealth generated by the resources by security forces, etc. and often make fantastic claims in
in their homelands must accrue to them by law. this regard which get reported even by the mainstream
• India is the largest democracy in the world. However, media.
LWE desires to weaken and make the roots of democracy The front organisations also skilfully use state structures
hollow. The development of new India is envisaging is and legal processes to further the Maoist agenda and
based on development and strength of democracy. weaken the enforcement regime.
3. What are the determinants of LWE in eastern part of To combat the LWE menace, the Government of India
India? What strategy should Government of India, civil has formulated National Policy and Action Plan in 2015,
administration and security forces adopt to counter the which consists of a multi-pronged approach comprising
threat in the affected areas? security measures, development initiatives and ensuring
rights & entitlements of local communities.
(250 words) 15 marks (2020))
MHA is supporting the State Governments extensively
Ans: A number of LWE outfits have been operating in certain
by way of deployment of CAPF Battalions, provision
remote and poorly connected pockets of the country for
of helicopters and UAVs and sanction of India Reserve
a few decades now. Factors which decisively affect the
Battalions (IRBs)/Special India Reserve Battalions
nature or outcome of LWE in eastern part comprising of
(SIRBs), etc.
Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal are:
Apart from flagship infrastructure schemes of the Central
Some sections of the society, especially the younger
Government, several development initiatives have been
generation, have romantic illusions about the Maoists,
implemented for construction of roads, installation of
arising out of an incomplete understanding of their
mobile towers, skill development, improving network
ideology.
of banks and post offices, health and education facilities.
A strident propaganda is also carried out against the Resolute implementation of National Policy and Action
purported and real inadequacies of the existing state Plan has resulted in consistent decline in the LWE
structure. violence and its geographical spread.

Think
Yourself
Should army be used to the fight against Naxalism or Maoist/Naxals?

Case
Study
Sonalika Singh is a newly appointed DC of a Naxal hit district in Jharkhand. The Maoists have been continuously disrupting the
development projects in the region. Assuming yourself at the post of D.C., analyse the options available with you and also craft
your own strategy to overcome the issue.

Probable Questions
1. Examine the efforts of the governments to curb Naxalism.
2. Discuss the impact of non-implementation of the provisions of 5th Schedule on the growth of LWE.
3. It has been more than 50 years of government fighting against Naxalism, yet Naxalism posses the greatest threat to internal
security. Critically analyse the statement in the light of recent Naxal attacks.
4. Which of the leftist groups are active and are hampering development done by the state in the central and northern region?
5. ‘Various mechanisms were developed by the government for tackling LWE, which involved both military and interlocutor
option for cutting extremism and downsizing its expansion’. Elucidate.
6. ‘The CPI (Maoist) is the extremist group for all left wing extremists, their ideology is not tamed by the Communist thought
process, as it requires violence to survive their existence’ Comment.
7. The 2021 Sukma-Bijapur attack was an ambush carried out by the Naxalite-Maoist insurgents from the CPI (Maoist)
against Indian security forces. Why government is unable to control the LWE outfits designs despite military control over
the region?
 64

MIND MAP

LEFT -W ING EXTREMISM

Left-wing Extr emism affected states in
Indi a –
Left-wing extremism or Naxalism began in Chhattisgarh is the epicenter of Maoist
Naxalbari , a village in West Bengal in 1967 insurgency in India.
Charu Mazumdar's nine essays formed the basis In Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha and Bihar
of the Naxalite ideology. had seen drop in Maoist activities due to
Charu criticized the Russian model of security measures and developmental approach
communism as revisionists. by the state governments.
He believed that revolution in India will come In Maharashtra, the security teams have upper
through the peasants as in China. hand and trying to control the LWE activities.

The Communist Part y in India was

formed in 1925
Government steps to curb Naxalis m in
It aimed at a proletariat-led national revolution Indi a –
against the Imperial power.
Creation of a LWE division within the Home
Youths in India attracted by Gandhi's
Ministry.
charismatic leadership rather than Communism.
Reorganizing organizational structure of the
Differences in Communism led to
CAPF and its deployment in affected regions.
disintegration into a number of regional parties.
Multi-pronged strategy in LWE regions by
The Communist initially believed in the use of
providing security and ensuring development.
violence to capture power.
Multi-Agency Centre at the Centre level and
CPI-Maoist is the major LWE outfit in India.
State Multi-Agency Centre at the state level.
Initiated security related expenditure (SRE)
Scheme and the Samadhan Scheme.
Naxalism' s r ise in India was due to –
Social causes, such as human rights violation,
social inequalities, etc. Reasons for Maoists hold despite
Economic causes, such as unemployment, Government actions –
increasing poverty, etc.
Government deficit, such as poor Public support to the Naxals and the later
implementation of govt. schemes, etc. skillful use of arms.
Political causes, such as nexus between local Geographical knowledge of terrain.
leaders, politicians, police, etc.
Exploiting the economic underdevelopment of
the poor people.
Some recent attacks by Maoists in Chhattisgarh
have emboldened them.
 Left-Wing Extremism

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 7 GOVERNMENT WELFARE
SCHEMES

BACKGROUND

The socio-economic situation in the country has been fast-changing since the mid-eighties, especially because of the New
Economic Policy. The concept of liberalization is reflected in the new trends in the economy of the urban areas. In the rural and
tribal areas, however, though the impact of a market-friendly economy has made some inroads, the rural poor who are asset less
and unskilled have not been able to benefit from the radical changes that have taken place in the economy.There is an increasing
recognition that economic growth, although essential for dealing with many social problems, often is accompanied by acute
social problems in the absence of deliberate social planning. A strategy of overall development should, therefore, include as
an essential component, those social welfare activities that help to ensure that national plans and policies are fully responsive
to the needs and aspirations of the people. While remedial measures remain essential, high priority would be accorded to the
developmental and preventive functions of social welfare.
Government Schemes in India are launched by the government to address the social and economic welfare of the citizens of
this nation.These schemes play a crucial role in solving many socio-economic problems that beset Indian society, and thus their
awareness is a must for any concerned citizen. A social welfare system is a scheme for providing financial aid to individuals or
families in need in society. Often funded in whole or in part by the government, social welfare programs are designed to cover
costs of food, housing, healthcare, childcare, among others.Indian Government, at all levels, announces Welfare Schemes for a
cross-section of the society from time to time. These schemes could be either Central, State specific or a collaboration between
the Centre and the States. In this section, we have attempted to provide you easy and single-point access to information about
several welfare schemes of the Government and their various aspects including eligible beneficiaries, types of benefits, scheme
details, etc.

OBJECTIVES
To improve the quality of the life of the people. Upliftment of the poor. Development of rural and backward areas. Reducing the
economic inequality between different sections of society.

OVERVIEW
The Government of India had resorted to planned development as early as 1951 for minimizing inequality in income, status,
and opportunities of its people. Reduction in the incidence of poverty and improvement in the quality of life by bringing about
opportunities for self-development and employment continues to be the basic approach. The objective of sustained and equitable
development is being pursued not only by ensuring rapid economic growth and redistribution of income and provision of basic
social services for the deprived but also by generating the participation of such people in improving their own life. Despite the
twin objectives of planning, viz, economic growth with social justice, the fast-changing socio-economic scenario in the country in
the last few decades has had far-reaching consequences on socio-economic-medical and psychological growth and development
of the most marginalized, disadvantaged, and vulnerable groups of our society. The increased pace of industrialization and
consequent urban drift accompanied by stresses and strains of modern life viz, overcrowding of urban settlements, the emergence
of pavement dwellers and slum dwellings, unemployment, and poverty are some of the major economic factors these groups must
contend with. The growth of violence individual as well as collective especially towards the women and the girl child has already
assumed a national dimension. The negative influence of electronic media programs on the illiterate and the ignorant has caused
an increase in problems like vagrancy, juvenile delinquency, kidnapping, etc.
TIMELINE

1975 ICDS Scheme

2002 NHAD (Nutrition health awareness programs)
June 2014 ‘Namami Gange Programme’
 67

28th August Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana

2014
25 September Make in India
2014
25 September Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana
2014
2 October 2014 Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan
14th Bal Swachhta Mission
November
2014
25 December Indradanush Scheme
2014
22 January Sukanya Samridhi Yojana
2015
22 January Beti Bachao Beti Padhao
2015
29 April 2015 Smart Cities Scheme
9th May 2015 Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana
9th May 2015 Atal Pension Yojana
9th May 2015 Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana
1 July 2015 Digital India Mission
15 July 2015 Skill India Mission
March 2020 PM CARES Fund
May 2020 Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan
Sept. 2020 Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana

FACTS YOU NEED TO KNOW

ICDS (INTEGRATED CHILD DEVELOPMENT SCHEME)

•• SNP (Supplementary Nutrition Programs): Nutrition Programmes for children from 0-6 years to promote child
health development and for the pregnant mother and lactating mother for special additional nutrition.
•• NHAD (Nutrition health awareness programs): Programs to create awareness among pregnant women, lactating
mothers, and adolescent girls regarding health and nutrition.
•• IMMUNIZATION: Programs to ensure 100% of children below 0-6 years in collaboration with the health department.
•• PENSIONS
(a) The NSAP is launched to provide social assistance to the destitute “defined as any person who has little or no
regular means of subsistence from his/her source of income or through financial support from family members
or other sources”. The NSAP includes three components: National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS),
National Family Benefit Scheme (NFBS), and National Maternity Benefit Scheme (NMBS).
(b) INDIRA GANDHI NATIONAL OLD AGE PENSION SCHEME: Programs to provide financial assistance to
elder persons from the age of sixty and above lying under below poverty line (BPL).
•• NATIONAL FAMILY BENEFIT SCHEME: Programs to provide a one-time financial grant of ` 10,000/- per
primary bread earner of below poverty line (BPL) family.
•• IGNWPS (INDIRA GANDHI NATIONAL WIDOW PENSION SCHEME): Scheme to provide a pension of `
200/-per month to widows of below poverty line (BPL) family up to the attainment of 60 years of age.
•• KSY (KISHORI SHAKTI YOJNA): Programmes to educate adolescent girls regarding health, nutrition and to
prove vocational training to school dropout adolescent girls.
68

•• National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP)

Centrally Sponsored Scheme under the Ministry of Rural Development. For the fulfillment of the DPSP in Article 41
of the Constitution. To provide financial assistance to the elderly, widows, and persons with disabilities in the form
of social pensions.
Coverage: It currently covers more than three crore people who are below the poverty line (BPL), including about 80
lakh widows, 10 lakhs disabled, and 2.2 crores elderly.
•• Pradhan Mantri Awaas Yojana (Gramin)
“Housing for All” in rural areas under which the Government will provide an environmentally safe and secure pucca
house to every rural household by 2022.Named as Pradhan Mantri Awaas Yojana (Gramin), in its first phase, its target
is to complete 1 crore houses by March 2019. Minimum support of nearly ` 1.5 -1.6 lakh to a household is available.
There is also a provision for Bank loans up to ` 70,000/-, if the beneficiary so desires.
•• Shyama Prasad Mukherji Rurban Mission (SPMRM)
Launched in 2016, designed to deliver catalytic interventions to rural areas on the threshold of growth. Provision of
basic amenities like:
i. Provision of 24/7 Water Supply to all households,
ii. Solid and Liquid Waste Management facilities at the household and cluster level. Provision of Inter and Intra
village roads.
iii. Adequate Street Lights and Public Transport facilities using green technologies. Provision of Economic
Amenities.
iv. Various thematic areas in the sectors of Agri Services and Processing, Tourism, and Skill development to
promote Small and Medium Scale Enterprises.
•• Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana
Part of the National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) tasked with the dual objectives of adding diversity to the
incomes of rural poor families and cater to the career aspirations of rural youth. Focused on rural youth between
the ages of 15 and 35 years from poor families. Mandatory coverage of socially disadvantaged groups (SC/ST 50%;
Minority 15%; Women 33%).Guaranteed Placement for at least 75% trained candidates.
•• Deen Dayal Antyodaya Yojana - National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM)
Supported by the World Bank.Implemented across the country in all States and Union Territories (except Delhi and
Chandigarh). Organized the poor into Self Help Groups (SHGs) and make them capable of self-employment. Also
focuses on the bank linkage of the institutions. Start-up enterprises at village levels are also supported to promote
entrepreneurial activities in those areas.
•• Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana: Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana is a National Mission on Financial Inclusion
that provides an integrated approach to bring about a robust financial inclusion and ultimately provides banking
services to all households in the country.
•• Make in India: PM Narendra Modi launched the ‘Make in India’ campaign that will facilitate investment, foster
innovation, enhanced protection for intellectual property, and build the best in manufacturing infrastructure.‘Make
in India’ has identified 25 sectors in manufacturing, infrastructure, and service activities and detailed information is
being shared through interactive web-portal and professionally developed brochures.
•• Swachh Bharat Mission: Swachh Bharat Mission was launched in the entire country as a national movement. The
campaign aims to achieve the vision of a ‘Clean India’ by 2nd October 2019. The Swachh Bharat Abhiyan is the most
significant campaign with regards to sanitation by the Government of India.
•• Beti Bachao Beti Padhao: The goal of this scheme is to make girls socially and financially self-reliant through
education.
•• Atal Pension Yojana: Atal Pension Yojana is a pension scheme mainly aimed at providing a universal pension
scheme for those who are a part of the unorganized sector such as maids, gardeners, delivery boys, etc. This scheme
replaced the previous Swavalamban Yojana which wasn’t well-received by the people.
•• Digital India Mission: The Digital India program is a flagship program of the Government of India with a vision to
transform India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy.
•• Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maan-dhan: It is a voluntary and contributory pension scheme, under which the
subscriber would receive the following benefits:
(a) Minimum Assured Pension: Each subscriber under the PM-SYM, shall receive a minimum assured pension of
Rs 3000/- per month after attaining the age of 60 years.
(b) Family Pension: During the receipt of a pension, if the subscriber dies, the spouse of the beneficiary shall be
entitled to receive 50% of the pension received by the beneficiary as a family pension. Family pension applies
only to a spouse.
 69

(c) If a beneficiary has given a regular contribution and died due to any cause (before age of 60 years), his/her spouse
will be entitled to join and continue the scheme subsequently by payment of regular contribution or exit the
scheme as per provisions of exit and withdrawal.
•• Gold Monetisation Scheme: Gold Monetisation Scheme was launched by the Government of India in 2015, under this
scheme one can deposit their gold in any form in a GMS account to earn interest as the price of the gold metal goes up.
•• PM CARES Fund -Prime Minister’s Citizen Assistance and Relief in Emergency Situation Fund: This is a public
charitable trust initiated by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. This national trust is created to meet the distressed and
dreadful situation like COVID-19 in times ahead. PM CARES was initiated on March 28, 2020, under the chairmanship
of the Indian Prime Minister with the Ministry of Home Affairs, Defence Minister, and Finance Minister as the ex-officio
Trustee.
•• Aarogya Setu: The Government of India took the initiative to fight the Coronavirus pandemic. It launched a mobile
application to spread the awareness of COVID_19 among the citizens of India through an app called Aarogya Setu. The
Aarogya Setu mobile app has been developed by the National Informatics Centre (NIC) that comes under the Ministry of
Electronics and Information Technology. For detailed information, visit the link of Aarogya Setu given above.
•• Ayushman Bharat: Launched in 2018 by Prime Minister Narendra Modi Ayushman Bharat is a health scheme. It is the
largest government-funded healthcare program in the world with over 50 crore beneficiaries. The Ayushman Bharath
program has two sub-missions PM-JAY & HWCs.
•• Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY): Earlier known as the National Health Protection Scheme (NHPS) will
cover the financial protection for availing healthcare services at the secondary and tertiary levels. Health and Wellness
Centres (HWCs) aimed at improving access to cheap and quality healthcare services at the primary level.
•• UMANG: Unified Mobile Application for New-age Governance is a mobile application launched by PM Narendra Modi
to provide secured access to the citizens to multiple government services at one platform. UMANG is a key component
of the Digital India initiative of the government that intends to make all traditional offline government services available
24 * 7 online through a single unified app.
•• PRASAD Scheme: Pilgrimage Rejuvenation and Spirituality Augmentation Drive. The Scheme is launched
under the Ministry of tourism in the year 2015. The aim of the PRASAD Scheme is the integrated development
of pilgrimage destinations in a prioritized, planned, and sustainable manner for providing a complete
religious tourism experience. The focus of Pilgrimage Rejuvenation and Spirituality Augmentation Drive- PRASAD is
on the development and beautification of the identified pilgrimage destinations. Further details on the PRASAD scheme
are given in the related page link given above in the article.
•• Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan: The scheme (meaning self-reliant India scheme) is a name given to the full-fledged
economic stimulus package announced by the Union Government. It has been launched to make people self-dependent
and overcome the difficulties caused by the coronavirus pandemic.
•• National Digital Health Mission: Launched on August 15, 2020, the mission aims to create an integrated healthcare
system linking practitioners with the patients digitally by giving them access to real-time health records.
•• PM Atmanirbhar Swasth Bharat Yojana: The scheme is launched to develop capacities of primary, secondary, and
tertiary health care systems, strengthen existing national institutions, and create new institutions, to cater to the detection
and cure of new and emerging diseases.
•• National Infrastructure Pipeline Project: It is a social and economic infrastructure project which was launched in
2019 to improve the overall quality of life for all citizens. The NIP will fulfill all the crucial factors that will help India
in achieving its target of becoming a $5 trillion economy by the financial year 2025.

KEY TERMS
•• Welfare Schemes for Unorganised Sector
The Ministry of Labour and Employment to ensure the welfare of workers has enacted the Unorganized Workers Social
Security Act 2008. This Act gives provision for the formation of the National Social Security Board which will help in
formulating social security schemes which are given below:
1. Life and Disability Cover
2. Health and Maternity Benefits
3. Old Age Protection
70

•• Welfare Schemes for Scheduled Caste

Initiatives that are taken up by the Government of India for the empowerment of Scheduled Class are:
a. Educational Empowerment – Provide scholarships from pre-metric level to Ph.D. programs; provide coaching to
students preparing for higher studies.
b. National Scheduled Class Finance and Development Corporation (NSFDC) – Financial assistance to those who
live Below Poverty Line.
c. National Safai Karamcharis Finance and Development Corporation (NSKFDC) – Financial assistance to safai
karamcharis and manual scavengers and their dependents.
d. Special Central Assistance to Scheduled Castes Sub-Plan
(SCSP) – States/UTs must formulate special component plans (SCP) and earmark funds for execution of the plan.
e. Scheme of Assistance to Scheduled Castes Development Corporation (SCDC) – Funds are provided to State
Scheduled Castes Development Corporation (SCDC).
f. Venture Capital Fund – To promote entrepreneurship amongst the Scheduled Castes. The nodal agency is IFCI
Limited.
g. Credit Enhancement Guarantee Scheme – The objective of this scheme is to provide funding for start-up
entrepreneurs belonging to Scheduled Castes.
h. Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 – Untouchability is a punishable offense.
i. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 – Financial assistance is provided
to States by the Centre to handle many social problems.
j. Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013 – To eliminate dry latrines
and manual scavenging.
k. Pradhan Mantri Adarsh Gram Yojana (PMAGY) – Started in 2015 to provide holistic development in villages
having more than 50% scheduled caste population.
l. Babu Jagjivan Ram Chhatrawas Yojna – To provide hostel facilities for students studying at higher secondary to
university level.
•• Welfare Schemes for Scheduled Tribe
i. Provide education scholarships.
ii. Under Article 275(1), the Central Government annually grants 100% aid to State governments.
iii. Provide Minimum Support Price for Minor Forest Produce.
iv. Promote tribal culture by supporting Tribal Research Institutes and tribal festivals.
•• Welfare Schemes for Backwards Classes
There are multiple schemes which are given below.
o Education Empowerment – Scholarships from pre-metric level to higher education.
o Mahila Samridhi Yojana – To provide microfinance to women entrepreneurs
o Swarnima Special Scheme – To promote self-dependence among women
o Assistance to Voluntary Organizations for the welfare of OBCs – Promote the involvement of National Backward
Classes Finance and Development Corporation (NBCFDC) to improve education and socio-economic condition of
people coming under Backward Class and help them to start income generation activities on their own.
•• Welfare Schemes for Minority Community
There are plenty of schemes launched by the Government of India for the upliftment of the people belonging to the Minority
Community.
I. Nai Roshni – Scheme for women to provide leadership development training.
II. Scholarship Schemes from pre-metric to higher education, for students belonging to minority communities.
III. Seekho Aur Kamao – The objective is to provide skill development.
IV. Jiyo Parsi – Scheme to stop the decline of the Parsi population.
V. Minority Cyber Gram – To introduce digital literacy skills among minorities.
•• Welfare Schemes for Differently Abled
There are schemes launched for the welfare of Differently abled people. Some of the schemes are given below.
1. Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan – To help persons with disabilities to have better access to transportation, Information,
and Communication.
2. Deendayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme (DDRS) – To ensure there are equal opportunities and social justice
to people with disabilities.
•• Welfare Schemes for Senior Citizens
Details of some of the schemes launched for senior citizens are given below:
1. Vayoshreshtha Sammans – Provide national awards for senior citizens, for rendering services to elderly persons.
2. Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme – Provide social assistance for old age persons.
 71

••
Welfare Schemes for Women and Child Development
(a) Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana – It is a maternity benefit program.
(b) Urban Poverty Alleviation Schemes
There are multiple schemes by the Government for poverty alleviation in urban areas. Some of the schemes are given below.
(a) Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Provide housing for all.
(b) Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – Provide self-employment and skilled wage employment opportunities.
(c) Rural Poverty Alleviation Schemes
Some of the schemes are given below:
A. National Rurban Mission (NRuM) – Stimulate economic development in villages.
B. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Provide housing for all.

OUTCOMES

These schemes helped individuals and families through programs such as health care, food stamps, unemployment compensation,
housing assistance, and childcare assistance.These schemes also helped in protecting individuals from poverty and relative
deprivation. More ambitiously, the policies helped to promote the general welfare and well-being of the population. Social
welfare schemes such as the Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana, Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana, and Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana
among others have brought about a positive change in the lives of people in rural India in particular. For example, as part of the
Swachh Bharat scheme launched in 2014, each of the 221 families in Moondiya—located in the Todaraisingh sub-district of
Tonkgot ₹12,000 via direct transfers in their bank accounts to build toilets in their homes. The panchayat worked with officers
of the mission to ensure there are 2-3 public toilets in the village.
IMPACT

•• Political: Inclusive social security schemes build political alliances between those living in poverty, those on middle
incomes, and the affluent.
•• Social: Health outcomes of the elderly improve when they are economically independent, impacts on poverty, access to
cleaner cooking fuels and health care facilities, added security to females, access to proper toilets., has strengthened the
fight against social evils.
•• Economic: Increase in real agricultural wages in rural areas, unemployment compensation.

WAY FORWARD
Economic growth is important for social protection. Recent economic growth has had a significant effect on social indicators.
Nevertheless, the impact of high economic attainment on social and welfare indicators has been less pronounced than in some
states of our country with less robust economic performance. Despite this India spends less on social and welfare policies than
many countries in the Asia Pacific region.To compound matters, key areas of social and welfare expenditure are be set with
serious inefficiencies. There should be a clear focus on the critical importance of improving access to social welfare programs
for women and girls. It is possible to improve the impact of economic growth on social and welfare indicators by addressing
the core administrative and governance inefficiencies in social protection programs.Thus, much can be achieved without a large
enhancement of social welfare budgets.
 Government Welfare
Schemes

ISBN : 9789390511624
This book is available at all leading physical book stores
and online book stores
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 8 GENE TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
•• Genetic engineering is the process of using recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology to alter the genetic makeup of an
organism. Traditionally, humans have manipulated genomes indirectly by controlling breeding and selecting offspring with
desired traits.
•• Genetic engineering involves the direct manipulation of one or more genes. Most often, a gene from another species is
added to an organism’s genome to give it a desired phenotype.
BACKGROUND
•• The term ‘genetic engineering’ was first coined by Jack Williamson in his science fiction novel Dragon’s Island, published
in 1951.
•• The double-helix structure of Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules is confirmed by James Watson and Francis
Crick in 1953.
•• In 1972 Paul Berg used restriction enzymes and DNA ligases to create the first recombinant DNA molecules.
•• The process of transferring genes from one organism to another, was first accomplished by Herbert Boyer and Stanley
Cohen in 1973.
ƒƒ The first genetically modified organism to be created was a bacterium, in 1973.
ƒƒ In 1974, the same techniques were applied to mice.
ƒƒ In 1994 the first genetically modified foods were made available.
OVERVIEW

Genetic Engineering
•• It is a technique by which heritable material, which does not usually occur or will not occur naturally in the organism or cell
concerned, generated outside the organism, or the cell is inserted into said cell or organism.
•• It also means the formation of new combinations of genetic material by incorporation of a cell into a host cell, where they
occur naturally (self-cloning) as well as modification of an organism or in a cell by deletion and removal of parts of the
heritable material.
Process of Genetic Engineering
•• It is the process of altering the DNA in an organism’s genome. It refers to the direct manipulation of the organism’s
characteristics in a particular way.
Recombinant DNA Technology
•• It is the joining together of DNA molecules from two different species. The recombined DNA molecule is inserted into a
host organism to produce new genetic combinations that are of value to science, medicine, agriculture, and industry.
ƒƒ The focus of all genetics is the gene, the fundamental goal of laboratory geneticists is to isolate, characterize, and
manipulate genes.
ƒƒ The technology is based primarily on two other technologies, cloning and DNA sequencing.
Cloning
•• Cloning is the process of generating a genetically identical copy of a cell or an organism. Cloning happens often in nature.
Genes, cells, tissues, and even whole animals can all be cloned.
ƒƒ For example, when a cell replicates itself asexually without any genetic alteration or recombination.
•• Animals are cloned in one of two ways
ƒƒ The first method is called embryo twinning. Scientists first split an embryo in half. Those two halves are then placed
in a mother’s uterus. Each part of the embryo develops into a unique animal, and the two animals share the same genes.
•• The second method is called somatic cell nuclear transfer. Somatic cells are all the cells that make up an organism, but
that are not sperm or egg cells.
74

ƒƒ Sperm and egg cells contain only one set of chromosomes, and when they join during fertilization, the mother’s
chromosomes merge with the father’s. Somatic cells, on the other hand, already contain two full sets of chromosomes.
•• Cloning of an animal was successfully performed for the first time by Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute
in Edinburgh, Scotland.
ƒƒ They cloned a sheep named Dolly. Dolly was born in 1996 and was the first mammal to be cloned.
DNA Sequencing
•• The technique used to determine the nucleotide sequence of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). The nucleotide sequence is the
most fundamental level of knowledge of a gene or genome.
•• It is the blueprint that contains the instructions for building an organism, and no understanding of genetic function or
evolution could be complete without obtaining this information.
base pairs
base pairs

nucleotide

sugar-phosphate hydrogen
backbone bonds

phosphate nitrogen-
containing
sugar bases

Transgenic Animals
•• Transgenic means that one or more DNA sequences from another species have been introduced by artificial means.
Organisms that have altered genomes are known as transgenic. Most transgenic organisms are generated in the laboratory
for research purposes.
ƒƒ Animals usually are made transgenic by having a small sequence of foreign DNA injected into a fertilized egg or
developing embryo. For exp: knock-out mice.
ƒƒ Transgenic plants can be made by introducing foreign DNA into a variety of different tissues. (e.g., golden rice, cotton,
rice, maize, potato, tomato, brinjal, cauliflowers, cabbage, etc.)
Gene Therapy
•• Gene therapy aims to treat/cure/prevent disease by replacing a defective gene with a normal one using recombinant DNA
technology.
ƒƒ It is a collection of methods that allows correction of a gene defect that has been diagnosed in a child/embryo.
ƒƒ Correction of a genetic defect involves delivery of a normal gene into the individual or embryo to take over the function
of and compensate for the non-functional gene.
Application of Genetic Technology
•• Genetic engineering is used by scientists to enhance or modify the characteristics of an individual organism. It can be
applied to any organism, from a virus to a sheep. For example, genetic engineering can be used to produce plants that have
a higher nutritional value or can tolerate exposure to herbicides.
•• Food security: The Green Revolution succeeded in tripling the food supply but yet it was not enough to feed the growing
human population. Use of genetically modified crops is a possible solution.
ƒƒ The understanding of genetics could enable farmers to obtain maximum yield from their fields and to minimise the use
of fertilisers and chemicals so that their harmful effects on the environment.
•• Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO): Plants, bacteria, fungi and animals whose genes have been altered by
manipulation are called Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO). GM plants have been useful in many ways:
ƒƒ It makes crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought, salt, heat)
ƒƒ It reduces reliance on chemical pesticides (pest-resistant crops)
ƒƒ It helps to reduce post harvest losses
ƒƒ It increases efficiency of mineral usage by plants (this prevents early exhaustion of fertility of soil)
ƒƒ It enhances nutritional value of food, e.g., Vitamin ‘A’ enriched rice
•• Bt toxin gene: It has been cloned from the bacteria and been expressed in plants to provide resistance to insects without the
need for insecticides; in effect created a bio-pesticide.
 75

ƒƒ It could decrease the amount of pesticide used. Bt toxin is produced by a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt
for short).

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Genetic Modification (GM)
•• It is the process whereby a genetically modified organism is made in the laboratory.
ƒƒ This involves making artificial or modified genetic material (GM constructs) which are inserted into the genomes of
cells or embryos.
ƒƒ The cell or embryo is regenerated to an organism.
Regulation of GMOs in India
•• India has a systematic and structured regulatory framework for biosafety evaluation of genetically modified organisms
(GMOs) and products thereof.
ƒƒ India was one of the early movers in development of a biosafety regulatory system for GMOs, way back in 1989.
•• Bt cotton is the only Genetically Modified (GM) crop that is allowed in India. It has alien genes from the soil bacterium
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that allows the crop to develop a protein toxic to the common pest pink bollworm.
Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC)
•• The GEAC functions under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC).
ƒƒ As per Rules, 1989, it is responsible for appraisal of activities involving large scale use of hazardous microorganisms
and recombinants in research and industrial production from the environmental angle.
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB)
•• The CPB is a legally binding (to those countries that have ratified it), international agreement, supplemental to the Convention
on Biological Diversity (CBD). CPB was adopted on 29 January 2000 and entered into force on 11 September 2003.
Genome
•• The totality of all the genetic material (deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA) in an organism, organised in a precise, though by
no means fixed or constant way.
•• In the case of viruses, most of them will have ribonucleic acid or RNA as the genetic material.
Genes/ DNA
•• The gene is the basic physical unit of inheritance. These are passed from parents to offspring and contain the information
needed to specify traits. They are arranged, one after another, on structures called chromosomes.
ƒƒ A chromosome contains a single, long DNA molecule, only a portion of which corresponds to a single gene. Humans
have approximately 20,000 genes arranged on their chromosomes.
ƒƒ Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): DNA is the chemical name for the molecule that carries genetic instructions in all
living things. It is the central information storage system of most animals and plants, and even some viruses.
ƒƒ The DNA molecule consists of two strands that wind around one another to form a shape known as a double helix.
76

RiboNucleic Acid (RNA)

•• Similar to DNA except for the sugar in the nucleotide unit which is ribose, instead of deoxyribose and the base Uracil
instead of Thymine. RNA is the genetic material for RNA viruses,
•• RNA editing: The process in which the base sequence of the RNA transcript is changed by addition of bases to the RNA
molecule or by chemical transformation of one base to another. This subverts the genetic information carried in the genes.

OUTCOMES

Impact of Genetic Technologies

•• Environmental impact:
ƒƒ Ecological imbalance: The release of a new genetically engineered species would also have the possibility of causing
an imbalance in the ecology of a region just like the exotic species do.
ƒƒ An accident or an unknown result could cause several problems. An accident in engineering the genetics of a virus or
bacteria could result in a stronger type, which could cause a serious epidemic when released.
•• Health impact on human:
ƒƒ Positive impact: The production of medicines through the use of genetically altered organisms has generally been
welcomed.
ƒƒ The technological processes have made immense impact in the area of healthcare by enabling mass production of safe
and more effective therapeutic drugs.
ƒƒ Various human proteins in microorganisms, such as insulin and growth hormone, used in the treatment of diseases.
ƒƒ Negative impact: Looking at the fact that genetic engineering employs viral vectors that carry functional genes inside
the human body. The repercussions are still unknown but the population as a whole will be susceptible to viruses or
any form of diseases.
ƒƒ Antibiotic-resistance: The presence of antibiotic-resistance genes in foods could have lethal effects. Therefore, eating
these foods could reduce the effectiveness of antibiotics to fight disease when these antibiotics are taken with meals.
ƒƒ It could aggravate the already serious health problem of antibiotic resistant disease organisms.
•• Ethical and social issues: Several issues have also been raised as regards the acceptance of this technology.
ƒƒ Playing god: It refers to the powers that science, engineering, and technology confer on human beings to understand
and to control the natural world. It has become a strong argument against genetic engineering.
ƒƒ One major concern is that once an altered gene is placed in an organism, the process cannot be reversed.
ƒƒ Biological weaponry: Terrorist groups or armies could develop more powerful biological weaponry. These weapons
could be resistant to medicines, or even targeted at people who carry certain genes.
ƒƒ Genetically engineered organisms used for biological weapons might also reproduce faster, which would create larger
quantities in shorter periods of time, increasing the level of devastation.
WAY FORWARD
Despite all of these current concerns, the potential for genetic engineering is tremendous. However, further testing and research
will be required to educate society on the pros and cons of genetic engineering.
The global gene therapy market is growing rapidly. According to Polaris Market Research, the market, valued at $1.46 billion in
2020, is estimated to reach $5.02 billion by 2028.
This growth is driven by the potential that gene therapies hold to address the rising prevalence of oncological and neurological
disorders, as well as of rare genetic disorders.
 Gene Technology

ISBN : 9789390486519

This book is available at all leading physical book stores and

online book stores
To view complete books visit.

To download complete catalogue click

https://amzn.to/2GXTMyA or visit QR.
Emotional Intelligence 1

Unit D : General Studies-4

1 Emotional Intelligence

A Note to Students (i) Call your friends to help you deal with the
situation and inform the police or file a police
Emotional Intelligence is a topic from Psychology and complaint against the boy and his family.
it would suffice if you know the broad facts on it. There
(ii) Call your friends and shout at the family of the
is no need to study the in-depth psychological aspects boy because a tit for tat is needed.
of emotional intelligence but then it is always better to
learn something new even if the questions are not asked (iii) Wait for the situation to cool down and they will
directly from it. The relevance of emotional intelligence in in any case, go back.
professional and public life cannot be undermined because (iv) Welcome the family members of the boy inside
this is the trait that lets you develop empathy with people your house and try to reason with them to
and connect with them. You may be an excellent officer but convince them, you are as much shocked as they
if you lack emotional intelligence, you may inadvertently are.
disappoint and distance people and your subordinate Which option will you go with? Explain with reasons.
staff; as a result even the best work done by you may be
3. You are the district magistrate of a Naxalite area. A
undermined. Emotional intelligence is a leadership trait. group of naxals have destructed the road and all
The administrators and civil servants are required to lead communication lines. You have been informed that
the organization they are serving. In addition, civil services they have mobbed an engineer and his family. They are
is a people oriented service, where you need to understand threatening them and may likely attack them violently.
the feelings and concerns of the people you serve. There is a very limited number of force with you that
If you take a look at the questions from previous years, you is incapable of dealing with the violent mob. What will
will note that there is no question so far on the theoretical you do? Explain your action. Remember you have very
aspects of emotional intelligence except perhaps peripherally. limited time with you.
However, there are lots of case studies in the actual exam 4. A shop keeper has cheated you right before your eyes.
that directly or indirectly relate to the issues involving the You point it out but he is adamant that he has not done
application of emotional intelligence. anything wrong. He begins shouting at you. Your anger
inflames. What will you do? How would you respond?
Here are some expected questions from this chapter. Take a
look at these questions and come back again after reading the 5. Anger is an emotion that can lead to unforeseen
chapter. You will find you can easily handle these questions consequences. Do you agree? Why or why not?
in your second attempt. Explain.
6. What role does emotional intelligence play in
Expected Questions administration and governance? Explain.
7. What is the difference between emotional intelligence
1. What do you understand by emotional intelligence?
and emotional quotient? How important is emotional
Explain citing two examples in which one example is
intelligence at work places? Explain.
the case where emotional intelligence has been used
and the other is the case where emotional intelligence 8. How will you apply emotional intelligence in
has not been used. administrative practices? Explain with examples.
2. Your sister who is a major ran away with a boy without 9. “It is not cognitive intelligence that guaranteed business
informing anyone in the family. Everyone in the family success but emotional intelligence.” Discuss.
is agitated. You also feel internally agitated. The boy’s 10. You are made the representative of your hostel. Each
family members have come to your house. They are night, you have to report to your warden and explain
shouting loudly the unbearable profanities and are who are not in the hostel and where they have gone.
accusing your family. What will you do?
There are a bunch of unruly students who have
2 Ethics, Integrity & Aptitude

threatened you not to report to the warden about

their absence. These students drink and take drugs and What I See What I Do
come to the hostel very late. You have not complained
about them so far. But now your conscience is not Personal Self- Self-
letting you rest. You have a strong urge to report the Competence Awareness Management
issue. However, there is a real threat that if your report
the issue, these students might attack you outside the Social Social Relationship
hostel. You have no protection against them. Competence Awareness Management
Explain the possible course of actions for you and also
point out the most effective course of action. Why do (Emotional Intelligence is made up of four key skills)
you think this is the most effective course of action?
• Social Awareness is your ability to accurately pick up
Expert’s on emotions in other people and understand what is
Advice
really going on.
Emotional Intelligence is considered as one of the most • Relationship Management is your ability to use awareness
desirable personality qualities in today’s society and especially of your emotions and the others’ emotions to manage
for civil servants. interactions successfully.
Thus UPSC ask direct questions from this area. It is also very Emotional Intelligence IQ and Personality
important for case studies.
Q. In case of crisis of conscience does emotional intelligence Emotional intelligence taps into a fundamental element
help to overcome the same without compromising the of human behavior that is distinct from your intellect.
ethical or moral stand that you are likely to follow? There is no known connection between IQ and emotional
Critically examine. (150 words, 10 marks) (2021) intelligence; you simply can’t predict emotional intelligence
Q. What are the main components of emotional intelligence (EI) ? based on how smart someone is. Intelligence is your ability to
Can they learned ? Discuss. (150 words, 10 marks) (2020) learn, and it’s the same at age 15 as it is at age 50. Emotional
intelligence, on the other hand, is a flexible set of skills that
can be acquired and improved with practice. Although,
some people are naturally more emotionally intelligent than
Introduction others, you can develop high emotional intelligence even if
you aren’t born with it.
When emotional intelligence first appeared to the masses
in 1995, it served as the missing link in a peculiar finding: Personality is the final piece of the puzzle. It’s the stable
people with average IQs outperform those with the highest “style” that defines each of us. Personality is the result of
IQs 70% of the time. This anomaly threw a massive wrench hard-wired preferences, such as the inclination toward
into what many people had always assumed was the sole introversion or extroversion. However, like IQ, personality
source of success—IQ. Decades of research now point to can’t be used to predict emotional intelligence. Also like IQ,
emotional intelligence as the critical factor that sets star personality is stable over a lifetime and doesn’t change. IQ,
performers apart from the rest of the pack. emotional intelligence, and personality each cover unique
Emotional intelligence is the “something” in each of us that ground and help to explain what makes a person tick.
is a bit intangible. It affects how we manage behaviour,
navigate social complexities, and make personal decisions
that achieve positive results. Emotional intelligence is
made up of four core skills that pair up under two primary
competencies: personal competence and social competence.
Personal competence is made up of your self-awareness
and self-management skills, which focus more on you
individually than on your interactions with other people.
Personal competence is your ability to stay aware of your
emotions and manage your behaviour and tendencies.
Self-Awareness is your ability to accurately perceive your
emotions and stay aware of them as they happen.
Self-Management is your ability to use awareness of
your emotions to stay flexible and positively direct your Emotional intelligence is an
behaviour.
essential part of the whole person.
Social competence is made up of your social awareness and
relationship management skills; social competence is your Emotional Intelligence is Linked to Performance
ability to understand other people’s moods, behaviour, and
motives in order to improve the quality of your relationships.
Emotional Intelligence 3

How much of an impact does emotional intelligence have

on your professional success? The short answer is: a lot! It’s
a powerful way to focus your energy in one direction with a
tremendous result. A research tested emotional intelligence
alongside 33 other important workplace skills, and found
that emotional intelligence is the strongest predictor of
performance, explaining a full 58% of success in all types
of jobs.
Your emotional intelligence is the foundation for a host of Emotional intelligence is a balance
critical skills—it impacts mostly everything you say and do between the rational and emotional brain.
each day.
“Plasticity” is the term neurologists use to describe the
brain’s ability to change. Your brain grows new connections
as you learn new skills. The change is gradual, as your brain
cells develop new connections to speed the efficiency of new
skills acquired.
Using strategies to increase your emotional intelligence
allows the billions of microscopic neurons lining the road
between the rational and emotional centres of your brain to
branch off small “arms” (much like a tree) to reach out to
the other cells. A single cell can grow 15,000 connections
with its neighbours. This chain reaction of growth ensures
it’s easier to kick this new behaviour into action in the
future. Once you train your brain by repeatedly using new
emotional intelligence strategies, emotionally intelligent
behaviours become habits.
Emotional intelligence is
Definition of Emotional Intelligence
the foundation for critical skills.
There remains much debate about the different definitions
Of all the people we’ve studied at work, we’ve found that and models that have emerged in the EI field. Cherniss
90% of top performers are also high in emotional intelligence. (2010) attempted to find some common ground by
On the flip side, just 20% of bottom performers are high in suggesting that it might be better to formulate and agree
emotional intelligence. You can be a top performer without on a single definition of EI, rather than to evaluate which
emotional intelligence, but the chances are slim. Naturally, model is superior and preferable to adopt.
people with a high degree of emotional intelligence make
Although, there is no unanimous agreement, a review of
more money—an average of $29,000 more per year than
the literature suggests that most researchers have accepted
people with a low degree of emotional intelligence. The link
between emotional intelligence and earnings is so direct that a basic definition proposed by Mayer et al. (2000) which
every point increase in emotional intelligence adds $1,300 defines EI as “the ability to perceive and express emotion,
to an annual salary. These findings hold true for people in all assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with
industries, at all levels and in every region of the world. We emotion, and regulate emotion in the self and others”
haven’t yet been able to find a job in which performance and (p. 396). Goleman, Bar-On, and Petrides all include this
pay aren’t tied closely to emotional intelligence. definition in their work, where they commonly refer to
the perception, understanding, and managing of emotions
Emotional Intelligence can be Developed within the self and others.
The communication between your emotional and rational Background of Emotional Intelligence
“brains” is the physical source of emotional intelligence. The
pathway for emotional intelligence starts in the brain, at the
spinal cord. Your primary senses enter here and must travel Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer coined
to the front of your brain before you can think rationally the term ‘Emotional Intelligence’ in 1990
about your experience. However, first they travel through describing it as “a form of social intelligence
the limbic system, the place where emotions are generated. that involves the ability to monitor one’s
So, we have an emotional reaction to events before our own and others’ feelings and emotions, to
rational mind is able to engage. Emotional intelligence discriminate among them, and to use this
requires effective communication between the rational and information to guide one’s thinking and
emotional centres of the brain.
action”.
4 Ethics, Integrity & Aptitude

Salovey and Mayer also initiated a research program intended • Self-awareness • Empathy
to develop valid measures of emotional intelligence and to • Emotional awareness • Understanding
explore its significance. For instance, they found in one • Accurate self-assessment others
study that when a group of people saw an upsetting film,
• Self-confidence • Developing
those who scored high on emotional clarity (which is the
• Self-regulation others
ability to identify and give a name to a mood that is being
• Self-control • Service
experienced) recovered more quickly. In another study,
• Trustworthiness orientation
individuals who scored higher in the ability to perceive
• Conscientiousness • Leveraging
accurately, understand, and appraise others’ emotions were
• Adaptability diversity
better able to respond flexibly to changes in their social
environments and build supportive social networks. • Innovation • Political
awareness
• Motivation
Daniel Goleman and Emotional Intelligence • Achievement drive • Social Skills
In the 1990s, Daniel Goleman became aware of Salovey and • Commitment • Influence
Mayer’s work, and this eventually led to his book, Emotional • Initiative • Communication
Intelligence. Goleman was a science writer for the New York • Optimism • Conflict
Times, specialising in brain and behaviour research. He management
trained as a psychologist at Harvard where he worked with • Leadership
David McClelland, among others. • Change catalyst
• Building bonds
McClelland was among a growing group of researchers who • Collaboration
were becoming concerned with how little traditional tests and cooperation
of cognitive intelligence told us about what it takes to be
• Team
successful in life.
capabilities
Goleman argued that it was not cognitive intelligence that
The Humm-Wadsworth model of temperament is a scientific
guaranteed business success but emotional intelligence. He
model for understanding people’s underlying emotions. It
described emotionally intelligent people as those with four
is not based on `pop psychology’ or a 2-4-6 or 8 box
characteristics:
‘personality type’ matrix approach, but on a psychological
1. They were good at understanding their own emotions framework used by the professional industrial psychologists
(self-awareness) in assessing personality. The framework recognises that in
2. They were good at managing their emotions (self- any situation, people behave according to their motivations,
management) feelings, attitudes and drives, rather than on passion or logic
alone, and that the most accurate way of describing people
3. They were empathetic to the emotional drives of other in those terms is as a combination of these drives.
people (social awareness)
The Humm-Wadsworth framework has been used by
4. They were good at handling other people’s emotions professional psychologists for many years in Australia and
(social skills) the United States, throughout all levels of management, to
Emotional Intelligence by Daniel Goleman was first assess people in terms of their ability to perform different
published in 1995. The book, which promoted the concept jobs in different work environments. In Australia alone,
that Emotional Intelligence (EQ) was more important than an estimated 400,000 people have participated in this
natural intelligence (IQ) in determining success in life, sold framework, and world-wide participation would be close to
5 million copies in the first five years of publication.   two million.
While Goleman was correct in his premise about the In 1959, the Australian firm of Organisational Psychologists
importance of Emotional Intelligence, he was unable to Chandler & Macleod purchased the copyright to the
describe a theory of core emotions - how to recognise them Humm-Wadsworth Temperament Scale test. Over one
in yourself and in others. million Australians sat the Humm-Wadsworth personality
assessment and this was followed up with over 100,000
Goleman also identified the importance of Emotional
interviews. Gradually, the psychologists at Chandler &
Intelligence in his book but he did not provide an explanation
Macleod began to develop a set of heuristics about the people
of how to increase it.
they were interviewing. In particular, they developed a set
Personal skills or Competences Social skills or of six clues to gain some understanding of the dominant
Competences core emotions in person’s temperament.
How we manage ourselves How we handle 1. The way the individual talks;
relationships with others 2. The organisation the individual works for;
3. The individual’s position in the organisation;
4. The individual’s dress;
Emotional Intelligence 5

5. The individual’s office or working environment; Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism that the concept
6. The first meeting with an individual: were you kept of EI resonates with outlooks in their own faith.
waiting and how soon do you move to using first Most gratifying for me has been how ardently the concept
names. has been embraced by educators, in the form of programs
Emotional Intelligence by Daniel Goleman in “social and emotional learning or SEL. Back in 1995, I
was able to find only a handful of such programs teaching
(The name of Daniel Goleman is intimately connected emotional intelligence skills to children. Now, a decade later,
to the concept of Emotional Intelligence. He played an tens of thousands of schools worldwide offer children SEL.
instrumental role in popularizing this concept. The author In the United States, many districts and even entire states
of this article is Daniel Goleman) currently make SEL curriculum requirement, mandating that
In 1990, in my role as a science reporter at The New York just as students must attain a certain level of competence in
Times, I chanced upon an article in a small academic journal math and language, so too should they master these essential
by two psychologists, John Mayer, now at the University skills for living.
of New Hampshire, and Yale’s Peter Salovey. Mayer and In Illinois, for instance, specific learning standards in
Salovey offered the first formulation of a concept they SEL abilities have been established for every grade from
called “emotional intelligence.” kindergarten through the last year of high school. To give just
Those were days when the pre-eminence of IQ as the one example of a remarkably detailed and comprehensive
standard of excellence in life was unquestioned; a debate curriculum, in the early elementary years students should
raged over whether it was set in our genes or due to learn to recognize and accurately label their emotions and
experience. But here, suddenly, was a new way of thinking how they lead them to act. By the late elementary years
about the ingredients of life success. I was electrified by lessons in empathy should make children able to identify
the notion, which I made the title of this book in 1995. the nonverbal clues to how someone else feels; in junior
Like Mayer and Salovey, I used the phrase to synthesize a high they should be able to analyze what creates stress for
broad range of scientific findings, drawing together what them or what motivates their best performance. And in
had been separate strands of research – reviewing not only high school the SEL skills include listening and talking in
their theory but a wide variety of other exciting scientific ways that resolve conflicts instead of escalating them and
developments, such as the first fruits of the nascent field negotiating for win-win solutions.
of affective neuroscience, which explores how emotions are Around the world Singapore has undertaken an active
regulated in the brain. initiative in SEL, as have some schools in Malaysia, Hong
I remember having the thought, just before this book Kong, Japan, and Korea. In Europe, the U.K. Has led the
was published ten years ago, that if one day, I overheard way, but more than a dozen other countries have schools
a conversation in which two strangers used the that embrace EI, as do Australia and New Zealand, and here
phrase emotional intelligence and both understood what and there countries in Latin America and Africa. In 2002
it meant, I would have succeeded in spreading the concept UNESCO began a worldwide initiative to promote SEL,
more widely into the culture. Little did I know. sending a statement of ten basic principles for implementing
SEL to the ministries of education in 140 countries.
The phrase emotional intelligence, or its casual shorthand EQ,
has become ubiquitous, showing up in settings as unlikely as In some states and nations, SEL has become the organizing
the cartoon strips Dilbert and Zippy the Pinhead and in Roz umbrella under which are gathered programs in character
Chast’s sequential art in The New Yorker. I’ve seen boxes of education, violence prevention, antibullying, drug prevention
toys that claim to boost a child’s EQ; lovelorn personal ads and school discipline. The goal is not just to reduce these
sometimes trumpet it in those seeking prospective mates. I problems among schoolchildren but to enhance the school
once found a quip about EQ printed on a shampoo bottle in climate and, ultimately, students’ academic performance.
my hotel room. In 1995, I outlined the preliminary evidence suggesting that
And the concept has spread to the far corners of our planet. SEL was the active ingredient in programs that enhance
EQ has become a word recognized, I’m told, in languages children’s learning while preventing problems such as
as diverse as German and Portuguese, Chinese, Korean, violence. Now, the case can be made scientifically: helping
and Malay. (Even so, I prefer EI as the English abbreviation children improve their self-awareness and confidence,
for emotional intelligence.) My e-mail inbox often contains manage their disturbing emotions and impulses, and increase
queries, from, for example, a doctoral student in Bulgaria, their empathy pays off not just in improved behavior but in
a school teacher in Poland, a college student in Indonesia, a measurable academic achievement.
business consultant in South Africa, a management expert in This is the big news contained in a recently completed
the Sultanate of Oman, an executive in Shanghai. Business meta-analysis of 668 evaluation studies of SEL programs for
students in India read about EI and leadership; a CEO in children from preschoolers through high school. The massive
Argentina recommends the book I later wrote on the topic. survey was conducted by Roger Weissberg, who directs the
I’ve also heard from religious scholars within Christianity, Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning
6 Ethics, Integrity & Aptitude

at the University of Illinois at Chicago – the organization The Emotional Competence Framework
that has led the way in bringing SEL into schools worldwide.
The data show that SEL programs yielded a strong benefit in Much of the material is modified from Working with
academic accomplishment, as demonstrated in achievement Emotional Intelligence by Daniel Goleman (Bantam, 1998).
test results and grade-point averages. In participating schools, The Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in
up to 50 percent of children showed improved achievement Organizations. ( www.eiconsortium.org )
scores and up to 38 percent improved their grade-point Introduction and background
averages. SEL programs also made schools safer: incidents
of misbehavior dropped by an average of 28 percent; Emotional intelligence is a convenient phrase with which to
suspensions by 44 percent; and other disciplinary actions by focus attention on human talent. Even though, it is simple
27 percent. At the same time, attendance rates rose, while as a phrase, it incorporates the complexity of a person’s
63 percent of students demonstrated significantly more capability. Building on this, an integrated concept of
positive behavior. In the world of social science research, emotional intelligence as outlined below, offers a framework
these remarkable results for any program promoting for describing human dispositions and more specifically, it
behavioral change, SEL had delivered on its promise. offers a structure for the organization of personality and
In 1995, I also proposed that a good part of the effectiveness links it to job performance (Goleman, 1995).
of SEL came from its impact in shaping children’s developing
neural circuitry, particularly the executive functions of Goleman (1998) defined “emotional
the prefrontal cortex, which manage working memory – competence” as a “learned capability based
what we hold in mind as we learn – and inhibit disruptive on emotional intelligence that results
emotional impulses. Now, the first preliminary scientific in outstanding performance at work.”
evidence for that notion has arrived. Mark Greenberg of Integrating the work of Goleman (1995 and
Pennsylvania State University, a codeveloper of the PATHS 1998) and Boyatzis (1982), the following
curriculum in SEL, reports not only that the program for descriptive definition is very useful in
elementary school students boasts academic achievement understanding this work:
but, even more significantly, that much of the increased Emotional intelligence is observed when a
learning can be attributed to improvements in attention and person demonstrates the competencies that
working memory, key functions of the prefrontal cortex. constitute self-awareness, self-regulation/
This strongly suggests that neuroplasticity, the shaping of management, relationship management and
the brain through repeated experience, plays a key role in social awareness at appropriate times and
the benefits from SEL. ways in sufficient frequency to be effective
Perhaps the biggest surprise for me has been the impact of EI in the situation.
in the world of business, particularly in the areas of leadership
and employee development (a form of adult education). The
Harvard Business Review has hailed emotional intelligence To be adept at an emotional competence that supports
as “a ground-breaking, paradigm-shattering idea,” one of effective Conflict Management requires an underlying
the most influential business ideas of the decade. ability in EI fundamentals, specifically, Social Awareness
Such claims in the business world too often prove to be and Relationship Management. However, emotional
fads, with no real underlying substance. But here a far- competencies are learned abilities: having Social Awareness
flung network of researchers has been at work, ensuring or skill at managing relationships does not guarantee we
that the application of EI will be grounded in solid data. have mastered the additional learning required to handle
The Rutgers University-based Consortium for Research on a situation adeptly or to resolve a conflict. It just means
Emotional Intelligence in Organizations (CREIO) has led that we have the potential to become skilled at these
the way in catalyzing this scientific work, collaborating competencies. We need development and application to test
with organizations that range from the Office of Personnel out our abilities and a willingness to learn and change as we
Management in the federal government to American receive feedback about our efforts.
Express.
The Framework
Today, companies worldwide routinely look through the lens
of EI in hiring, promoting, and developing their employees. The emotional competence framework is divided into 5
For instance, Johnson and Johnson (another CREIO clusters essential to emotional intelligence. It provides a
member) found that in divisions around the world, those description of each area that can be linked to the emotional
identified at mid career as having high leadership potential intelligence questionnaire.
were far stronger in EI competencies than were their less-
Personal Competence
promising peers. CREIO continues to foster such research,
which can offer evidence-based guidelines for organizations SELF - AWARENESS
seeking to enhance their ability to achieve their business Emotional awareness: Recognising one’s emotions and
goals or fulfil a mission. their effects. People with this competence:
Emotional Intelligence 7

• Know which emotions they are feeling and why Innovativeness: Being comfortable with and open to novel
• Realise the links between their feelings and what they ideas and new information.
think, do, and say People with this competence:
• Recognise how their feelings affect their performance • Seek out fresh ideas from a wide variety of sources
• Have a guiding awareness of their values and goals • Entertain original solutions to problems
Accurate self-assessment: Knowing one’s strengths and • Generate new ideas
limits. People with this competence are: • Take fresh perspectives and risks in their thinking
• Aware of their strengths and weaknesses
• Reflective, learning from experience SELF - MOTIVATION
• Open to candid feedback, new perspectives, continuous Achievement drive: Striving to improve or meet a standard
learning, and self-development of excellence. People with this competence:
• Able to show a sense of humor and perspective about • Are results-oriented, with a high drive to meet their
themselves objectives and standards
• Set challenging goals and take calculated risks
Self-confidence: Sureness about one’s self-worth and
capabilities. People with this competence: • Pursue information to reduce uncertainty and find
ways to do better
• Present themselves with self-assurance; have presence.
• Learn how to improve their performance
• Can voice views that are unpopular and go out on a
limb for what is right Commitment: Aligning with the goals of the group or
organisation. People with this competence:
• Are decisive, able to make sound decisions despite
• Readily make personal or group sacrifices to meet a
uncertainties and pressures
larger organisational goals
SELF – MANAGEMENT/REGULATION • Find a sense of purpose in the larger mission
Self-control: Managing disruptive emotions and impulses. • Use the group’s core values in making decisions and
People with this competence: clarifying choices
• Manage their impulsive feelings and distressing • Actively seek out opportunities to fulfil the group’s
emotions well mission
• Stay composed, positive, and unflappable even in Initiative: Readiness to act on opportunities. People with
trying moments this competence:
• Think clearly and stay focused under pressure • Are ready to seize opportunities
Trustworthiness: Maintaining standards of honesty and • Pursue goals beyond what’s required or expected of
integrity. People with this competence: them
• Act ethically and are above reproach • Cut through red tape and bend the rules when
necessary to get the job done
• Build trust through their reliability and authenticity
• Mobilise others through unusual, enterprising efforts
• Admit their own mistakes and confront unethical
actions in others Optimism: Persistence in pursuing goals despite obstacles
and setbacks. People with this competence:
• Take tough and principled stands even if they are
unpopular • Persist in seeking goals despite obstacles and setbacks
• Operate from hope of success rather than fear of failure
Conscientiousness: Taking responsibility for personal
performance. People with this competence: • See setbacks as due to manageable circumstance rather
than a personal flaw
• Meet commitments and keep promises
• Hold themselves accountable for meeting their Social Competence
objectives
• Are organised and careful in their work Relationship Management
Adaptability: Flexibility in handling change. People with Empathy: Sensing others’ feelings and perspective, and
this competence: taking an active interest in their concerns. People with this
competence:
• Smoothly handle multiple demands, shifting priorities,
and rapid change • Are attentive to emotional cues and listen well
• Adapt their responses and tactics to fit fluid • Show sensitivity and understand others’ perspectives
circumstances • Help out based on understanding other people’s needs
• Are flexible in how they see events and feelings
8 Ethics, Integrity & Aptitude

Service orientation: Anticipating, recognising, and meeting • Listen well, seek mutual understanding, and welcome
clients’ needs. sharing of information fully
People with this competence: • Foster open communication and stay receptive to bad
• Understand others’ needs including clients’ needs and news as well as good
match them to services or products Leadership: Inspiring and guiding groups and people.
• Seek ways to increase staff and clients’ satisfaction and People with this competence:
loyalty • Inspire others
• Gladly offer appropriate assistance • Articulate and arouse enthusiasm for a shared vision
• Grasp other’s perspectives, acting as a trusted advisor and mission
Developing others: Sensing what others need in order • Step forward to lead as needed, regardless of position
to develop, and bolstering their abilities. People with this • Guide the performance of others while holding them
competence: accountable
• Acknowledge and reward people’s strengths, • Lead by example
accomplishments, and development Change catalyst: Initiating or managing change. People with
• Offer useful feedback and identify people’s needs for this competence:
development • Recognize the need for change and remove barriers
• Mentor, give timely coaching, and offer assignments • Challenge the status quo to acknowledge the need for
that challenge and grow a person’s skills. change
Leveraging diversity: Cultivating opportunities through • Champion the change and enlist others in its pursuit
diverse people. People with this competence:
• Model the change expected of others
• Respect and relate well to people from varied
backgrounds Conflict management: Negotiating and resolving
disagreements. People with this competence:
• Understand diverse worldviews and are sensitive to
group differences • Handle difficult people and tense situations with
diplomacy and tact
• See diversity as opportunity, creating an environment
where diverse people can thrive • Spot potential conflicts, bring disagreements into the
open, and help deescalate
• Challenge bias and intolerance
• Encourage dialogue and open discussion
Political awareness: Reading a group’s emotional currents
and power relationships. • Orchestrate win-win solutions
People with this competence: Following more recent research, Goleman added an extra
• Accurately read key power relationships three groups of competencies to the Social Awareness/Skills
cluster that are not reflected in the questionnaire but are
• Detect crucial social networks certainly useful and needed in workplaces.
• Understand the forces that shape views and actions of
Building bonds: Nurturing instrumental relationships.
clients, stakeholders and /or competitors
People with this competence:
• Accurately read situations and organisational &
• Cultivate and maintain extensive informal networks
external realities
• Seek out relationships that are mutually beneficial
SOCIAL AWARENESS and SKILLS
• Build rapport and keep others in the loop
Influence: Wielding effective tactics for persuasion. People
• Make and maintain personal friendships among work
with this competence:
associates
• Build rapport well
Collaboration and cooperation: Working with others
• Are skilled at persuasion toward shared goals. People with this competence:
• Fine-tune presentations to appeal to the listener • Balance a focus on task with attention to relationships
• Use complex strategies like indirect influence to build • Collaborate, sharing plans, information, and resources
consensus and support
• Promote a friendly, cooperative climate
• Utilise events to effectively make a point
• Spot and nurture opportunities for collaboration
Communication: Sending clear and convincing messages.
Team capabilities: Creating group synergy in pursuing
People with this competence:
collective goals. People with this competence:
• Are effective in give-and-take, registering emotional
• Model team qualities like respect, helpfulness, and
cues in attuning their message
cooperation
• Deal with difficult issues straightforwardly
Emotional Intelligence 9

• Draw all members into active and enthusiastic effective in the give-and-take of emotional information,
participation deal with difficult issues straightforwardly, listen well
• Build team identity, esprit de corps, and commitment and welcome sharing information fully, and foster open
communication and stay receptive to bad news as well as
• Protect the group and its reputation; share credit
good. This competence builds on both managing one’s
own emotions and empathy; a healthy dialogue depends on
Discussion being attuned to others’ emotional states and controlling the
impulse to respond in ways that might sour the emotional
Relationship between the clusters climate. Data on managers and executives show that the
better people can execute this competence, the more others
The clusters within the model have a developmental prefer to deal with them (J. Walter Clarke Associates, cited
relationship. Self-Awareness is a prerequisite for effective in Goleman, 1998b).
Self-Management, which in turn predicts greater
Relationship Management skill. A secondary pathway Conflict Management competence
runs from Self-Awareness to Social Awareness (particularly
Empathy). Managing relationships well, then, depends on A talent of those skilled in the Conflict Management
a foundation of Self-Management and Empathy, each of competence is spotting trouble as it is brewing and taking
which in turn requires Self-Awareness. steps to calm those involved. Here, the arts of listening and
empathising are crucial to the skills of handling difficult
Although, our emotional intelligence determines our people and situations with diplomacy, encouraging debate
potential for learning the practical skills that underlie the EI and open discussion, and orchestrating win-win situations.
clusters, our emotional competence shows how much of that Effective Conflict Management and negotiation are
potential we have realized by learning and mastering skills important to long-term relationships at the workplace.
and translating intelligence into on-the-job capabilities.
Like the other clusters, this one is linked to many others.
In regards to conflict, the Self-Management cluster is In order to spot trouble as it is brewing, people have to
significant. Heading the list is the Emotional Self-Control be aware of what is happening in their team. It requires a
competence, which manifests largely as the absence of level of understanding and appreciation of difference and
distress and disruptive feelings. Signs of this competence diversity as well as the ability to tune into others, emotions.
include being unfazed in stressful situations or dealing with Effective management of conflict cannot be developed
a hostile person without lashing out or withdrawing in without anticipating what types of issues in the workplace
return, but working to engage the person effectively. This are likely to cause conflict including: personality clashes and
leads to considering other clusters. workplace changes that are occurring as well as recognising
our own responses and reactions and noting how these
Relationship Management cluster
impact those people we work with.
The Relationship Management cluster is also essential
for working more effectively with conflict. The Empathy Application of Emotional Intelligence
competence gives people an astute awareness of others’ Emotional Intelligence (EI) can be a valuable tool for
emotions, concerns, and needs. administrators and managers in government or any
An empathic individual can read emotional currents, company. Since research on Emotional Intelligence began,
picking up on nonverbal cues such as tone of voice or facial results overwhelmingly show that people high in various
expression. combinations of emotional competencies outperform people
Empathy requires Self-Awareness; our understanding of who are weak in those areas. When emotional competencies
others’ feelings and concerns flows from awareness of our are used in leader selection, for example, performance and
own feelings. This sensitivity to others is critical for superior retention rates increase significantly.
job performance whenever the focus is on interactions The research shows that the most successful people, those
with people. For instance, physicians who are better at who consistently outperform their peers, exhibit more of
recognizing emotions in patients are more successful than the skills and traits known as Emotional Intelligence.
their less sensitive colleagues at treating them (Friedman &
DiMatteo, 1982). In an increasingly diverse workforce, the
Empathy competence allows us to read people accurately
and avoid resorting to the stereotyping that can lead to
performance deficits by creating anxiety in the stereotyped
individuals (Steele, 1997).

Communication competence
Creating an atmosphere of openness with clear lines of
communication is a key factor in organisational success.
People who exhibit the Communication competence are
10 Ethics, Integrity & Aptitude

EI training can help team members learn how:

• individual EI fits with the EI of other team members,
managers, clients, etc.
• work assignments can be made and accomplished more
Head + Heart
effectively
• to improve communication
Leaders You • to minimize the negative aspects of conflict
Enhance your Create more joy and
ability influence and satisfaction in your • to present information most effectively
engage teams life and family
• to design more effective problem solving groups
• to assist team members in maximizing their individual
and collective strengths
Schools
Raise young people who
Healthcare Emotional Intelligence and Conflict:
Deliver more effective
are more successful in patient care
learning and life
Emotional Intelligence significantly influences how
Organizations we go about solving interpersonal problems. Thus,
Tap the human side of
high performance conflict in organizations often stems from EI differences.
Understanding how to use our EI more effectively helps us
Emotional Intelligence and Leadership solve interpersonal problems more effectively & efficiently
and increases the overall effectiveness of work teams. When
Studies show that high performing leaders tend to have people understand the basics of how they are different from
higher Emotional Intelligence than their peers. For Ex: We each other and their strengths and weaknesses, they can take
have many example of a more successful non-technical CEO steps to reduce conflict and become more accepting.
in a technical company compared to a technical CEO. The EI training can help to manage conflict which might include:
reason is that EI becomes more decisive factors rather than • Overcoming EI Differences
IQ in many areas of leadership. • Problem solving
• Emotional Dynamics
• Working Together

Emotional Intelligence and profession:

There is a relationship between EI and the outcome in the
job performance at workplace. Professions such as cabin
crew, hospitality staff as well as jobs related to the customer
service officers are the kinds of task that need high emotional
level. In this situation, the employees are expected to have
positive emotion and have the ability to hide the negative
Goleman believed that leaders with high in emotional emotions.
intelligence are the key of organisational success. Goleman
stated that, as leaders, they must have the ability to know Emotional Intelligence at the Workplace:
employees, feelings especially in the workplace environment,
to interfere when trouble occur among the employees, able EI has found to be beneficial in daily life as well as at
to control their own feelings, and able to realize the political workplace environment. Nevertheless, the appliance of EI
and social interventions within an organisations. has been most often documented in the workplace situation.
Effective leadership basically correlated with the ability of There are four significant reasons why the environment of
the leaders to establish confidence among employees, respect the workplace is the best applied setting for assessing and
and intelligently build relationship with the employees. improving EI competencies :
• EI competencies are crucial for success in doing work
Emotional Intelligence and Team Building: task
Emotional Intelligence has a significant impact on team • Most of the leaders enter the workplace lacking in
member relationships and their effectiveness in reaching competencies needed to succeed in doing work task
a team’s goals. Understanding our own EI strengths and • Employers already have the standard means in order to
weaknesses, as well as those of other team members, provide EI training
provides a means for improving the interpersonal dynamics • Most people spend their time at workplace
of teamwork.
Emotional Intelligence 11

Emotional intelligence at work is about how people and • Helping people to be motivated, committed, creative,
relationships function: (a) Relationships between colleagues, innovative and to cope with massive, rapid change.
between directors and staff; (b) Relationships between the • Teamwork
organisation and its customers, stakeholders, suppliers,
• Employee commitment, morale, and health
competitors, networking contacts, … everyone.
• Innovation
Founded on excellent practice and understanding of
communication, the emotionally intelligent business • Productivity
consistently excels in all these areas and has insight into how • Efficiency
this happens. • Sales
An organisation which is emotionally intelligent has staff • Revenues
who are: (a) motivated, productive, efficient, aligned with • Quality of service
the business, and committed; (b) effective, confident,
• Customer loyalty
likable, happy, and rewarded.
• Client or student outcomes
Emotional intelligence is applicable to every human
• Making good decisions about new markets, products,
interaction in business: from staff motivation to customer
and strategic alliances.
service, from brainstorming to company presentations. But
the subject is far deeper and wider than these examples, and Need for Further Research:
emotional intelligence must be able to understand and deal
with: As a matter of fact, through the emerging of several ideas and
• how we assess people modern concepts of EI , it has been proved that much work
is needed to be done in order to precisely determine the
• how relationships develop finding about what EI exactly encompasses and how it can
• how our beliefs generate our experience as well as be effectively applied in the governance and administration.
resistance, power struggles, judgment, competition,
Future research in these following areas are significant in the
vision, leadership, success, and much more.
topic of emotional intelligence field:
Only in a business in which the staff are emotionally
The correlation between EI and personality. For this case,
intelligent, they can work together to maximum effectiveness.
more research is required in this area in order to examine the
This can only increase the organization’s success, however
accurate relationship between EI and personality constructs.
measured. Emotional intelligence is essential for excellence.
The reliability of EI models based on cognitive intelligence.
In terms of economic point of view, research has revealed that
In fact, this matter needs to be considered related to the issue
the cost-effectiveness of emotional intelligence especially at
of the validity and the use of I.Q tests. Additional research
the workplace has found to be an interesting topic among
needs to be done for establishing EI as the best model lover
organizations. It is to be found out that hiring process of
the standard model.
employees when taken into consideration of emotional
intelligence aspect can help organizations to be economic in The exact measurement for emotional intelligence. More
their management. Benefits of using EI in Selection: research is necessitated especially in finding its reliability as
• Hire the best fit candidate the first time well as its validity for measuring EI.
• Put the right person into the right job The context of training in emotional intelligence. In fact,
training in EI is found to be more beneficial compared to
• Reduce costly wrong hires
another “leadership skill” training. Because of this reason,
• Create targeted developmental plans based on the future research is needed in examining whether training in
results EI provides a better recovery towards the organisational
• Reduce the expense of screening and training performance.
candidates who don’t stay with the organization
• Improve employee satisfaction with the right job fit Are You Emotionally Intelligent?
that plays to their strengths Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognise and manage
In conclusion, we can say that Emotional intelligence both your emotions and the emotions of others.
influences organizational effectiveness in a number of areas: Emotional Intelligence can generally be broken down into
• To identify and recruit top talent and retaining them three skills: emotional awareness; the ability to harness
• To identify potential leaders in its ranks and prepare emotions and apply them to tasks like thinking and problem
them to move up. solving; and the ability to manage emotions, which includes
regulating your own emotions and cheering up or calming
• To make better use of the special talents available in a
down other people.
diverse workforce.
Being emotionally intelligent is important for forming good
• Development of talent
relationships, be that in the workplace or your social life. It’s
12 Ethics, Integrity & Aptitude

often the difference between acting in an acceptable manner Over time, this skill makes you an exceptional judge of
and doing or saying something unreasonable. character. People are no mystery to you. You know what
Despite the significance of EQ, its intangible nature makes it they’re all about and understand their motivations, even
difficult to measure and to know what to do to improve it if those that lie hidden beneath the surface.
you’re lacking. You can always take a scientifically validated
You are difficult to offend.
test, such as the one that comes with the Emotional
Intelligence 2.0 book, but unfortunately, most such tests If you have a firm grasp of who you are, it’s difficult
aren’t free. Here are are sure signs that you have a high EQ. for someone to say or do something that gets your goat.
Emotionally intelligent people are self-confident and open-
You have a robust emotional vocabulary. minded, which creates a pretty thick skin. You may even
All people experience emotions, but it is a select few who poke fun at yourself or let other people make jokes about
can accurately identify them as they occur. Our research you because you are able to mentally draw the line between
shows that only 36 percent of people can do this, which humor and degradation.
is problematic because unlabeled emotions often go
You know how to say no (to yourself and others).
misunderstood, which leads to irrational choices and
counterproductive actions. Emotional intelligence means knowing how to exert self-
People with high EQs master their emotions because they control. You delay gratification and avoid impulsive action.
understand them, and they use an extensive vocabulary Research conducted at the University of California, San
of feelings to do so. While many people might describe Francisco, shows that the more difficulty that you have
saying no, the more likely you are to experience stress,
themselves as simply feeling “bad,” emotionally intelligent
burnout, and even depression. Saying no is a major self-
people can pinpoint whether they feel “irritable,”
control challenge for many people, but “No” is a powerful
“frustrated,” “downtrodden,” or “anxious.” The more
word that you should be unafraid to wield. When it’s time
specific your word choice, the better insight you have into
to say no, emotionally intelligent people avoid phrases such
exactly how you are feeling, what caused it, and what you as “I don’t think I can” or “I’m not certain.” Saying no to
should do about it. a new commitment honors your existing commitments and
You’re curious about people. gives you the opportunity to successfully fulfill them.

It doesn’t matter if they’re introverted or extroverted, You let go of mistakes.

emotionally intelligent people are curious about everyone Emotionally intelligent people distance themselves from
around them. This curiosity is the product of empathy, one their mistakes, but do so without forgetting them. By
of the most significant gateways to a high EQ. The more you keeping their mistakes at a safe distance, yet still handy
care about other people and what they’re going through, the enough to refer to, they are able to adapt and adjust for
more curiosity you’re going to have about them. future success. It takes refined self-awareness to walk this
tightrope between dwelling and remembering. Dwelling
You embrace change.
too long on your mistakes makes you anxious and gun shy,
Emotionally intelligent people are flexible and are constantly while forgetting about them completely makes you bound
adapting. They know that fear of change is paralyzing and to repeat them. The key to balance lies in your ability to
a major threat to their success and happiness. They look for transform failures into nuggets of improvement. This creates
change that is lurking just around the corner, and they form the tendency to get right back up every time you fall down.
a plan of action should these changes occur.
You give and expect nothing in return.
You know your strengths and weaknesses.
When someone gives you something spontaneously,
Emotionally intelligent people don’t just understand without expecting anything in return, this leaves a powerful
emotions; they know what they’re good at and what they’re impression. For example, you might have an interesting
terrible at. They also know who pushes their buttons and conversation with someone about a book, and when
the environments (both situations and people) that enable you see them again a month later, you show up with the
them to succeed. Having a high EQ means you know your book in hand. Emotionally intelligent people build strong
strengths and how to lean into and use them to your full relationships because they are constantly thinking about
advantage while keeping your weaknesses from holding you others.
back.
You don’t hold grudges.
You’re a good judge of character. The negative emotions that come with holding onto a
Much of emotional intelligence comes down to social grudge are actually a stress response. Just thinking about
awareness; the ability to read other people, know what the event sends your body into fight-or-flight mode, a
they’re about, and understand what they’re going through. survival mechanism that forces you to stand up and fight or
run for the hills when faced with a threat. When the threat
Emotional Intelligence 13

is imminent, this reaction is essential to your survival, but work when an email with the power to bring your thinking
when the threat is ancient history, holding onto that stress (read: stressing) back to work can drop onto your phone at
wreaks havoc on your body and can have devastating health any moment.
consequences over time. In fact, researchers at Emory
University have shown that holding onto stress contributes You limit your caffeine intake.
to high blood pressure and heart disease. Holding onto a Drinking excessive amounts of caffeine triggers the release
grudge means you’re holding onto stress, and emotionally
of adrenaline, which is the primary source of a fight-or-flight
intelligent people know to avoid this at all costs. Letting go
response. The fight-or-flight mechanism sidesteps rational
of a grudge not only makes you feel better now but can also
thinking in favor of a faster response to ensure survival. This
improve your health.
is great when a bear is chasing you, but not so great when
You neutralize toxic people. you’re responding to a curt email. When caffeine puts your
brain and body into this hyper-aroused state of stress, your
Dealing with difficult people is frustrating and exhausting
emotions overrun your behavior. Caffeine’s long half-life
for most. But high-EQ individuals control their interactions
ensures you stay this way as it takes its sweet time working
with toxic people by keeping their feelings in check. When
its way out of your body. High-EQ individuals know that
they need to confront a toxic person, they approach the
situation rationally. They identify their own emotions and caffeine is trouble some, and they don’t let it get the better
don’t allow anger or frustration to fuel the chaos. They of them.
also consider the difficult person’s standpoint and are able You get enough sleep.
to find solutions and common ground. Even when things
completely derail, emotionally intelligent people are able to It’s difficult to overstate the importance of sleep to increasing
take the toxic person with a grain of salt to avoid letting him your emotional intelligence and managing your stress levels.
or her bring them down. When you sleep, your brain literally recharges, shuffling
through the day’s memories and storing or discarding
You don’t seek perfection. them (which causes dreams) so that you wake up alert and
Emotionally intelligent people won’t set perfection as their clearheaded. High-EQ individuals know that their self-
target because they know that it doesn’t exist. Human control, attention, and memory are all reduced when they
beings, by our very nature, are fallible. When perfection don’t get enough--or the right kind--of sleep. So, they make
is your goal, you’re always left with a nagging sense of sleep a top priority.
failure that makes you want to give up or reduce your
You stop negative self-talk in its tracks.
effort. You end up spending time lamenting what you failed
to accomplish and should have done differently instead of The more you ruminate on negative thoughts, the more
moving forward, excited about what you’ve achieved and power you give them. Most of our negative thoughts are
what you will accomplish in the future. just that--thoughts, not facts. When it feels like something
always or never happens, this is just your brain’s natural
You appreciate what you have. tendency to perceive threats (inflating the frequency or
Taking time to contemplate what you’re grateful for isn’t severity of an event). Emotionally intelligent people separate
merely the right thing to do; it also improves your mood their thoughts from the facts in order to escape the cycle of
by reducing the stress hormone cortisol (in some cases negativity and move toward a positive, new outlook.
by 23 percent). Research conducted at the University of
You won’t let anyone limit your joy.
California, Davis, found that people who work daily to
cultivate an attitude of gratitude experience improved When your sense of pleasure and satisfaction are derived
mood, energy, and physical well-being. It’s likely that lower from the opinions of other people, you are no longer the
levels of cortisol play a major role in this. master of your own happiness. When emotionally intelligent
people feel good about something they’ve done, they won’t
You disconnect. let anyone’s opinions or snide remarks take that away from
Taking regular time off the grid is a sign of a high EQ because them. While it’s impossible to turn off your reactions to
it helps you keep your stress under control and to live in the what others think, you don’t have to compare yourself to
moment. When you make yourself available to your work others, and you can always take people’s opinions with a
24/7, you expose yourself to a constant barrage of stressors. grain of salt. That way, no matter what other people are
Forcing yourself offline and even--gulp!--turning off your thinking or doing, your self-worth comes from within.
phone gives your body and mind a break. Studies have
Why Emotionally Intelligent People Are More
shown that something as simple as an email break can lower
stress levels. Technology enables constant communication Successful?
and the expectation that you should be available 24/7. It is We’ve learned that emotional intelligence (EQ) is a crucial
extremely difficult to enjoy a stress-free moment outside of skill for both leaders and employees. But several studies
14 Ethics, Integrity & Aptitude

point to just how important EQ can be to success, even The same principles apply in all areas of life, whether at
trumping IQ and experience. work or in relationships. Everyone wants to work with
Research by the respected Center for Creative Leadership people who are easy to get along with, supportive, likeable,
(CCL) in the U.S. found that the primary causes of executive and can be trusted. We want to be beside people that do not
derailment involve deficiencies in emotional competence. get upset easily and can keep their composure when things
Each year, CCL serves more than 20,000 individuals and do not work out according to plan.
2,000 organizations, including more than 80 of the Fortune
How do you identify emotionally intelligent people?
100 companies. It says the three main reasons for failure
are difficulty in handling change, inability to work well in a Self-awareness. The first thing that is essential for any degree
team, and poor interpersonal relations. of emotional intelligence is self-awareness. People with a
International search firm Egon Zehnder International high degree of self-awareness have a solid understanding
analyzed 515 senior executives and discovered that those of their own emotions, their strengths, weaknesses, and
who were strongest in emotional intelligence were more what drives them. Neither overly critical nor unrealistically
likely to succeed than those strongest in either IQ or relevant hopeful, these people are honest with themselves and
previous experience. Research that has been done on the others. These people recognize how their feelings impact
relationship between emotional intelligence (EQ) and IQ them, other people around them, and their performance at
has shown only a weak correlation between the two. work. They have a good understanding of their values and
goals and where they are going in life. They are confident
The Carnegie Institute of Technology carried out research as well as aware of their limitations and less likely to set
that showed that 85% of our financial success was due to themselves up for failure.
skills in “human engineering”, personality, and ability to
communicate, negotiate, and lead. They found that only We can recognize self-aware people by their willingness to
15% was due to technical ability. In other words, people’s talk about themselves in a frank, non-defensive manner.
skills or skills highly related to emotional intelligence A good interview question is to ask about a time that the
were crucial skills. Nobel Prize winning Israeli-American interviewee got carried away by their emotions and did
psychologist Daniel Kahneman found that people would something they later regretted. The self-aware person will
rather do business with a person they like and trust rather be open and frank with their answers. Self-deprecating
than someone they don’t, even if that person is offering a humor is a good indicator of someone who has good self-
better product at a lower price. awareness. Red flags are people who stall or try to avoid the
question, seem irritated, or frustrated by the question.
To test out his findings, think of the last time you purchased
Ability To Self-Regulate Emotions. We all have emotions
a major item, a home, automobile, or large appliance where
you had to deal with a salesperson. Was the person someone which drive us and there is nothing we can do to avoid
whom you liked and trusted? In my talks, I have found them. People who are good at self-regulation, however, are
that whenever I asked that question, inevitably, the entire able to manage their emotions so that they do not control
audience answered that, yes, the person they bought a large their words and actions. While they feel bad moods and
item from was someone they liked and trusted. This theory impulses as much as anyone else, they do not act upon them.
about why salespeople with the right people skills do better People who act upon their negative feelings create havoc,
than those who lack them is borne out by a study carried out disruptions, and lasting bad feelings all around them. We
by the Hay/McBer Research and Innovation Group in 1997. feel before we think and people who constantly react from
In a study carried out in a large national insurance company an emotional state never wait long enough to allow their
in 1997, they found that sales agents weak in emotional thoughts to override their emotions.
areas such as self-confidence, initiative, and empathy sold People who self-regulate have the ability to wait until their
policies with an average premium of $54,000, while those
emotions pass, allowing them to respond from a place of
strong in 5 of 8 emotional competencies sold policies on the
reason, rather than simply reacting to feelings. The signs
average worth $114,000.
of someone who is good at self-regulation are reflection,
Much of the research that has been done on emotional thoughtfulness, comfort with ambiguity, change, and not
intelligence has been at the executive leadership level. The
having all the answers. In an interview, look for people who
higher up the organization, the more crucial emotional
take a little time to reflect and think before they answer.
intelligence abilities are as the impacts are greater and felt
throughout the entire organization. There have been some Empathy. Empathy is another important aspect to look
studies, however, that show impacts at all levels. for when hiring. Someone who has empathy will have
For example, a study by McClelland in 1999 showed that an awareness of the feelings of others and consider those
after supervisors in a manufacturing plant received training feelings in their words and actions. This does not mean
in emotional competencies such as how to listen better, that they will tiptoe around or be unwilling to make tough
lost-time accidents decreased by 50% and grievances went decisions for fear of hurting someone’s feelings. It simply
down from 15 per year to three. The plant itself exceeded means that they are aware of, and take into consideration
productivity goals by $250,000. the impact on others. They are willing to share their own
Emotional Intelligence 15

worries and concerns and openly acknowledge other’s There exist only a few measures of ability EI. The most
emotions. A good way to look for empathy in an interview prominent measure of ability EI is the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso
is to ask a candidate about a situation where a co-worker Emotional Intelligence Test which was designed to measure
was angry with them and how they dealt with it. Look for EI according to the four core emotional abilities defined
a willingness to understand the source of the co-workers in the Mayer-Salovey model. An example of a MSCEIT
anger, even though they may not agree with the reasons for task would be to identify accurately how people feel by
it. asking the test taker what emotions are being expressed in
Social skills. Social skill is another area of emotional a photograph of someone’s face. If the test taker is shown
intelligence that is highly important at the workplace. To a photo of a person displaying mild sadness, and the test
have good social skills requires a high level of the other taker selects an answer indicating that the person is feeling
skills aforementioned as well as the ability to relate and find a bit happy and somewhat surprised, then such an answer is
common ground with a wide range of people. It goes beyond considered incorrect. One key advantage of EI ability tests,
just friendliness and the ability to get along with others. like other IQ measures, is that they are resistant to faking or
responding in a socially desirable manner.
People with social skills are excellent team players as they
have the ability to move an agenda along and keep focus while A major criticism of ability EI measures is that in contrast
at the same time, remaining aware of the emotional climate to IQ tests, there are no clear right or wrong answers to
of the group and possess the ability to respond to it. These some questions. In some questions of the MSCEIT for
people are excellent at making connections, networking, example, participants are shown pictures of abstract design
and bringing people together to work on projects. They are and asked to indicate the extent to which they believe that
able to bring their emotional intelligence skills into play in a series of distinct emotions are depicted in it. Responses
a larger arena. To look for social skills in an interview, ask to such questions cannot be objectively scored as correct
questions related to projects and difficulties encountered or incorrect because there is no basis for determining the
around varying agendas, temperaments, and getting people emotional content of the items.
to buy in. In attempts to circumvent this problem, ability EI tests have
employed alternative scoring procedures that attempt to
Measurement of Emotional Intelligence identify correct responses according to consensus among
The different conceptualizations of EI have led to a range participants in a normative sample or among subject-
of instruments for the assessment of EI. In the rush to matter experts. In the first approach, the correct answer is
create measures of this emerging construct, researchers have determined by the majority of those taking the test, whereas
overlooked the difference between maximal versus typical in the second approach, the correct answer is determined
by a group of emotion researchers. Consensus scoring is
performance and assumed they were operationalising the
problematic for contradicting the foremost function of
same construct, thereby resulting in conceptual confusion.
tests, which is to discriminate between test-takers as well
Tests of maximum performance are designed to assess how
as the impossibility of incorporating difficult items in the
people perform at certain tasks when they are trying hard to
test, since the “correctness” of a response is determined by
perform those tasks well. On the other hand, tests of typical
the number of people who would endorse it. There are also
performance are designed to assess how people typically
limitations to expert scoring such as the inherent difficulty
behave rather than how they behave in special circumstances
in identifying relevant experts in emotional intelligence. In
(such as when they are trying hard).
addition, it is based on the assumption that these experts
The type of measurement method used has implications for have more insight into normal adults’ emotional states
the operationalisation of any construct. The measurement than the test-takers themselves, especially in cases such as
of EI through maximal performance tests leads to its intrapersonal EI.
operationalisation as a cognitive ability. In contrast,
the measurement of EI through typical performance EI measures of typical performance
measures such as self-report questionnaires leads to its The popularity of EI resulted in an influx of measures,
operationalisation as a trait. Once one recognizes that ability especially questionnaires, which may be administered in a
EI and trait EI are two different constructs, conceptually, self-report format or to multiple raters (e.g., 360-degree
methodologically and empirically, then conflicting research questionnaires). Some examples of these include the
findings can perhaps be resolved. Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI; Boyatzis,
The following presents a brief overview of the pros and Goleman & Hay/McBer, 1999), the Bar-On Emotional
cons of both traditional approaches to measuring EI and Quotient Inventory (EQ-i; Bar-On, 1997) and the Trait
suggests some alternative approaches for the development Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue, Petrides,
of EI measures. 2001; Petrides & Furnham, 2003). Such instruments
typically ask respondents to indicate on a Likert response
EI measures of maximal performance
16 Ethics, Integrity & Aptitude

scale their preferences or self-perceptions across multiple that are supportive of the organization’s goals as rated by
items measuring the various factors of EI. their supervisors (Cote & Miners, 2006) and with the team
On the surface, self-report questionnaires are desirable: they performance of MBA students (Rapisarda, 2002).
are less costly, easier to administer, and take considerably The question that follows would be the extent to which
less time to complete than performance tests. However, EI is related to job performance after existing factors such
they are also problematic because respondents can provide as cognitive ability and personality are taken into account.
socially desirable responses rather than truthful ones, or We can turn to recent meta-analytic studies that combine
respondents may not actually know how good they are at the results of several studies to shed some light on this
emotion-based tasks. question. O’Boyle et al. (2010) found that EI predicted
job performance incrementally after taking cognitive
The future of EI measurement ability and personality into account. In addition, EI
Given that the field of EI is relatively new, it is difficult at ranked third in relative importance to cognitive ability and
this point to reach any firm conclusions about the quality conscientiousness as measured by the five factor model of
of existing measures of EI. However, some promising new personality in predicting job performance. These findings
measurement strategies are beginning to emerge. New not only support earlier research which argued that EI is
measures such as video-based situational judgment tests an important predictor of work-related outcomes, but also
of emotional regulation and emotional understanding indicate that cognitive ability and personality by themselves
(Newman, Joseph & McCann, 2010) appear to be better are insufficient to explain job performance.
than either the ability measures or self -report measures that In tracing the relationship between EI and job performance,
have dominated the field up to now. Cherniss (2010) recommended greater attention to the
Other researchers offer suggestions that can guide the context of job demands. One such contextual variable would
way forward. For example, Riggio (2010) highlights many be emotional labour, which Grandey (2003) defined as “the
existing measures of important emotional abilities that degree to which workers are expected to express positive
have been studied for decades, such as the Interpersonal emotion and hide negative emotions as part of the job”.
Perception Task. He also suggests devoting more time and Some examples of high emotional labour jobs would include
effort to developing more narrow measures of particular cabin crew, hospitality staff or customer service officers.
emotional competencies. Such measures may prove to be Joseph & Newman (2010) confirmed in their research
more useful than very broad concepts such as EI, not only by that the EI-job performance relationship varied depending
providing greater clarity of the construct in question, but also on the level of emotional labour. Specifically, their meta-
because narrow constructs are likely to be more amenable to analysis indicated that EI predicted job performance in high
further applications such as training and development. emotional labour jobs but showed no relationship to job
Importance of EI in Job Performance performance for low emotional labour jobs.

Although, there is some debate among the advocates of Further, after controlling for cognitive ability and personality,
the different EI concepts, there is good reason to believe the relationship of EI to job performance was positive for
high emotional labour jobs but negative for low emotional
that all types of EI measures predict job performance as
labour jobs. This indicates that the use of EI measures should
they measure at least part of the core concept behind EI.
only be used to select applicants into high emotional labour
It is likely that the ability to recognize emotions in the self
jobs, otherwise there may be negative impact.
and in others contributes to effective social interaction, as
does the ability to regulate one’s own emotions. Therefore, While the research evidence does not indicate that EI makes
EI may contribute to performance by helping with group a larger contribution to outcomes such as individual success
tasks and facilitating teamwork. For example, Offermann than does cognitive ability as Goleman (1995) claimed, it
et al. (2004) found that EI better predicted performance is safe to say that the research at this point suggests that EI
on student teamwork projects, whereas a cognitive ability makes a unique and important contribution in predicting
measure better predicted student performance on individual job performance, particularly in situations characterized by
cognitive tasks like tests. high emotional labour. Thus, although, EI is generally not
used in personnel selection and hiring today, the present
What might be most important to organisations is the extent research makes a fairly persuasive case for the inclusion
of the purported link between EI and outcomes such as of EI with cognitive ability and personality in applicable
job performance. The evidence suggests that EI is indeed selection processes.
associated with job performance across a wide spectrum of
occupations. Some studies have found a relationship between There remain some unanswered questions in the EI-job
EI and job performance as measured by company rank and performance relationship that could be addressed by further
merit salary increase percentage in a group of analysts and research. One such area might be the extent to which the
clerical employees (e.g., Cote & Miners, 2006; Lopes et relative importance of EI, cognitive ability and personality
al., 2006). EI has also been found to be correlated with varied by the type of job being performed. Although,
the extent to which managers conduct themselves in ways most jobs may involve at least some interpersonal contact
Emotional Intelligence 17

relevant to EI, the degree to which jobs draw upon cognitive subordinates feel, this information can be used to engage
skills, personality and EI may vary considerably by job their emotions to gain buy-in and receptivity to the
characteristics and other factors. Another avenue of research organization’s goals or initiatives (Gardner & Stough,
would be to examine the relationship between EI and other 2002). Leaders are able to improve decision making with
facets of job performance such as organizational citizenship their management and knowledge of emotions. Those who
behaviours and counterproductive workplace behaviours, are able to accurately recognize emotions can judge if the
rather than traditional task performance. Moving forward, emotion is linked to opportunities or problems, and thus use
these efforts would constitute steps toward developing these emotions in the process of decision making (Schwartz,
integrative models that include how cognitive ability, 1990). This is also important as being a leader calls for
personality and EI impact on job performance. one to have the ability to inspire, to motivate, to develop
subordinates by diagnosing their development needs and to
Emotional Intelligence for Effective Leadership
encourage behavioural changes (Velsor et al., 2010).
During the last decade, evolving leadership requirements As a leader frequently encounters conflicting demands, the
(e.g., managing and motivating in today’s environment, ability to manage emotions helps him to handle stress and
charting new paths and inspiring people with clarity of vision develop strategies for balancing these conflicts (Velsor, et
and optimism) have placed new demands on leadership, al., 2010). Self-management and impulse control enable
resulting in the construct of EI gaining popularity as a a leader to remain composed during crises and to recover
potential contributor to effective leadership. from mistakes. A leader adept at managing adversity is also
While EI may appear as a superficial aspect of leadership, likely to be able to sustain working relationships amidst
Goleman, Boyatzis & McKee (2002) suggested that such demands and changing circumstances (Ruderman et
EI becomes more important as one goes higher up the al., 2001).
organization. In particular, EI dimensions — namely the
Although, we cannot conclude that leaders who are more
ability to monitor emotions and the ability to manage
emotionally intelligent are better leaders, research does show
emotions — are predictors of transformational leadership,
that there are basic connections between EI and abilities
a leadership style “consistently found to promote greater
associated with leadership excellence (Ruderman et al.,
organizational performance” (Palmer et al., 2001),
2001). These findings reinforce the notion that leadership
suggesting that EI may be integral to effective leadership.
is a process of social influence through which leaders affect
Emotional intelligence and effective leadership others’ feelings, perceptions, and behaviour. Leaders need
Leadership is the process of producing direction, alignment, to understand emotions, self management skills and social
and commitment in collectives. Some of the specific skills (Boyatzis, 2008), as these abilities can be used to create
capabilities that enable leaders to carry out leadership positive emotions to empower and motivate themselves and
tasks, such as setting direction, gaining commitment, and others (Bar-On et al., 2003). Understanding such connections
creating alignment effectively, include: the management can provide leaders with additional ammunition in their
of one’s own thoughts, feelings and actions (i.e., leading efforts to enhance their leadership (Ruderman et al., 2001).
oneself); working effectively with others in a social system
(i.e., leading others); and facilitating the accomplishment of Can Emotional Intelligence be Developed?
organizational work (i.e., leading the organization) (Velsor, Given the importance of EI to effective leadership, the
Mccauley & Ruderman, 2010). We can see how EI may question arises as to whether it can be developed. While this
contribute to self-leadership capabilities and the ability to has been a contentious issue, there is emerging consensus
work effectively with and through others and therefore to within the research evidence that EI is developable (Goleman,
effective leadership. 1996; Steiner, 1997; Hopfl & Linstead, 1997; Cooper,
Specifically, EI enables a leader to understand his strengths 1997; Martinez, 1997). It was found that as people increase
and weaknesses, why he is the way he is, the impact of in age, they tend to score higher on the EQ-i, suggesting to
his strengths and weaknesses on people around him, and a certain extent that it may be learned or developed through
his effectiveness in various roles (Velsor, Mccauley & life experience.
Ruderman, 2010). This helps him to recognize the sources of
tension that interfere with positive relationships and to pick The most persuasive evidence comes from longitudinal
up emotional undercurrents which enable him to respond studies conducted with MBA students who underwent a
effectively in situations (Goleman, 1998; 2001; Weisinger, programme to assess and develop their EI competencies
1998). In the process, he learns to “control his impulses, (selfawareness, self-management, social awareness and
manage his emotions” and be more socially aware of relationship management). The results showed at least a 40%
the needs and concerns of others (McKee, Johnston & improvement of EI, with effects sustained for several years
Massimilian, 2006). (Boyatzis, Cowan & Kolb, 1995). This supports the notion
that it is not only possible to develop EI competencies, but
George (2002) has proposed that the ability to understand
that such changes can be sustained over an extended period
and use emotions in oneself and others contributes to
of time.
leadership effectiveness. By accurately appraising how
18 Ethics, Integrity & Aptitude

There has been research to assess the stage of an individual’s to handle emotionally-charged situations (Koczwara &
life at which interventions designed to develop EI are Bullock, 2009).
most effective. Goleman (1996) asserts that the critical According to Goleman (1998), self-awareness is a pre-
period at which EI is amenable to development is during requisite and building block for effective self-management,
childhood. However, another view proposes that these core which in turn predicts relationship management. What
competencies are capable of being developed and changed this implies is that EI training should have a logical flow
by workplace experiences, where managers learn emotion whereby learners’ competencies are developed from basic
management and regulation (Dulewicz & Higgs, 2004). levels (i.e., identifying emotions in themselves and others)
Such emotion management and regulation arise through to higher order levels (self-management and relationship
undertaking the job itself and having the opportunity to management).
reflect on and discuss emotional management experiences
Developing self-awareness and mindfulness
with others at the workplace. The exchange of experience
through such dialogues gradually increases one’s capacity for Self-awareness includes observations of one’s feelings and
handling feelings and learning ways to manage the emotions attributions, as well as understanding the impact of one’s
of others and self (Clarke, 2006). strengths and weaknesses on others.
What has generated more debate is the extent of development Self-awareness can be developed using a blend of
possible. One approach that may be quite informative methodologies, for instance, by combining assessment and
is the EI model designed by Higgs & Dulewicz (1999). development tools such as multi-rater feedback, experiential
They proposed seven elements that lie on a development exercises and peer coaching. Combined together, these
continuum ranging from ‘easily developable’ to ‘malleable’ provide opportunities for the individual to gain insight into
to ‘exploit’ (see Table below). identifying and understanding emotions which leads on to
self and relationship management.
The study revealed that selfawareness, interpersonal
sensitivity and influence are developable, as they improved In EI training interventions, the development of self-
after EI training. ‘Exploitable’ elements are those which did awareness is achieved through opportunities that support
not improve after EI training, but did after experiences (i.e., and encourage feedback and reflection.
experiences such as team leadership can force or encourage Feedback is a powerful way to facilitate self-awareness, as
some individuals to exploit their existing capacities for it enables the individual to get a better understanding of
conscientiousness and intuitiveness). how others perceive and respond to their behaviours.
Elements which provide such opportunities include small
The other two elements, emotional resilience and
group discussions where learners identify and analyze
motivation were found to lie between these two extremes
typical situations where EI skills are important in their
(Dulewicz & Higgs, 1999). This study provides support for
roles (Koczwara & Bullock, 2009), review how they would
the proposition that EI can be developed, and in particular,
approach significant real events (e.g., challenging meetings),
certain elements of EI are more amenable to training than
and seek peer feedback on instances of emotional behaviour
others.
during their management of others.
Higgs and Dulewicz’s development continuum of EI
Multi-rater assessment also serves as powerful feedback since
Elements of EI Easily Malleable Exploit this feedback comes from a variety of raters who interpret
developable behaviours differently (Velsor et al., 2010). In addition, it
Self-awareness 3 helps the individual get a gauge of his emotional capacity
Emotional 3 and pinpoints the EI facets that require development (The
resilience Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in
Intuitiveness 3 Organizations).
Interpersonal 3 Since support of feedback and reflection reinforce each
sensitivity other in the development of self-awareness, training
Influence 3 interventions should provide space that encourages
Motivation 3 reflection on real events. This will enable the individual to
Conscientiousness 3 understand and evaluate the effectiveness of his employed
approaches (Koczwara & Bullock, 2009). A framework for
Training and Development of Emotional reflection and development can be incorporated by guiding
Intelligence the individual to complete a self -development plan that will
prompt him to consider the exercises he has completed and
Unlike IQ, there is evidence which shows that EI can be
developed through feedback and training. Research has also the feedback from his peers and facilitators (Shen, Groves &
shown that EI competencies can be developed in managers McEnrue, 2008). In essence, reflection helps the individual
through leadership programmes (Boyatzis & Oosten, 2002). identify the lessons learnt, integrate feedback from various
These EI competencies positively impact aspects of job sources, and understand how his behaviours can influence
performance and help develop confidence and competence
Emotional Intelligence 19

people’s perceptions, thereby increasing selfawareness does not indicate a weakness, but rather a robustness of
(Velsor et al., 2010). the field as researchers and practitioners grapple with the
Closely related to self-awareness is mindfulness, which is issues to arrive at sound conclusions. The knowledge gained
to “pay attention in a particular way, purposefully, in the from this rapidly expanding field of EI research will help to
present moment, and non- judgementally” (Kabat-Zinn, inform our understanding of the issues to consider for both
1994). According to Goleman’s EI theory (1995), there the selection and development of leaders.
is a clear connection between EI and mindfulness, and Today’s effective leadership skills have been described to
mindfulness is most useful in identifying emotions and depend, in part, on the understanding of emotions and
assessing them at a deeper level of awareness. the abilities associated with EI (Cooper & Sawaf, 1997;
In mindfulness training, the individual is asked to maintain Goleman, 1998a; Ryback, 1998), as leadership roles are
awareness of the present moment, sit still with his feelings no longer about controlling, planning and inspecting the
and ask himself — Is he the leader he aspires to be? How running of an organization, but rather, about motivating
is he managing the stress of his current situation? How and inspiring others, fostering positive work attitudes and
are his key people feeling lately? Are they in sync with creating a sense of contribution and importance with and
each other? Through a process of self-observation, self- among others (Hogan & Curphy, 1994). Given that EI
inquiry and reflection, mindfulness training helps a leader has been identified as an important attribute of effective
understand how he responds to people, and to notice the leadership and job performance, it would be worthwhile to
subtle messages from those whom he leads (McKee et al., consider EI as an additional selection criterion in identifying
2006). Research has shown that “mindfulness” training potentially effective leaders.
— an emotional self-regulation strategy — can alter brain Research has also indicated that EI competencies can be
centres which are responsible for both positive and negative developed through leadership development programs, with
emotions by helping people to stay focused on the present, sustained effects after the programs. It would therefore be
thus keeping out distressful thoughts and pausing before important for organizations to not only enhance an leader’s
acting impulsively (Emmerling & Goleman, 2003). level of self awareness and mindfulness through programs,
The suggested approaches to EI training require motivation, but find ways to create ample opportunities for the leader to
individual desire, feedback, mindfulness, reflection and reflect on one’s behaviors exhibited in different situations,
continuing practice in new situations. The development of practice new behaviors and receive feedback how others
EI is therefore an ongoing pursuit. perceive and respond to these behaviors when he returns
to the workplace (Deutschendorf, 2009). It is through such
In conclusion, it may be said that the study and application of
dialogue and reflections that one gradually increases his
EI are still developing with differing theoretical perspectives,
capacity for coping with feelings and learning appropriate
various approaches to measuring the construct and questions
ways to manage the emotions of others and self (Clarke,
about the extent to which it can be developed. However,
2006).
the existence of differing viewpoints within this paradigm

Case Studies on Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence for People-First Leadership at Background

FedEx Express FedEx Express is the world largest cargo airlines with over
Integrating emotional intelligence assessment and 290,000 employees moving seven million packages each day
development into a six-month process for new managers with 600 flights a day. One of the top 20 Fortune “Most
world-wide, the FedEx Express team at their Global Admired” for a decade, FedEx stands among the world’s
successful enterprises.
Learning Institute is building the skills and expertise for
people-first leadership. While founder Fred Smith was focused on logistics and
speed, from the start, he believed that people were the key
The program is yielding an 8-11% increase in core
to business, and that leadership is about continuous growth:
leadership competencies, with over half the participants “Leaders get out in front and stay there by raising the
experiencing very large (10-50%) improvements in certain standards by which they judge themselves – and by which
key emotional intelligence skills and leadership outcomes: they are willing to be judged.” This vision has translated to
72% of the program participants experience very large the “PSP Philosophy” – People-Service-Profit – which drives
increases in decision making; 60% in Quality of Life, and FedEx Express today.
58% show major improvements in Influence.
20 Ethics, Integrity & Aptitude

The company sees that the people-side of leadership has leaders who will move up the chain. Without revealing
grown more complex, and looking to the future, is committed confidential details, the FedEx culture has focused
to developing leadership capabilities to manage the changing on speed — which is a key part of the company’s
workforce. The goal is leaders who are better at influence, success. As leaders move up in the organization, the
make decisions that are both quick and accurate, and are need for speed has to be balanced with a more careful
able to build a culture where people feel the dedication and and collaborative decision-making process to achieve
drive for exceptional performance in a way that’s sustainable sustainable success.
and creates real value for all stakeholders. With this in mind, under the leadership of SVP Shannon
Brown, the company wanted a world-class leadership
To measure leadership performance, FedEx Express
program that would move the company to be one of the
administers “SFA,” an annual survey where every employee
top five in the world. With the support of Dennis Reber,
can provide feedback about managers. SFA themes
Managing Director, and Ray Murphy, Manager, of the
include respect, fairness, listening, and trust – leadership Global Leadership Institute, FedEx decided to increase
responsibilities that are all about relationships and emotions. the emotional intelligence focus of the leadership training
This commitment to people-first leadership created an and deliver a new course called LEAD1 to put EQ into
interest in “emotional intelligence” as a learnable skillset action at the frontlines. All new FedEx Express managers
that would equip managers to deliver the FedEx way. would receive the program to provide a solid people-first
Implementation foundation upon which to build their leadership careers.

Even though the leadership training was state of the art Blended Training & Coaching
— among the top ten in the world – the FedEx Global A team of eight GLI experts was certified in the Six Seconds
Leadership Institute is charged with continuously updating Emotional Intelligence Assessment (SEI) through a mix of
and innovating in keeping with that Fred Smith call for on-site and virtual training delivered by Six Seconds. Some
continuously “raising the standards.” Located near the team members undertook additional trainer-training in Six
company’s primary hub in Memphis, TN, the Global Seconds’ methodology to ensure that the implementation
Leadership Institute, GLI, serves as the leadership university would go deeply into what drives people performance.
for FedEx Express.
GLI Senior Management Facilitators Jimmy Daniel and
In 2005, GLI implemented a new training program for Pamela Williams became certified as a SEI Master Trainer to
managers to consider the impact they wished to have as deliver SEI Certification internally within L&D team in the
leaders – the legacy they were creating. A core component US and globally.
of the LEGACY course was a module on emotional The FedEx GLI team designed LEAD1 as a five-day course
intelligence using the Six Seconds Emotional Intelligence with a six-month follow up coaching process built around
Assessment, the SEI. LEGACY results were very positive, in the SEI. Through the in-person training, participants
part because of the effectiveness of the Six Seconds Model learn about key concepts in FedEx leadership and what it
as an actionable process. means to lead people. In an extremely faced-paced, task-
focused environment, a common challenge for managers
Action-Based Emotional Intelligence is losing sight of the relational dynamics that ultimately
Where other approaches to emotional intelligence remain sustain team performance. To build a team where people
quite theoretical, the Six Seconds Model is designed as a give their “discretionary effort,” task-based management
process framework for using emotional intelligence on is insufficient: people-leadership is required. This means
a day-to-day basis. At a macro-level, the model offers a forming a connection between people at an emotional level.
three-step process with specific learnable and measurable Emotional intelligence provides the insight and skill to
competencies that support the three steps: allow for this strategic use of feelings. In LEAD1, the new
managers focus on how emotional intelligence will assist
• Know Yourself : Increase self-awareness of emotions and
them to show up as leaders by managing themselves first,
reactions (competencies:  Enhance Emotional Literacy and
taking charge of their own emotions and behaviors so they
Recognize Patterns).
can be effective role models and influencers.
• Choose Yourself : Shift from unconscious reaction
to intentional response (competencies: Apply The six month coaching process begins with a one-to-one
Consequential Thinking, Navigate Emotions, Engage debrief of the participant’s SEI profile as a framework
Intrinsic Motivation, and Exercise Optimism). for goal setting. The new manager identifies specific
competencies to improve, as well as strengths to leverage,
• Give Yourself : Align the moment-to-moment decisions
and how these can be employed to improve people-
with a larger sense of purpose (competencies: Increase
leadership. The coaching process is “specific customized,”
Empathy and Pursue Noble Goals). Reviewing data
meaning that while all participants are working within a
from LEGACY in 2009 and 2010, the GLI team
shared framework of concepts and goals, each coach and
identified that a few key EQ competencies were
participant work in partnership to develop personalized
essential to strengthen “bench strength” and build the
goals that can be made actionable. Part of the effectiveness
Emotional Intelligence 21

of the coaching is that the coaches all now have several years that was preventing me from reaching my full potential,
of experience with emotional intelligence themselves, giving particularly in stressful situations.
them added insight into what drives people. I learned how to apply different leadership styles to meet
At the end of the coaching process, participants re-take the specific situations, apply consequential thinking, and
SEI to clearly identify areas of progress, to set next goals, continue to improve my emotional intelligence. I am already
and provide accountability for the program. applying this new found knowledge in my day to day work
At present, over 100 facilitators have been, or are being, environment as well as my personal life.”
trained to provide the SEI assessment and coaching, and to These insights and skills will shape the culture of FedEx
run LEAD1 worldwide. for years to come. As Shannon Brown, Chief Diversity
Officer for FedEx Express, and the senior HR leader for the
Results organization puts it: “At FedEx Express, we’re committed
Initial responses to the program are extremely positive. to staying on the leading edge. For us, that’s always meant
LEAD1 trained managers are showing increased ability to bringing out the best in people. As the business landscape
push the FedEx strategy and the “People First” leadership becomes even more complex, we need additional capability.
philosophy. In the words of a program participant, one of Leveraging the Six Seconds approach to emotional
FedEx’s senior widebody captains, intelligence is helping us build a strategic asset that will let
us maintain and strengthen our culture – which is essential
“I began the week realizing that I was limiting myself with to our competitive advantage.”
a single leadership style and an emotional intelligence level

Case Studies on Emotional Intelligence

Second Case Study What Happened?

When you ask the question “What is emotional intelligence?” He had low emotional intelligence and did none of these.
or “What is EQ?” it can often be answered easily by giving He shot his friend dead. He is now in prison serving time
examples of real people who lacked emotional intelligence. for murder.
Here is one such case involving dimension seven on the His rage drove him to short-term action which produced
Genos emotional intelligence model: emotional self-control. long-term negative consequences.
It is an extreme but true story. This is an extreme but clear example of how low emotional
While such physically dangerous examples are fortunately intelligence and a poor ability to control strong emotions in
rare in the workplace, those who lack emotional self-control particular, can impact on a person’s behavior, work and life.
occur at all levels in an organization and can be seen high- Being able to control strong emotions such as rage is the
jacking meetings and negotiations with full-blooded anger seventh dimension of emotional intelligence. It is very hard
outbursts. to build trust without being able to control your strong
emotions. If you are in business and want to be successful,
The Last Beer building trust is imperative.
How good are you at controlling strong emotions?
A case study of low emotional intelligence
A young man had only a limited amount of beer in his
fridge. His best friend came round to visit. During their
conversation he told his friend not to drink his last beer.
Later he found his friend had drunk it.
What would an emotionally intelligent response have been?
• To go and buy some more maybe?
• To ignore it and enjoy his friend’s company?
• To have a cup of coffee instead?
• To go down the pub together?
22 Ethics, Integrity & Aptitude

Previous Years Questions with Explanations

2013 You are the Sarpanch of a Panchayat. There is a

primary school run by the government in your area.
Q. What is ‘emotional intelligence’ and how can it be Midday meals are provided to children attending the
developed in people? How does it help an individual school. The headmaster has now appointed a new cook
in taking ethical decisions? (150 words) (10 marks) in the school to prepare the meals. However, when it
Analysis: This question has two parts. The first part is found that cook is from Dalit community, almost
asks the candidate about the meaning of emotional half of the children belonging to higher castes are not
intelligence and the means through which it can be allowed to take meals by their parents. Consequently,
developed in people. To deal with this part, you should the attendance in the schools falls sharply. This
just define the definition of emotional intelligence and could result in the possibility of discontinuation of
provide some ways in which it can be inculcated among midday meal scheme, thereafter of teaching staff and
the people. The second part is based on the application subsequent closing down the school.
asking the candidate to write down how emotional (250 words) (20 marks)
intelligence helps people in taking decisions. Here, the
candidate must use his mind and write down why one (a) Discuss some feasible strategies to overcome the
needs emotional intelligence to be able to make ethical conflict and to create right ambiance.
decisions. You have to be to the point and brief to meet (b) What should be the responsibilities of different
the word count of 150. social segments and agencies to create positive
Ans. Emotional intelligence refers to the capacity to be social ambiance for accepting such changes?
aware of, control, and express one’s emotions, and Ans. (a) Several positive strategies can be recommended in
to handle interpersonal relationships judiciously and this case so as to maintain the social harmony and
empathetically. It is the ability to understand the emotions to let the school run smoothly.
of the others and act tactfully. An emotionally intelligent The first strategy would be to call a meeting with
persona can act rationally and effectively even if he is not parents and explain to them the advantage of
intellectually very high. Emotional intelligence cannot be education and its purpose of overcoming narrow
developed through formal instruction. The development caste barriers. However, looking at the resistance
of emotional intelligence requires training of the mind of the Brahmin community, we may offer them the
in making decisions in different types of situations. To opportunity to continue education without the mid-
be emotionally intelligent, one needs to develop self day meal hoping that eventually they will reconcile.
realization and to begin to think from the context of the
Alternatively, we may arrange the cooking team
others. It is important to know the mindset of others,
to include multi-caste members so that there is no
their sensisitivities and likes and dislikes. In addition, it is
distinction of caste as far as cooking is concerned.
equally important to know oneself and what affects us in
different ways. Yet another alternative is that from now onwards,
the cooking task would be outsourced to a
Next, it is important to have an exposure to different
neighboring restaurant where everyone irrespective
emotional situations. By facing different kinds of
of caste visits to have their meals. It is pretty much
emotional situations, we develop our ability to face
well known that no one asks who is cooking in a
different kinds of people and circumstances. In this
hotel visited by both urban and rural population.
regard, it is important to have an empathetic attitude
towards others. Only when we are able to understand However, the long term solution would be to bring
and feel what others feel, can we communicate better. about gradual transformation in rural communities
with acute caste distinctions. Mid day meals served
Emotional intelligence is one of the main factors
in schools are stepping stones to it. Therefore, it
that decides the effectiveness of our decisions. An
has to be encouraged and stakeholders have to be
emotionally intelligent person can take the decisions
involved in it. The sarpanch along with the heads
in accordance to the needs of time and circumstances.
of the families and the teachers of the school should
Moreover, a person, who is emotionally intelligent is collaborate together in addressing the issue. It may
aware of his values and principles. Thus, such a person be noticed that over a period of time, the resistance
acts in an ethically just way, and acts in an empathetic would begin to decline. As a sarpanch, I would
way. Thus, he ensures that the rights of the others are call the Brahmin families who do not allow their
not violated. children to have meals cooked by a dalit along with
the learned priests. The discussion would center
2015 around the sacred texts like Upanishads and Vedas
Q. (This is a case study which came in 2015. Although that do not distinguish between castes and show the
emotional intelligence is nowhere mentioned in it, it relation between the supreme soul and the individual
requires emotional intelligence to solve it) souls as the fundamental basis of human actions
and enterprises as set forth in Gita. In other words,
Emotional Intelligence 23

the authority of scriptures can be used address documentaries and power point demonstrations
obscurantist social and religious issues. on the pace of development and the role of girls.
Q. You are recently posted as district development officer The examples of backward states because of low
of a district. Shortly thereafter you found that there is female literacy would be highly relevant, while
considerable tension in the rural areas of your district on the states with high female literacy advancing on
the issue of sending girls to schools. all parameters including economic would perhaps
make a sense to them. In addition, the incentives
The elders of the village feel that many problems have
can be tied up with female education. The elders
come up because girls are being educated and they are
can be reassured on safety initiatives taken. They
stepping out of the safe environment of the household.
can be tasked with the responsibility to make their
They are the view that the girls should be quickly
village 100 percent literate and rewarded for their
married off with minimum education. The girls are
initiative. In other words, the idea is to make
also competing for jobs after education, which have
them the stakeholders in literacy and educational
traditionally remained in boys’ exclusive domain,
campaigns.
adding to unemployment amongst male population.
The younger generation feels that in the present era, 2016
girls should have equal opportunities for education
Q. Anger is a harmful negative emotion. It is injurious to
and employment, and other means of livelihood.
both personal life and work life.
The entire locality is divided between sexes in both
generations. You come to know that in Panchayat or (a) Discuss how it leads to negative emotions and
in other local bodies or even in busy crosswords, the undesirable behaviours. (150 words) (10 marks)
issue is being acrimoniously debated. (b) How can it managed and controlled? (150
One day, you are informed that an unpleasant incident words) 10 marks)
has taken place. Some girls were molested, when they Ans. (a) Anger is a negative feeling state that is typically
were en route to schools. The incident led to clashes associated with hostile thoughts, physiological
between several groups and a law and order problem arousal and maladaptive behaviors. It usually
has arisen. The elder after heated discussion have develops in response to the unwanted actions of
taken a joint decision not to allow girls to go to school another person who is perceived to be disrespectful,
and to socially boycott all such families, which do not demeaning, threatening or neglectful. Anger
follow their dictate. involves certain styles of thinking such as, “My
(250 words) (25 marks) boss criticized me in front of my colleagues. Now,
(a) What steps would you take to ensure girls’ safety I’m fuming. He shouldn’t be so disrespectful!”or
without disrupting their education? “That woman in front of me is driving so slowly.
This is exasperating. She shouldn’t be allowed
(b) How would you manage and mould patriarchic to drive on the freeway!” Anger energizes us to
attitude of the village elders to ensure harmony in retaliate. Our data indicate that about 25 percent
the inter- generational relations? of anger incidents involve thoughts of revenge
Ans. (a) While managing the safety of girls would be relatively such as, “I’m going to spread rumors about my
less difficult task than moulding the patriarchic boss to get even,” or “I’d like to just bump her
attitude of the village elders to ensure harmony in car to put her in her place.” Interestingly, anger
inter-generational relations. There can be several usually emerges from interactions with people we
measures on the safety of girls. The girls may be like or love, such as children, spouses and close
provided with a mobile phone and an emergency friends.
number that they can immediately seek help from Angry thoughts may be accompanied by muscle
in case of distress or danger. Female escorts can be tension, headaches or an increased heart rate. In
provided to girls in some areas or villages that are addition, the verbal and physical expressions of
especially prone to nuisance. The girls attending the anger may serve as a warning to others about our
school can take help of dedicated vehicles with lady displeasure. The verbal expressions include yelling,
constables provided by the government for attending arguing, cursing and sarcasm. However, anger can
the school and commuting back. In addition, the girls also be expressed physically by raising a clenched
may be given to attend the school from home as they fist, throwing a book on the floor, breaking a pencil
would be provided with online computer or laptop. or hitting a wall. Sometimes, anger is not expressed
However, the last recommendation may not be quite externally but remains as internal rumination.
feasible, if the infrastructure in the village is not quite
(b) Anger felt when dealing with strangers emerges
developed. In addition, an alternative can be offered
from transient interactions. You may never see the
to girls to attend the school on weekends only when
clerk or driver or waiter again. If you ask yourself
they can be escorted back and forth.
how important the annoying situation really is,
(b) It would be difficult to manage the patriarchal you usually come up with, “not very important
attitude of the village elders in the short term. at all.” At most, you have suffered from paying
Nevertheless, the elders would be shown regular a bit too much for the taxi ride or being delayed
24 Ethics, Integrity & Aptitude

a few minutes by the clerk. Recognize that these • Social skills : Proper management of societal
are unpleasant events, not catastrophes, and work relations also helps in lessening work-family conflict,
around them. Go to a different restaurant or go to enhances physical and mental health and provides job
the store at off hours to return a purchase. satisfaction.
Also, recognize the difference between events that
you can change and those that are beyond you. 2019
When you take a cab ride, tell the driver about Q. “Emotional Intelligence is the ability to make your
your preferred route. When you order that steak emotions work for you instead of against you”. Do
in the restaurant, ask for extra ketchup before the you agree with this view? Discuss.  (150 words) (10
waiter leaves the table never to be seen again. You marks)
have less control over other events. Airplanes, for Ans. Emotional Intelligence is the capability of a person to
various reasons, are frequently late. There is little manage and control his or her emotions and possess
you can do. Accept the delay as an opportunity to the ability to control the emotions of others as well. In
read or relax, not disastrous or worthy of anger. other words, they can influence the emotions of other
Anger felt when dealing with family members people also. In other words, emotional intelligence is
or friends is different because of the ongoing the ability to make your emotions work for you.
interactions. To address this kind of anger, the self- Emotional Intelligence is a very important skill for
help strategies that are quickest and easiest to use leaders as they have to connect to their followers and
are avoidance and escape, relaxation, cognitive workers. They are able to lead successfully because
restructuring and assertive expression. they make their emotions work for them. There are
five main elements in emotional intelligence including
2017 self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy
Q. How will you apply emotional intelligence in and social skills. These are the qualities that make
administrative practices? your emotions work for you. In other words, a self
aware person has his emotion under control and he
(150 words) (10 marks) impacts others positively. Motivation helps a leader
Ans. Emotional intelligence means the ability of an lead by example. A leader is a leader because he or she
individual to understand and manage the emotions is empathetic towards others. Social skills impart the
of self and others. It is a highly crucial trait for ability to connect to people.
professional success. This is so because people in a job
are there because of similar intelligence quotient which 2020
gets tested by exam or interview, thereafter what Q. What are the main components of emotional
differentiates one from other is emotional quotient. intelligence (EI)? Can they be learned? Discuss. (150
For a bureaucrat, EQ holds immense value. He has words) (10 marks)
to deal with lot many people and is in a position that Ans. According to Daniel Goleman, there are five main elements
crucial decisions are to be taken. This can be seen from of emotional intelligence.
following examples: - Self-Awareness: This is the ability to recognize and
Unlike past when public administration was impersonal understand ones moods, motivations, and abilities. Also
and dehumanising, role of behaviour and nature of a understanding the effects they have on others.
bureaucrat has gained enormous importance. - Self-Regulation: This is the ability to control ones
Role of emotional intelligence in present situation has impulses, the ability to think before you speak/react, and
varied importance both in intrapersonal as well as the ability to express yourself appropriately.
interpersonal realms. - Motivation: This is having an interest in learning and
• Self-awareness : As a bureaucrat, I need to know self-improvement. It is having the strength to keep going
emotions, moods and drives of their peers and when there are obstacles in life.
persons at whom public policy is targeted for better - Empathy: This is the ability to understand other people’s
acquaintance with the nature of problems in society emotions and reactions. Empathy can only be achieved if
and their possible solutions. self-awareness is achieved.
• Self-regulation : As an aware bureaucrat, I can guide - Social Skills: This is the ability to pick up on jokes,
his emotions and perform accordingly for betterment sarcasm, customer service, maintaining friendships and
of society. relationships, and finding common ground with others.
• Motivation : Knowledge about my emotion, passion Some researchers suggest that emotional intelligence
and sentiment as well as that of my peers can help can be learned and strengthened, while others claim it’s
motivate them and persist in adverse situations. This an inborn characteristic. Nonetheless, the overall general
will also maximize organisational benefits together consensus is that emotional intelligence can be learned.
with timely achievement of targets.
Emotional intelligence is critical for effective decision
• Empathy : Understanding of others’ problems helps in making. It enables a leader to be more empathetic,
their quick and effective resolution.
professional & goal-oriented. Now-a-days, organigation
Emotional Intelligence 25

take various steps to improve EI among its employees different people. Emotional intelligence can therefore help
through seminars tests etc. Howevers, EI also improves to overcome the situation of crisis of conscience without
with age due to one’s experiences in life. compromising ethical/moral standards.
Emotional intelligence helps in better understanding of the
2021 situation and long-term consequences of one’s action (dispel
Q. In case of crisis of conscience does emotional ethical myopia) making it easier to explore desirability and
intelligence help to overcome the same without ethicality of any action.
compromising the ethical or moral stand that you are For example: In case of Arjuna, he faced the crisis of
likely to follow? Critically examine. (150 words) (10 conscience when he had to kill his kith and kin. However,
marks) when Arjuna’s emotional intelligence developed as a result
of counselling from Shri Krishna, he became more aware.
Ans. Conscience is our inner voice that tells us the step we ought From the perspective of duty, his action was justified.
to take in case of dilemma. When we face a dilemma we He was following his conscience when he was following
are under the crisis of conscience. For example: Arjun faced his duty. So, he overcame the crisis of conscience or the
crisis of conscience in the beginning of Mahabharat. dilemma he was facing. (words=181)
Emotional intelligence is the quality of empathy or our
ability to see a situation from the points of views of
 Emotional Intelligence

ISBN : 9789395985291
This book is available at all leading physical book stores and
online book stores
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 2. Case Studies
Is It Ethical to Purchase
2.1 Land From Villagers at
an Unfair Price?

Suppose you have recently started working for a real risk is justified. In every business there are certain risks and
estate firm. Your firm has decided to build a new residential profits arise only because people are willing to take that risk.
complex with all kinds of modern amenities. For this (2) The second argument is that the company is trying to
purpose your firm is planning to buy land from the locals take advantage of the limited knowledge of the locals. Since
of a particular area. Through their contacts the owners they are totally unaware of the possibility that the prices
of the firm know that a new highway will soon come up in may rise, they will agree to sell at a lower price. The company
this area, this is why they have identified this particular would not be making such a huge investment if it did not
locality for their upcoming township. You are in charge of have some certainty about the upcoming highway. Rather
land procurement. You have been told to offer a fixed price than earn profits through their hard work they are planning
to the land owners. Most of the land owners agree to sell to earn profit by simply waiting for the prices to rise. It does
their land; however you realize that the price being offered not seem fair that they should earn profits by merely waiting
to them is not a fair price. Once the national highway is while the farmers who have toiled this land for years will not
announced the land prices will shoot up. The firm will make benefit.
a tidy profit by reselling parcels of land to other real estate
developers but the farmers will be left with no land, no In such a situation it is best if the company offers a better
source of employment and a comparatively small amount price but it would not be possible unless the villagers come
of money. There is nothing illegal in what the firm is doing together and negotiate for a better price. At the same time
but do you think their behaviour is justified? Why or why if the company pays a significantly higher price it may cut
not? Examine both sides of the argument, also suggest into their profits making this option no longer a financially
viable operation. After all, the company must earn enough
what measures can be undertaken to rectify the situation.
to justify the investment since it is a business operation and
Answer not a social welfare organization.
A feasible option would be that if the company were to
(1) The first argument is that the company is doing nothing
provide the villagers with employment opportunities in
wrong. None of their actions are illegal. They are offering the
their upcoming township or if they would provide the
land owners a price based on the present scenario. It is for
villagers with investment advice so that they would be able
the sellers to decide whether the price suits them or not. The
to utilize their compensation packages properly instead of
upcoming highway has not yet been announced. This means
squandering it away. This would not cost the company much
there is a possibility that it may not correspond with the
and yet both parties would stand to benefit from the deal.
company’s plans. This is a risk the company is willing to take
and whatever profit they may earn from their ability to take
28

2.2 Should You Allow a Child Servant for

Your Old and Ailing Parents?

Your parents live alone in your ancestral village. They are working someplace else.
now very old and find it difficult to manage. However, due
If I tell my parents that employing her is an illegal act, they
to emotional reasons they are not willing to leave their
may not take it seriously. They may argue that by providing
house. You worry about them a lot. Even though they have
her a job and taking care of her, they are actually saving her
a reliable servant, they are often on their own for long
from difficult circumstances. They may even argue that this
times. In case of any emergency they could face a very
is a victimless crime since the child is not being forced into
tough time. You feel that someone should be living with
employment. On the contrary, she is keen to work for them.
them on a full time basis but it is difficult to find anyone
If I inform the police they may send her away for a few days
who will agree to live in a village. One day when you go to
and employ her again once I have left.
visit your parents you find a small girl opening the door.
Your mother tells you happily that the little girl named In many situations one has to go beyond the words of the
Gudiya is the new full time servant. Her father is a driver law and see the spirit behind it. This case also merits further
and her mother is no longer alive, so it is very convenient study. Both the options given are quite extreme in nature. I
for them. The girl appears to be 10-12 years old. You tell would reject both and look for a third option which would
your mother that it is illegal to employ a minor and the create a real solution to the problem. In this case, a better
girl should be sent home. However, your mother does not option would be to explain why child labour is illegal. I would
agree, more surprisingly the little girl does not want to first explain to the child that by taking up a job she would be
leave either. bartering her future for her present. If she is not educated,
she would never be able to move ahead in life.
You are faced with a peculiar dilemma. There are two
options in front of you. I would explain to my parents that employing a young
(i) You can force the girl to go home and prevent her from girl would not solve their problems. The whole point of
working in this house again. employing someone is that they may be of assistance in case
of any emergency. A young girl with no education would be
(ii) You can tell your parents that employing a minor is an of very little assistance in any eventuality. I would suggest
offense under law. If they continue to employ her you that they should hire someone who was older and more
will be forced to inform the police. experienced as a house help. If they want they could help
Suggest any other options. Evaluate all options. What the girl in her studies. This way she could come and meet
option will you choose and why? them regularly and yet she would not have to give up her
education.
Answer
What is the age of child Labour?
There are many laws in India that people are not fully
conversant with. The Acts against employment of juveniles Under the child labour law in India, adolescents between
is one of these. Child labour is a significant problem yet the age of 14 and 18 are prohibited from working in any
most people do not see its true complexities. I would reject hazardous or dangerous occupations and processes.
the first option. If I force the girl to go away, she may start They can only work in certain government declared non-
hazardous occupations or in a family business or as an artist.
 29

Is It Ethical to Purchase
Land From Villagers at an
Unfair Price?

ISBN : 9789390511570
This book is available at all leading physical book stores and
online book stores

To view complete books visit.

To download complete catalogue click

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 1 Unit E : Essays

Steps and Structure of

Essay Writing
1.1 STEPS OF ESSAY WRITING

“I’m not a very good writer, but I’m an excellent rewriter.”

– James Michener
Execution is always the most critical step in any mission. For example, Sportspeople prepare for several
years before displaying their skill in a game of only a few minutes. In the same way, an examination displays
the result of all your years of preparations.
You can’t develop the skill of writing simply by reading a book or watching a video lesson. Instead, you have
to get into action to build writing skills. This chapter discusses the steps to help you write great essays that
can fetch you high scores in the competitive examination.
1. SELECTION OF ESSAY

In the UPSC Mains examination, the essay paper consists of two sections having four essays each. You have
to write one essay from each section. Selecting the right topic is thus the first crucial step for writing an
essay, and choosing the right topic itself can add 10-20% of your marks.
Selecting one topic from the four given topics implies that you have to eliminate three topics from each
section. The following rules can help you select the right essays:
Rules for the selection of an Essay

(i) Understanding the Topic

Don’t choose a topic which you don’t understand properly. For example, the topics like ‘Reality does not
conform to the ideal, but confirms it’ (CSE 2018), or ‘Wisdom finds truth’ (CSE 2019) are too philosophical,
and it is not easy to write essays on such topics. Therefore, if you write an essay without understanding the
topic, you may digress and get poor marks.
However, if by chance, you have already read or practised such an unconventional essay topic earlier, you
must choose such a topic to make a mark since very few candidates would be choosing this topic.
(ii) Knowledge of the Topic
You can’t write good essays on some topics unless you have accurate knowledge of the subject. For example,
if you wish to write an essay on the topic ‘Rise of Artificial Intelligence: the threat of jobless future or
better job opportunities through reskilling and upskilling’ (CSE 2019); you can’t do justice to the essay
unless you possess appropriate knowledge on Artificial Intelligence (AI). You must know how AI affects
jobs worldwide and how to re-skill and up-skill to create jobs in this area.
Therefore, you must attempt an essay on this topic only if you are a domain expert or have studied the
subject area well. When the essay topic pertains to your area of expertise, you must prefer such an essay
since you stand an excellent chance of outscoring others by writing on a specialised topic.
(iii) Availability of Material
Most essay topics in CSE come from the syllabus of the General Studies (GS) papers. Hence, you usually
2

have the requisite knowledge of the subject, which can be helpful to write answers in 150-250 words.
However, you often don’t have sufficient material like data, anecdotes, quotes, stories, and information to
write a 1000-1200 words essay.
Hence, while choosing a topic for an essay, assess how much ready material you have on the given topic.
You must select an essay where you already possess enough material.
2. DISSECTING THE TOPIC

Often, an essay or a question covers multiple areas. Therefore, dissecting the topic into different parts is
essential to plan the essay. For example, the essay ‘A good life is one inspired by love and guided by
knowledge’ has three components:

‘‘ What is a good life?

‘‘ How love inspires people to have a good life?

‘‘ How does knowledge guide people to have a good life?

You must include all three dimensions in your essay. The topic of the essay should be crystal clear in your mind before
you write your first word on paper.

3.THESIS AND ANTITHESIS

We must develop the thesis statement for writing an essay. The thesis statement informs the reader of the author’s
point of view or stand, and it should be specific and address one main idea. Furthermore, it must incorporate the
question(s) you intend to answer in the essay.

We must also develop the antithesis on debatable issues, the opposite of the thesis, and provide the counter-view.
Antithesis is vital to offer a 360-degree view of the issue. Here you act as devil’s advocate to argue the antithesis.
However, your intention is not to support the antithesis. Instead, you wish to prove the weakness of antithesis to
strengthen the thesis. A thesis is thus a prelude of conclusion and must be written keeping the conclusion in mind.
We shall learn deeply about the thesis in a later chapter.

4. BRAINSTORMING

Brainstorming is a standard method in management and administration to generate new ideas and solutions. It is
often done in groups wherein the participants are encouraged to think aloud and give their suggestions based on
whatever thoughts come to their minds.

Brainstorming is an essential step of essay writing too. However, the difference here is that all the ideas come from the
mind of a single individual, the writer, who jots them down on paper and then finally uses those for writing answers
or essays. Considering the importance of brainstorming for essay writing, we shall discuss this topic in detail in the
next chapter.

5. RESEARCH AND RECALL

After brainstorming, recall the information and knowledge from your memory about the brainstorming ideas. If you
find that you have enough material on the essay topic, research to find the relevant information, quotations and data
about the thesis and antithesis. After that, incorporate the material appropriately into the structure of the essay.

6. PRIORITIZE AND REORDER

You have the limitation of time and words for writing your essays. If you have lots of material available for the essay,
you must prioritise the ideas generated during brainstorming and drop the irrelevant or less important ideas. After
 3
that, you must reorder the ideas for the flow and logical consistency.

7. STRUCTURE OF THE ESSAY

An essay is divided into three broad parts, i.e. ‘Introduction’, ‘Body’ and ‘Conclusion’, further sub-divided into
paragraphs. There is no hard and fast rule about the length of a paragraph. Each paragraph must have at least one
cohesive idea. It should neither be too short nor too long. Don’t present the entire thought in a single or 2-3 long
paragraphs, nor go for 15-20 shorter ones.

It would help if you made your paragraphs of optimum length to make it easier for the examiner to navigate the entire
text. For example, it is reasonable to use 10-15 paragraphs in an essay of 1000-1200 words.

We shall discuss all three parts of the structure of an essay in the forthcoming chapters.

8. DEVELOP FLOW IN THE ESSAY

The flow of an essay means the way an article holds together and moves from point to point. It is like shifting the
gears of a car. The transition should be smooth and not abrupt. Flow ensures cohesion and synergy of facts, data, and
information, making the essay lucid and improving the reading experience.

We shall discuss flow in a separate chapter later in this book.

9. REVISE

Revision involves rearranging, adding, or removing paragraphs, sentences, or words. Revision can be done after a
draft is complete or during the composting process. The purpose of revision are as follows,:

‘‘ Identify the effectiveness of thesis and antithesis

‘‘ Reconsider the structure and revise it if needed

‘‘ Identify the weaknesses of your essay

‘‘ Reconsider logic, reasoning and evidence

‘‘ Incorporate appropriate evidence to make your arguments stronger

‘‘ Clarify unclear positions

‘‘ Assess the flow in the essay

‘‘ Ensure that the essay serves its purpose

After considering the above factors, you must revise and rewrite the essay while practising at home. The regular
revision will continuously improve the quality of your writing.

10. EDIT AND PROOFREAD

Editing means looking into each sentence carefully and ensuring that it’s well designed and serves its purpose.
Proofreading involves checking the spelling and grammatical mistakes and correcting it. We can learn about our
common mistakes by editing and proofreading our drafts while practising essays or answer writing at home and avoid
them in the examination hall.

In the examination, editing can help us correct the mistakes we tend to make when we are in the flow of writing.
 1.2 STRUCTURE OF ESSAY

“A good writer possesses not only his own spirit but also the spirit of his friends.”
– Friedrich Nietzsche
An essay is a formal piece of writing that deals with a single subject. In an essay, we discuss, describe, explain,
interpret or analyze a particular topic or persuade the reader to accept a specific point of view.

In general, an essay has three parts:

1. Introduction

2. Body

3. Conclusion

1. INTRODUCTION

The introduction of the essay gives the reader an idea of what they are about to learn. The purpose of an introduction
is to explain the issue briefly and create curiosity in the reader to read the answer further. In addition, it sets the tone
of what to expect next in the subsequent body paragraphs. Introduction creates the first impression in the examiner’s
mind and thus plays the most crucial role in getting the reader’s attention. A good introduction must show that you
have understood the issue well. In addition, it must generate interest and excitement in readers.

You must, therefore, attempt to write the most impressive introduction during your civil services examination. Don’t
write an introduction spontaneously based on the first idea that crosses your mind. Instead, you must spend a few
minutes thinking about different types of openings and then write your first sentence.
The introduction of an essay consists of around 15-20% of the size of the essay. It can have two to three
paragraphs. There are numerous ways to write an introduction. We shall be discussing the different types
of openings for essays in the chapter ‘Tips for Writing Great Introductions’.
2. BODY

The body of an essay is the largest and most significant essay component. In the body, you must elaborate on all
the dimensions of the problems and present convincing arguments to prove your point of view of the thesis. The
essay’s body consists of 60-70% of the words and contains 8-12 paragraphs. Each body paragraph must discuss one
central point or idea. Accordingly, we must structure each paragraph appropriately to explain and support your thesis
statement.

(i) Paragraph Structure

A typical paragraph of the body has three components.

(a) Claim

In the paragraph’s first sentence, we must have a ‘claim’ that we wish to support. A claim is also called the ‘topic
sentence’ as it announces the main focus of the paragraph. In the claim sentence, we present mini arguments that
 05
support the main argument or thesis.

(b) Evidence

After announcing the claim, we must provide studies, data, information or other evidence to prove our claim. We
can provide evidence from primary sources like the government website or secondary sources like articles or essays
published in magazines or newspapers. We must attempt to provide multiple pieces of evidence in the paragraph
from various sources to strengthen the weight of our evidence. Our shreds of evidence must convince the readers that
our viewpoint is based on extensive research and studies.

You don’t always have to produce research findings to prove your claim. You can instead use some personal experience
to convince the reader.

(c) Analysis

In the last part of the body, we must wrap up the argument and present our analysis or observations. Here, we explain
why and how the evidence in this paragraph supports our claim or the thesis statement.

(ii) Strategies to draft arguments

You must decide about the conclusion of your essay at the time of planning itself. After that, frame your arguments
accordingly to make your conclusion convincing and compelling. Hence, in the body paragraph, you must form the
basis of deriving the intended conclusion or announcement of your stand on the issue. The following strategies may
be helpful while drafting your arguments in an essay.

‘‘ In the debatable issues, you must present more substantial arguments to support your thesis, i.e., the stand you
wish to take finally. In contrast, the other side must have weaker arguments or evidence because your ultimate
goal is to prove that your conclusion is rational and conclusive.

‘‘ Since you intend to be part of the Indian government, justify the government’s point of view and support the
policies which the Parliament or State Legislatures passed.

‘‘ When it comes to ethics and integrity, you must always take a moral stand. Hence, your arguments against the
case must be weak in contrast.

‘‘ In controversial issues (like reservation), avoid taking a firm stand. Instead, you must find a middle path to
reconcile the opposite points of view. Accordingly, you must give equal weightage to both sides of the argument.

(iii) Suggest a solution

A civil servant is a problem solver. It is easy to point out the issues but not easy to solve them. The public servants
have the onerous responsibility to solve the nation’s problems. Hence, don’t just point out the issues, instead provide
practical solutions to the issues.

The attitude of a civil servant must be positive, and he must display optimism even amidst the most challenging
and hopeless situation. You must make the best decisions using your innovation and creativity in the given case.
You can also use many best practices of the corporate world to improve government organisations’ efficiency and
effectiveness. We can also learn from the best practices from other governments worldwide and use them after
suitable improvisations. As a civil servant aspirant, you must display the leadership qualities, energy, passion and
in-depth knowledge of the government functions.
06
While offering your suggestions, vision or way forward, don’t be too idealistic, biased and impractical. For example,
don’t suggest measures like awarding a death sentence for corruption, making a contractual appointment in
government, privatisation or outsourcing government jobs, removing all reservations, or reserving seats according to
caste or religion.

Your suggestions must be practical and provide a solution to the problem. Try to develop a consensus after considering
the concerns of all stakeholders. It would be best to respect the Indian ethos and constitutional values like secularism,
inclusiveness, democracy etc.

The following types of suggestions can be helpful for most of the problems within government organisations:

‘‘ Strengthen the laws by plugging the loopholes

‘‘ Simplify the procedures

‘‘ Reduce discretionary powers

‘‘ Extensive use of information technology in government departments

‘‘ Capacity building, education, training, skill development of employees

‘‘ Change management viz. changing the attitude of government officials from master mindset to service orientation

‘‘ Public awareness to empower the citizens

‘‘ Sustainable development by protecting the environment

‘‘ Merit and performance-based pay and promotion

‘‘ Rewards and appreciations for top performers

‘‘ Inclusive growth of all sections of the society

(iv) Presentation of Data

When you present facts or data in your essay, it makes an impression on the reader that you are well informed.
However, you must remember the following points while presenting the facts and pieces of evidence.

‘‘ Don’t give incorrect or outdated data or facts

‘‘ Present the latest court judgements on legal issues

‘‘ Present the latest national or international reports

‘‘ Never give wrong dates, or year, or source

‘‘ Don’t misquote a person or attribute a statement to a wrong person.

‘‘ Cite the authentic source of data or information.

‘‘ Don’t give reference to sources like Wikipedia, blog, or Facebook posts

‘‘ Use indisputable facts and anecdotes to support or weaken arguments

(v) Heading and Bullet Points

You must usually write your essays in paragraph form. However, in some cases, you can incorporate headings and
subheadings to make your essays more interesting and lucid. For example, you may use headings (Social, Economical,
Political, Legal and Historical) to explain different dimensions of corruption to help the readers navigate the essay
smoothly.
 07
Sometimes, you can use bulleted points to provide readers with, to the point information. Bullet points are helpful
when you have more material to present, and the word limit is a constraint.

(vi) Illustrations

In general, essays don’t require illustrations. However, illustrations can help us present the concepts more lucidly
in some situations. For example, we can incorporate maps while discussing international disputes or describing the
flood-prone or drought-prone areas. In addition, pie-charts, bar diagrams and flow charts can be helpful to explain
many concepts of economy. When we discuss the pros and cons of a policy or a decision, we can incorporate a table
to present our ideas best.

We shall be discussing the use of illustrations in writing essays and answers in a separate chapter.

3: CONCLUSION

In the concluding part of the essay, we must solve the problem instead of leaving it unsolved. When discussing an
issue, we must provide our opinion or viewpoint in conclusion. Your conclusion must create and cement a lasting
impression. It must give the readers a sense of satisfaction that he has found something useful in the essay.

You must be at best while writing the conclusion since the examiner awards the marks immediately after reading your
conclusion. Even if you have written excellent introduction and body paragraphs, you may still lose marks if your
conclusion is ordinary.

We have incorporated a separate chapter for the introduction and conclusion, keeping in view their importance in
essay writing.
08

Steps and Structure

of Essay Writing

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 2. Philosophical Essays 9

“Hardship often Prepares an Ordinary

2.1 Person for an Extraordinary Destiny.”

This quote was given by C.S. Lewis. Clive Staples Lewis (29 November 1898 – 22 November 1963) was a British writer
and lay theologian. He held academic positions in English literature at both Oxford University (Magdalen College,
1925–1954) and Cambridge University (Magdalene College, 1954–1963). He is best known as the author of The
Chronicles of Narnia, but he is also noted for his other works of fiction, such as The Screwtape Letters and The Space
Trilogy, and for his non-fiction on Christian apologetics, including Mere Christianity, Miracles, and The Problem of Pain.

Hardship is a common experience of life. While some people overcome hardships, others find it difficult to overcome
hardships. Resilience is typically defined as the capacity to recover from difficult life events.It’s your ability to withstand
adversity and bounce back and grow despite life’s downturns. Resilience is not a trampoline, where you’re down one
moment and up the next. It’s more like climbing a mountain without a trail map. It takes time, strength, and help from
people around you, and you’ll likely experience setbacks along the way. But eventually you reach the top and look
back at how far you’ve come.

People experience all kinds of adversity in life. There are personal experiences, such as illness, loss of a loved one,
abuse, bullying, job loss, and financial instability. There is the shared reality of tragic events in the news, such as terrorist
attacks, mass shootings, and natural disasters. People have to learn to cope with and work through very challenging
life experiences.

Resilience theory refers to the ideas surrounding how people are affected by and adapt to things like adversity, change,
loss, and risk.

Being resilient does not mean that people don’t experience stress, emotional upheaval, and suffering. Some people
equate resilience with mental toughness, but demonstrating resilience includes working through emotional pain and
suffering.

Resilience isn’t a fixed trait. Flexibility, adaptability, and perseverance can help people tap into their resilience by
changing certain thoughts and behaviors. Research shows that students who believe that both intellectual abilities and
social attributes can be developed show a lower stress response to adversity and improved performance.

There is no way to quite describe how debilitating it feels carrying a crushing load of stress and uncertainty. When we’re
panicking it is nearly impossible to find workable or well considered solutions to our problems.

Feelings of stress are amongst the most frightening and powerful we experience along our path to success. Business is
full of unfair situations, poor communication, deals gone bad, lies told, people underperforming, entitlement, loss of
finances and other let downs. When we’re in these stressful times we can feel out of control, hurt, harsh levels of self-
doubt, extreme sadness, anxiety, and fear, coupled with feeling powerless to change our circumstances. Yet, without
these types of stressors, unfair situations, and less than honest or stellar people on our paths we would never grow into
the powerful people we are destined to become.

Pain touches everyone. If you’re lucky, the toughest times in your life will be fleeting. But some hardships — including
the global coronavirus pandemic and its aftermath — may linger for years, and continue to present new challenges for
individuals and organizations.

Hardships aren’t asked for and aren’t usually welcomed. They’re not something you would plan into your development
in the coming year. Yet, hardships are unavoidable.

The good news is, adversity can actually be a powerful teacher.

10

Often unexpected and shocking, personal trauma is generally an experience you can’t control, and that causes feelings
of confusion or loss. This could be anything from the coronavirus pandemic to a death in the family to surviving a car
crash.

Whether it occurs in the workplace or another part of your life, experiencing discrimination or injustice is one of the
most common hardships. This involves a wide range of subtle and overt, intentional and unintentional behavior and
actions that can cause long-lasting negative consequences.

Mistakes and failures can be technical, professional, ethical, or strategic — for example, a product malfunction, a poor
hiring decision, a loss of credibility, or a collapsed venture. It can often feel difficult to bounce back from these failures,
especially if they’re larger in scale, tied to a deeper workplace culture or issue, or far-reaching in their impact.

Sometimes career setbacks are unavoidable or out of your control. It could be organization-wide layoffs, a freeze on
hiring or promotions, a company reorganization, or a wide array of less severe but nonetheless significant events.

Hardships are similar in that we learn from pushing through the challenge we face. By facing an initial lack of success
with resilience, we can actually grow considerably more through reframing how we approach these difficult experiences.
Hardships can bring unexpected gifts if we’re open to gleaning lessons from them. While this isn’t automatic, anyone
can find and embrace these silver linings. There are several lessons learned from hardships.

A significant dose of humility usually comes with hardship. It’s never easy to confront the truth that you aren’t perfect,
invincible, or immune to difficult or even terrible things. But going through hardships can open your eyes to the
hardships of others. Receiving support and help from others may motivate you to give support more readily. Your sense
of compassion can grow.

Hardships force you to come face-to-face with who you are. Lessons learned from hardships often reveal limitations,
patterns, beliefs, and skills you didn’t see or appreciate before. This shift, which increases self-awareness, is powerful.
You have the chance to make new choices based on what matters; how you act, think, and feel; and what you can and
can’t do.

As much as you might want to chart your own path, hardships are a powerful reminder of the limits of your own
control. By acknowledging and embracing those limits on your power, you can put down some of the weight you’re
carrying and accept that some things aren’t up to you.

Surviving hardships and willing yourself to move forward builds added strength to tackle new challenges and face
future failures. Flexibility allows you to be resilient and durable as things change. It teaches you to be open to learning
and agile as you figure out what to do next.

When you’re in the middle of a really tough time, these gifts may seem far away or irrelevant — but they’re invaluable.

Adversity forces us to reach out for help, to create social networks and to realize that we cannot and should not
overcome our struggles on our own. Resiliency can make us feel we have a little more mastery in life. This is not to say
that we can’t reach a breaking point in life. There are times when life is just too hard.

When faced with a crisis, it can be difficult in the moment to imagine the kind of experience that will eventually lead to
some type of growth. Resilience is a person’s ability to bounce back from adversity and grow from the challenge, and
research now shows that past adversity can help you persevere in the face of current stress. Adversity also allows us the
very important character trait of resilience; through resilience, one is able to be bolder and more level headed, one’s
character is strengthened and one is able to move on from very painful circumstances.

Experiencing hardship is good for us: People who have pulled through hard times are happier in the long-run. The
most painful experiences in life may come with an eventual upside, by promoting the ability to appreciate life’s small
pleasures, scientists have said.
 11

“We Suffer more in Imagination than in

2.2 Reality.”

This quote was given by Seneca.

In his thirteenth letter, titled ‘On groundless fears’, Seneca writes: “There are more things … likely to frighten us than
there are to crush us; we suffer more often in imagination than in reality.”

The title quote reflects a point in all of our lives where we must consider only our objective self. It is often our imagination,
the voice in our head that conducts the negative chatter, and keeps us from being our right, just, and truthful self. Much
of this suffering derives from “empty” fears, imagination at its finest. The drawback of such thinking patterns is that it
closes us off from what matters and creates a cycle of “I can’t do this”, “there’s no way” attitude that will limit us in our
relationship with the people, places, and things.

Think about the time when you were starting a new job, a new school, trying a new sport, etc. A million things must
have run through your head, a million ‘what ifs’, and then when you got there and things weren’t all that bad, you must
have thought to yourself “Huh, what was all the worrying about?”

To worry and think through what could potentially happen is completely natural. It’s your brain’s way of preparing
yourself for all possibilities.However, our brains can kick into overdrive at times and that’s when we start overthinking.
Training yourself to quieten those thoughts will make those situations feel a lot easier.

“The truth is, we know so little about life, we don’t really know what the good news is and what the bad news is,”
Kurt Vonnegut observed while discussing Hamlet during his influential lecture on the shapes of stories. “The whole
process of nature is an integrated process of immense complexity, and it’s really impossible to tell whether anything
that happens in it is good or bad,” Alan Watts wrote a generation earlier in his sobering case for learning not to think in
terms of gain or loss. And yet most of us spend swaths of our days worrying about the prospect of events we judge to be
negative, potential losses driven by what we perceive to be “bad news.” In the 1930s, one pastor itemized anxiety into
five categories of worries, four of which were imaginary and the fifth, “worries that have a real foundation,” occupying
possibly 8% of the total.A twenty-four-hour news cycle that preys on this human propensity has undeniably aggravated
the problem and swelled the 8% to appear as 98%, but at the heart of this warping of reality is an ancient tendency
of mind so hard-wired into our psyche that it exists independently of external events. The great first-century Roman
philosopher Seneca examined it, and its only real antidote, with uncommon insight in his correspondence with his
friend Lucilius Junior, later published as Letters from a Stoic (public library) — the timeless trove of wisdom that gave
us Seneca’s perspectives on true and false friendship, and the mental discipline of overcoming fear.

Seneca writes: “There are more things … likely to frighten us than there are to crush us; we suffer more often in
imagination than in reality.”

With an eye to the self-defeating and wearying human habit of bracing ourselves for imaginary disaster, Seneca
counsels his young friend: “What I advise you to do is, not to be unhappy before the crisis comes; since it may be that
the dangers before which you considered to be threatening enough, will never come upon you; they certainly have not
yet come.”

Accordingly, some things torment us more than they ought; some torment us before they ought; and some torment us
when they ought not to torment us at all. We are in the habit of exaggerating, or imagining, or anticipating, sorrow.

Seneca then offers a critical assessment of reasonable and unreasonable worries, using elegant rhetoric to illuminate
the foolishness of squandering our mental and emotional energies on the latter class, which comprises the vast majority
of our anxieties: “It is likely that some troubles will befall us; but it is not a present fact. How often has the unexpected
happened! How often has the expected never come to pass! And even though it is ordained to be, what does it avail to
12

run out to meet your suffering? You will suffer soon enough, when it arrives; so look forward meanwhile to better things.
What shall you gain by doing this? Time. There will be many happenings meanwhile which will serve to postpone, or
end, or pass on to another person, the trials which are near or even in your very presence. A fire has opened the way
to flight. Men have been let down softly by a catastrophe. Sometimes the sword has been checked even at the victim’s
throat. Men have survived their own executioners. Even bad fortune is fickle. Perhaps it will come, perhaps not; in the
meantime, it has not. So look forward to better things.”

Sixteen centuries before Descartes examined the vital relationship between fear and hope, Seneca considers its role in
mitigating our anxiety:

The mind at times fashions for itself false shapes of evil, and when there are no signs that point to any evil; it twists
into the worst construction, some word of doubtful meaning; or it fancies some personal grudge to be more serious
than it really is, considering not how angry the enemy is, but to what lengths he may go if he is angry. But life is not
worth living, and there is no limit to our sorrows, if we indulge our fears to the greatest possible extent; in this matter, let
prudence help you, and contemn with a resolute spirit even when it is in plain sight. If you cannot do this, counter one
weakness with another, and temper your fear with hope. There is nothing so certain among these objects of fear that it
is not more certain still that things we dread sink into nothing and that things we hope for mock us. Accordingly, weigh
carefully your hopes as well as your fears, and whenever all the elements are in doubt, decide in your own favour;
believe what you prefer. And if fear wins a majority of the votes, incline in the other direction anyhow, and cease to
harass your soul, reflecting continually that most mortals, even when no troubles are actually at hand or are certainly
to be expected in the future, become excited and disquieted.

But the greatest peril of misplaced worry, Seneca cautions, is that in keeping us constantly tensed against an imagined
catastrophe, it prevents us from fully living. He ends the letter with a quote from Epicurus illustrating this sobering point:
“The fool, with all his other faults, has this also; he is always getting ready to live.”
(Source: The Marginalian)
 13

“We Suffer more in

2.3
Imagination than in Reality.”
This quote was given by Seneca.

In his thirteenth letter, titled ‘On groundless fears’, Seneca writes: “There are more things … likely to frighten us than
there are to crush us; we suffer more often in imagination than in reality.”

The title quote reflects a point in all of our lives where we must consider only our objective self. It is often our imagination,
the voice in our head that conducts the negative chatter, and keeps us from being our right, just, and truthful self. Much
of this suffering derives from “empty” fears, imagination at its finest. The drawback of such thinking patterns is that it
closes us off from what matters and creates a cycle of “I can’t do this”, “there’s no way” attitude that will limit us in our
relationship with the people, places, and things.

Think about the time when you were starting a new job, a new school, trying a new sport, etc. A million things must
have run through your head, a million ‘what ifs’, and then when you got there and things weren’t all that bad, you must
have thought to yourself “Huh, what was all the worrying about?”

To worry and think through what could potentially happen is completely natural. It’s your brain’s way of preparing
yourself for all possibilities.However, our brains can kick into overdrive at times and that’s when we start overthinking.
Training yourself to quieten those thoughts will make those situations feel a lot easier.

“The truth is, we know so little about life, we don’t really know what the good news is and what the bad news is,”
Kurt Vonnegut observed while discussing Hamlet during his influential lecture on the shapes of stories. “The whole
process of nature is an integrated process of immense complexity, and it’s really impossible to tell whether anything
that happens in it is good or bad,” Alan Watts wrote a generation earlier in his sobering case for learning not to think in
terms of gain or loss. And yet most of us spend swaths of our days worrying about the prospect of events we judge to be
negative, potential losses driven by what we perceive to be “bad news.” In the 1930s, one pastor itemized anxiety into
five categories of worries, four of which were imaginary and the fifth, “worries that have a real foundation,” occupying
possibly 8% of the total.A twenty-four-hour news cycle that preys on this human propensity has undeniably aggravated
the problem and swelled the 8% to appear as 98%, but at the heart of this warping of reality is an ancient tendency
of mind so hard-wired into our psyche that it exists independently of external events. The great first-century Roman
philosopher Seneca examined it, and its only real antidote, with uncommon insight in his correspondence with his
friend Lucilius Junior, later published as Letters from a Stoic (public library) — the timeless trove of wisdom that gave
us Seneca’s perspectives on true and false friendship, and the mental discipline of overcoming fear.

Seneca writes: “There are more things … likely to frighten us than there are to crush us; we suffer more often in
imagination than in reality.”

With an eye to the self-defeating and wearying human habit of bracing ourselves for imaginary disaster, Seneca
counsels his young friend: “What I advise you to do is, not to be unhappy before the crisis comes; since it may be that
the dangers before which you considered to be threatening enough, will never come upon you; they certainly have not
yet come.”

Accordingly, some things torment us more than they ought; some torment us before they ought; and some torment us
when they ought not to torment us at all. We are in the habit of exaggerating, or imagining, or anticipating, sorrow.

Seneca then offers a critical assessment of reasonable and unreasonable worries, using elegant rhetoric to illuminate
the foolishness of squandering our mental and emotional energies on the latter class, which comprises the vast majority
of our anxieties: “It is likely that some troubles will befall us; but it is not a present fact. How often has the unexpected
happened! How often has the expected never come to pass! And even though it is ordained to be, what does it avail to
14

run out to meet your suffering? You will suffer soon enough, when it arrives; so look forward meanwhile to better things.
What shall you gain by doing this? Time. There will be many happenings meanwhile which will serve to postpone, or
end, or pass on to another person, the trials which are near or even in your very presence. A fire has opened the way
to flight. Men have been let down softly by a catastrophe. Sometimes the sword has been checked even at the victim’s
throat. Men have survived their own executioners. Even bad fortune is fickle. Perhaps it will come, perhaps not; in the
meantime, it has not. So look forward to better things.”

Sixteen centuries before Descartes examined the vital relationship between fear and hope, Seneca considers its role in
mitigating our anxiety:

The mind at times fashions for itself false shapes of evil, and when there are no signs that point to any evil; it twists
into the worst construction, some word of doubtful meaning; or it fancies some personal grudge to be more serious
than it really is, considering not how angry the enemy is, but to what lengths he may go if he is angry. But life is not
worth living, and there is no limit to our sorrows, if we indulge our fears to the greatest possible extent; in this matter, let
prudence help you, and contemn with a resolute spirit even when it is in plain sight. If you cannot do this, counter one
weakness with another, and temper your fear with hope. There is nothing so certain among these objects of fear that it
is not more certain still that things we dread sink into nothing and that things we hope for mock us. Accordingly, weigh
carefully your hopes as well as your fears, and whenever all the elements are in doubt, decide in your own favour;
believe what you prefer. And if fear wins a majority of the votes, incline in the other direction anyhow, and cease to
harass your soul, reflecting continually that most mortals, even when no troubles are actually at hand or are certainly
to be expected in the future, become excited and disquieted.

But the greatest peril of misplaced worry, Seneca cautions, is that in keeping us constantly tensed against an imagined
catastrophe, it prevents us from fully living. He ends the letter with a quote from Epicurus illustrating this sobering point:
“The fool, with all his other faults, has this also; he is always getting ready to live.”
(Source: The Marginalian)
 15

Philosophical Essays

ISBN : 9789355640598
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 16 3. 5 Practice Essays

The research shows people have inborn capacities, which

largely determine educational attainment.
3.1

W ise men in all cultures and era have reminded us that we have inborn capabilities. Today, the research has
also proved it to be true. In other words, we are born with certain capabilities and capacities. Some men are
weak, some are strong. Some men start speaking and writing from an early age, other do it late. Some persons are
born with disabilities while others have various abilities. In other words, all children at birth are not alike but quite
unlike in capacities and capabilities. This is true in nearly all aspects of life. This is true and proven in the educational
attainment as well. However, we might add some caveats to it as follows:
• No matter how capable you are from birth, the challenges can make or mar your achievements.
• No matter what you may lack at birth, you have the capacity to attain anything you want.
Let us follow with some examples to prove these caveats.
Thomas Alva Edison didn’t attend school after primary classes but his passion for invention ensured his success. He
invented several gadgets including the light bulb and recording instruments.
Akbar didn’t have a formal education, yet he was learned and held discussions with learned scholars of different
religions.
Bill Gates is a college dropout who eventually went on to create an IT revolution.
The story is nearly endless of men and women who went on to attain the highest levels despite drawbacks in
educational attainments.
The modern research shows that men have inborn qualities that largely determine their educational attainments.
It means men have inborn qualities such as IQ level and other genetic traits that ensure their success in academics
or their likely success in academics. The same thing has been said in a Hindi proverb “Honhar birban ke hote
chikne pat”. That is those men destined for success or high attainments have qualities that are discerned during their
childhood.
It is not uncommon to see children with diverse interests. A child who is intelligent and quick witted, for instance
shows promise of excellent educational achievement in later years. Children with high IQ and gifted children also
attain excellent academic accomplishment. However, as said before no matter your IQ, environmental factors might
be a huge challenge for some of the children. If the child grows up in poor environmental conditions with severe
challenges of finance and inappropriate cultural settings, the child is likely to fall in a bad company. Such a child
might emerge as a drug addict, delinquent and criminal. There are rare children who emerge out of these challenging
conditions as successful professionals. It is noticed that most juvenile delinquents share the common background
conditions of single mother families with low income, poor neighborhood, gangsters in the neighborhood with the
den of vices like drugs, alcohol, sex, and violence. It may be difficult for children in such settings to come out
successfully. In other words, mere genetic traits of high IQ and other positive genetic traits may not be enough to
ensure academic success. The appropriate environmental conditions are also desirable for the children where there
positive hereditary traits have a chance.
Therefore, we might say that inborn qualities alone are not sufficient for people to shine up with academic success.
Rather both inborn qualities and proper environmental conditions together ensure success. However, it may also
be noted here that those with certain inborn qualities do excel. If they do not excel in academic pursuits because of
the lack of education and the lack of positive environment, they do excel in crime. Some of the criminals originating
 17

from poor environmental conditions have demonstrated their abilities at a successful track record of crimes where the
police haven’t been able to catch them for a long time.
Another important point to note is that people may have certain inborn qualities. In fact all people may have certain
distinct qualities, but most of them remain unaware of their true potential. Secondly, their potential may be different,
and not necessarily potential for academic excellence. Someone may have spatial abilities while others may have
linguistic abilities. In fact the researchers have now discovered that all person with high IQ may not be alike. The field
they excel in depends on which part of their brain is more developed. That is why those who excel in music or sports
or academics, or art or any other field are not alike even if all of them may have high IQ.
The multiple intelligences theory points out to this fact. There are multiple intelligences and not everyone shares those
intelligences. That is the reason we do not expect Sachin Tendulkar to sing and Lata Mangeshkar to play cricket. They
field they excel in depends on which among several intelligences is developed in them.
Therefore, the claim that research shows people have inborn capacities, which largely determine educational
attainment may be true but not absolutely true. It is true in so far as there are certain inborn capacities. These
capacities determine the likelihood of success for a child in any field and not necessarily in education. It is the task of
the parents and counselors to identify the interest of the child and provide appropriate guidance in that specific field
where the child can attain success easily in comparison to other children.
Most often people fail to attain success in certain pursuit not because they are incapable but because they have
chosen a wrong field. This is the fault of our system including the schools, and parents. Their obsession with academic
excellence probably spoils the future of countless children.
Imagine if the children in the earliest classes were identified for their talent by schools with the help of counselors and
psychologists, it might have made a tremendous difference to the future of children. Many students who perform
poorly in academics and remain depressed for a long time because of their failures would no longer be so. Many
parents who form a negative opinion of their children for their lack of success in academics would most likely change
their opinion when they realize their children have the potential to become a successful businessman, sports person,
artist, musician, or anything else. This would make for a happier world of parents, children, and school. The only
thing needed here is to identify the talent or special qualities of children during their earlier days in school.
 18

Man is the measure of

3.2 all things

I t is a statement by the ancient Greek philosopher Protagoras. It is usually interpreted to mean that the individual
human being, rather than a god or an unchanging moral law, is the ultimate source of value. More precisely
Protagoras of Abdera ( 485-415 BCE) is most famous for his claim that "Of all things the measure is Man, of the
things that are, that they are, and of the things that are not, that they are not" usually rendered simply as "Man is
the Measure of All Things". Along these same lines, he also maintained that, if there were gods - as the Greeks, of
course, believed - there was no way of knowing what they were like or what they might want from humanity by way
of service and worship.
Protagoras lived and worked in ancient Athens as a sophist, a highly paid teacher of the upper class youth of the
city, who instructed his pupils in how to speak well and, especially, how to win court cases. Athens was particularly
litigious and law suits were common; knowing how to turn a jury to side with one's claims was a highly prized skill
and, it seems, Protagoras was very good at this.
At the same time, however, and in spite of how highly the Athenians valued his services, the cultural values of the
Greeks during this time was informed by their religion and criticism of the gods was not welcome nor encouraged,
much less denying their existence or claiming that, if they existed, one could not know what they were like. It is
curious to consider, then, how a man who claimed that what was true to each individual was, in fact, true - regardless
of any cultural values to the contrary -could come to be the most highly paid sophist in ancient Greece.
“Man is the measure of all things”, is commonly believed to mean that humans hold the most value. We were
created first giving us the ultimate value. Humans must have been created first for the reason that they should uphold
whatever came next and that they, as humans, are the ones responsible for the order of the world. If they were to
forget their value, as they’ve done now, the world would be sent into chaos.
If you look at government and it’s people, you will see that man has lost their value. Man has become the subculture
to whatever government may see themselves as, whether that be gods or deities. Humans have domain over what
they create or rule over. The “people” have rule over the government but have forgotten that and now government
runs the world, controlling how they, as conscious, bipedal, powerful humans see the world and how they live.
It’s understood that as a living human, man must maintain the world and how those below them, being animals,
insects, etc. live and how they are used. That’s also including technology. Humans created technology to make
a complicated life simpler, not to allow it to take control of the work force and also the general lives of humans.
Technology has become a part of a human’s mundane life. For example, there are online dating sites for people.
In older times, people used to go out to meet people, and they used to take people out on dates, but now we have
technology to take the place of that. Technology has made the value of being human go lower. Humans had the
ability to talk to the people they were attracted to, face to face, without the means of technology.
The meaning of man is the measure of all things then means man is at the centre of the universe not in physical
location but in thoughts, ideas, and decisions. In other words, our deductions, assumptions, and decisions are
anthropocentric. We cannot arrive at any deductions, assumptions, and decisions without contextualizing man.
However, critics point out that man is not even a speck in this vast universe. In fact the position of the planet earth
is insignificant in this vast universe. We are completely ignorant beings but in our pride and ego, we think man is
 19

the measure of all things. How can man be the measure of all things when man doesn’t know anything about the
possibility of populated planets with intelligent beings? There is a high possibility that far more intelligent beings than
human beings could be existing in this universe at far off planets hundreds of light years away. There could be millions
and billions of such intelligent planets. This scenario is not a figment of imagination but a distinct possibility. How can
then we claim man is the measure of all things?
The dictum “man is the measure of all things” is then the dictum of man’s ignorance. It is the dictum of man’s short
sightedness, deceit, deception and dishonesty. Copernican revolution was a paradigm shift during the medieval
times, when Copernicus overturned the anthropocentric paradigm of the world. Before Copernicus, it was held
that earth is the centre of the universe. Copernicus proved that earth and all other planets revolve around the sun.
The medieval Church did not like this idea because the Church was considered to be the centre of all wisdom. The
Church held that planet earth is the centre of the universe. The Church wanted Copernicus to withdraw his claims but
he refused. Although Copernicus was lucky to have escaped the wrath of Church because he was not staked to death
by the Church but other medieval scholars were not so lucky to speak the truth. The other thinker Italian Dominican
Friar Girodano Bruno, who argued correctly that the stars were other suns with their own planets going around them,
was burnt at the stake in 1600. He was born five years after the death of Copernicus.
In conclusion, it is clear that man is not the measure of all things. In fact “Man is the measure of all things” is an
old dictum of the time when the Church was powerful and considered to be the repository of all knowledge. It
represented the height of ignorance because its truths were scientifically not proven. Anyone wanting to present the
truth were burnt to stakes. The false beliefs like man is the measure of all things emerge from the blind ego of man
compounded by ignorance. The blind ignorance often hides the truth.
 20

How do we gain initial knowledge: an experience or

constant processing of information?
3.3

It is easy to get confused about information and knowledge. People often use the terms interchangeably,
without knowing the fact that there are slight and subtle differences between information and knowledge.
These two are important concepts of knowledge management system, wherein the former means processed
data about someone or something, while the latter refers to useful information gained through learning and
experience.

When the data collected is filtered, it turns out as information. Of the filtered information, the useful material,
that is relevant to the subject, is called the knowledge. So, take a look at the given article which might help you
to understand the terms further.

In history of philosophy there has been a constant debate whether reason or experience is the source of
knowledge. The debate is identified as rationalists vs idealists. According to rationalists reason alone is the source
of all knowledge, while according to the idealists or empiricists experience alone is the source all knowledge.
The resolution of this debate came about with Kant, according to whom both reason and experience are the
sources of all knowledge.

The given topic appears to support the view of empiricists that knowledge is acquired through experience and
constant processing of experience.

“The only source of knowledge is experience.” This quote by Albert Einstein gives an interesting definition
of knowledge. Knowledge seems to come from your past experiences and how you deal with them. All of
the situations that you encounter throughout your lifetime shapes who you are as a person. The knowledge
that you acquire in your lifetime comes from how you interpret these experiences. These interpretations are
very different among people, but through different experiences some can gain the same knowledge. But if
experiences are the source of knowledge, what is knowledge itself? It seems that people have very different
ways of becoming knowledgeable because of how different their experiences can be. Some people can acquire
knowledge throughout their life, but may still not be very smart people. Although knowledge can be acquired
through different methods, the actual knowledge itself seems to stay relatively constant among people. In Plato’s
Meno, Socrates and Meno have a conversation about the nature of virtue. In this conversation, the topic of
teaching arises along with wisdom and knowledge. Meno believes that knowledge is the ability to define words,
but Socrates does not agree with this definition and sets out to disprove this point. Knowledge cannot be the
mere definition of words because then the defining of unknown words would encompass too many words to be
able to actually learn anything, and because people can understand a concept even when they can’t actually
define the same concept. Therefore knowledge itself has to be different from the mere definition of the words.

So the question arises what is knowledge?

Knowledge is a familiarity or awareness, of someone or something, such as facts (descriptive knowledge), skills
(procedural knowledge), or objects (acquaintance knowledge) contributing to ones understanding. By most
accounts, knowledge can be acquired in many different ways and from many sources, including but not limited
 21

to perception, reason, memory, testimony, scientific inquiry, education, and practice. The philosophical study
of knowledge is called epistemology.

The term "knowledge" can refer to a theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. It can be implicit (as with
practical skill or expertise) or explicit (as with the theoretical understanding of a subject); formal or informal;
systematic or particular.The philosopher Plato argued that there was a distinction between knowledge and true
belief in the Theaetetus, leading many to attribute to him a definition of knowledge as "justified true belief".
The difficulties with this definition raised by the Gettier problem have been the subject of extensive debate in
epistemology for more than half a century.

Our next question is how do we gain knowledge?

The answer is you can gain knowledge either through experience or reason. When we claim that Sun rises
from the East, we have gained this knowledge from regular observation or experience. The same is true of such
knowledge as “Man is mortal”. However, when we have the knowledge of 2+2 is 4, this knowledge is gained
from reason.

Further we can continue to deduce more from the initial knowledge. When we deduce more from the initial
knowledge we may compare it to the processing of information. This kind of knowledge is gained in biological
sciences which is based on observation and experience as opposed to the mathematical sciences and logic.

When we gain knowledge, we learn something new. Learning from experience is also known as Experiential
Learning (EXL). One of the popular definitions of the process says it is “learning through reflection on doing”.

It is greatly different from conventional learning as there may be no teacher or mentor involved. The learner
plays an active part in the learning process. It is an individual-focused learning technique for learning from
experience. A common example of real learning through experience is that of botany students. While they can
simply learn about the various plants and trees by reading books on the subject, they are regularly taken on trips
across biodiversity parks, gardens, and forested areas for learning from observation.

Let us now answer the question “How do we gain initial knowledge: an experience
or constant processing of information?
It is clear from above discussion that experience and constant processing of information are not different
sources of knowledge but the parts of the same source of knowledge. Secondly, even if they are two sources
of knowledge, one cannot be excluded for the sake of the other. For instance, when I am given an equation to
solve, I will process the given information in the form of equation to come to a solution, which is knowledge. This
knowledge has come about as a result of processing of information. This is the way computers work and that
is how we gain rational knowledge or knowledge through the source of reason. On the other hand experience
teaches us several things in the form of knowledge. The repeated observation of a phenomenon especially
in social sciences provides us with new insight in the form of knowledge such as the dietary habits, cultural
information, demographic information etc. Therefore, we cannot say that knowledge comes from experience
alone or from the constant processing of information alone.
 22

Be light unto yourself (Atma Deepo Bhava)

3.4

“ Atma Deepo Bhava” is an important thought of Buddha which means “be your own lamp”. That is, a person
should decide the purpose of his life or any moral / immoral himself, should not look at anyone else's support.
It is rooted in the idea that Buddha believes in the abilities of every individual and this belief is at the core of
any democracy.
The relevance of this idea can be seen in the following contexts::
This idea challenges the grandeur of the small intelligentsia and gives everyone an opportunity to enter into it.
Therefore, this idea will give strength to a large number of illiterate population of India for self-determination.
In the present day when schools have become factories making children like the same machine. In such a
situation, this idea becomes even more important to take the right decision in life.
This idea is also very relevant from the point of view of strengthening democracy.
Today's era is the era of innovation and the more the person who chooses his own path will be more likely to
be innovative.
If a person starts thinking himself, then serious challenges like hero-worship and growing superstitions are easily
tackled.
In other words, this ideology improves the individual as well as society. The society as well as individuals
becomes the part of a moral order while strengthening of democracy.
This idea plays an important role in the personality development of an individual and leads the society towards
the right path. In such a society, most innovations also take place where the person gets an opportunity to
express his creativity without any fear and restriction.
Walter Bezhot has also said that "The culture of imitation is there in most of the societies of the world, but the
boon of free discussion has been given to only a few societies and it is not surprising that only a few societies
have been able to progress on the path of development, while others have not." "
The meaning of the saying of Tathagata Siddhartha Gautama Buddha is that instead of expecting from someone
else, be your own light (inspiration). May yourself be illuminated, but keep shining like a beacon for others also.
Lord Gautam Buddha when asked by his beloved disciple Anand that when there will be no one like you on
earth to show the path of truth, how will we be able to give direction to our life? So Lord Buddha had given this
answer – “Appa Deepo Bhava” which means be light unto yourself or be your own lamp.
No one can always pave the way for someone's path, only with the light of enlightenment we can proceed on
the path of truth. Lord Buddha said, don't make me your crutch. If you are lame, and walk on my crutches -
how far will you walk? You will not be able to reach the destination. Today I am with you, tomorrow I will not
be with you, then you have to walk on your own feet. Don't walk with my light because we have been together
for a while in the dark forest. You will shine in my light for a while; Then our paths will part ways. My light will
be with me, your darkness will be with you. Create your own light.
Be light unto yourself is also noticed in the journey of Siddhartha to Buddha. Siddhartha had no one to guide
him. He was alone with his problems. There came several masters but he systematically rejected each of them
because Siddharth did not agree with their ideas.
When Siddhartha became Buddha, he was illumined. He wanted each one of us to experience the same
illumination for which he said, each individual will have to make their personal efforts. He cannot guide them
 23

forever. Thus for the Buddha end lies within us and our journey is the individual journey inwards. Although we
need a master to guide us, all he can do is show us the way. This what the Buddha meant when he said “Appo
Deepo Bhava” to Ananda.
“Appo Depo Bhava”or “Be light unto yourself” were the last words of the Buddha and his parting message to
Ananda and other disciples. According to the Buddha legend, Ananda was his chief disciple who stayed with
Buddha for 42 years till the last moment when Buddha left this world. Ananda remained with the Buddha day
in and day out never leaving him alone. Ananda had not become enlightened even at the time Buddha was
leaving the mortal abode. When Buddha was taking his last breath, Ananda began crying and he said, “What
will I do now? You are leaving but I haven’t become enlightened till now?” Then Buddha consoled Siddhartha.
He asked him not to cry. He said that he cannot make him or anyone else enlightened. This was something
each individual has to attain through their own efforts. He said “Be light unto yourself”. This was Buddha’s
conclusion from his personal experience.
Buddha went to several masters to learn meditation and the highest attainment. However, his experience with
these masters did not lead to the highest attainment he was seeking. Then he decided to find his own way and
ultimately found it. This experience of Buddha led him to proclaim “Atma Deepo Bhava”.
J. Krishnamurthy has explained the process of how one can become light unto oneself. According to him to be
aware is to watch your bodily activity, the way you walk, the way you sit, the movements of your hands; it is to
hear the words you use, to observe all your thoughts, all your emotions, all your reactions. It includes awareness
of the unconcious, with its traditions, its instinctual knowledge, and the immense sorrow it has accumulated--
not only personal sorrow, but the sorrow of man. You have to be aware of all that; and you cannot be aware of
it if you are merely judging, evaluating,
From awareness comes attention. Attention flows from awareness when in that awareness there is no choice,
no personal choosing, no experiencing... but merely observing. And, to observe, you must have in the mind a
great deal of space. A mind that is caught in ambition, greed, envy, in the pursuit of pleasure and self-fulfillment,
with its inevitable sorrow, pain, despair, anguish-- such a mind has no space in which to observe, to attend. It is
crowded with its own desires, going round and round in its own backwaters of reaction.
It is only in the state of attention that you can be a light unto yourself, and then every action of your daily life
springs from that light-- every action-- whether you are doing your job, cooking, going for a walk, mending
clothes, or what you will.
 24

How can a person remain objective with the plethora of

information we process today?
3.5

H ave you ever been in a conversation where the other person said something like 'Let's look at this in another
way. If you stand back and look at the problem objectively, it seems less important.' ? Taking an objective
stance has a calming effect, helping people to see things as they really are or from a different viewpoint.
Objectivity works in two ways. First, it helps to remove emotion, allowing people to think more rationally. The
other use of objectivity is that it provides neutral territory that allows an equitable discussion to take place.
What do we mean when we say we want to be objective. Let us figure out.
When we say 'be objective' we typically mean a number of things:
• Be unemotional, not getting agitated or distressed in any way.
• See things as they really are, not from a personally biased viewpoint.
• Be neutral, understanding both points of view.
An objective viewpoint is thus more realistic, fairer and far more likely to be result in an agreeable resolution to
human differences..
Critics have argued that it is impossible to be objective or difficult to be objective if not impossible. Being
objective is of or relating to something that can be known, or to something that is an object or a part of an
object. Absolute objectivity is perhaps impossible to achieve because perception is always subjective. Being
objective means you are not influenced by personal feelings, interpretations, or prejudice; but make judgment or
decisions based on unbiased fact, dispassionate examination, and deep observation. Many people intend to be
objective, but being objective is easy to say, hard to achieve. Knowlege imitation, lack of insight, preassumption,
all sorts of bias, small thinking, narrow-mindedness, stereotyping, etc, are all causes of lacking objectivity.
Lack of insight or superficiality leads the way: The most important capability of cognitive mind is the willingness
and ability to seek out relevant knowledge, gain in-depth understanding, and address our ignorance and the
assumptions we make to minimize it. The best you can do for improving objectivity is to be consciously aware
that data is filtered and do your best to make sure your filters support thriving.
Lack of objectivity or misunderstanding is the big cause of many human problems. The more complex the
situation is, the more different approaches and role gaming is needed to reach for in-depth understanding.
Practice lateral, nonlinear or multi-dimensional thinking, understand people or things from different angles and
be inclusive to appreciate cognitive difference and different point of view in order to be objective and make
sound judgments.
Lack of Emotional excellence: Emotional Intelligence is the ability to identify and manage your emotions.
Without the inner balance of energies, one cannot achieve a perfect balance of emotions and logic for analyzing
problems more objectively and dispassionately in order to frame the right problems or brainstorm potential
solutions. Emotional Brilliance comes because of balance, not extremes of any kind. Only a balanced mind
can take the tough decision, be objective, and make better choices. Though it doesn’t mean that people with
emotional excellence do not have feeling; it implies such mindsets are more objective, accountable, empathetic,
intellectual and progressive, and systematic, therefore, they can think in longer term frame and take "tough
decisions keeping their sensitivity intact."
Lack of holistic thinking: Often, lack of objectivity is caused by the narrow lens, see the tree, but missing the
forest; know the part, but ignoring the whole; take a snapshot, but forget the dynamic. A holistic perspective can
fix the misperception by exploring multiple thought processes; willing to listen to the diverse viewpoint, zooming
out to capture the bigger picture and seeking new information/knowledge to gain the better understanding and
 25

holistic view. When you only want to see things from your own point of view, see what you want to see, or,
hear-what-you-want-to-hear, often you miss the point to understand the real problem objectively as well as how
to solve it creatively or systematically.
Relative objectivity is a continual process in which we skirt the edge of what is possible. Individually, being
objective is a professional quality. Collectively, being objective is the journey to pursue trust, true understanding,
fairness, and premium problem-solving. It is the next step in our human evolution; It is simple to say, but not
easy to accomplish.
The importance of objectivity is especially important in science and social science. Many social problems arise
because if history writing is not objective. Objectivity is a goal of scientific investigation. Sociology also being a
science aspires for the goal objectivity.
Objectivity is a frame of mind so that personal prejudices, preferences or predilections of the social scientists do
not contaminate the collection of analysis of data. Thus scientific investigations should be free from prejudices
of race, color, religion, sex or ideological biases.
It is difficult to be objective when we have to deal with a plethora of information today. At the practical level it
continues to be an elusive goal. In fact one school of thought represented by Gunnar Myrdal states that total
objectivity is an illusion which can never be achieved. Because all research is guided by certain viewpoints and
view points involve subjectivity.
The ability to be objective is a holy grail — all humans aspire for it; higher ups in all kinds of hierarchies have
a strong belief that they are objective, which is highly disputed by the lower downs, and finally no one really
knows how pure objectivity really looks like.
Human beings have always believed that there are some things that make them different from all other animal
species particularly on the basis of their innate abilities to understand and practice rationality, consciousness,
free will, morality et al. However, recent studies have found these to be not really exclusive to human beings;
many other species are shown to be equally capable in demonstrating them in their own contexts. However, no
experiment or observation so far has claimed that anyone else but we are capable of being objective. We seem
to have the sole copyright over it — even though most may not really know the concept deeply apart from a
loose and colloquial understanding of the word.
Objectivity requires us to stand back from our perceptions, beliefs, and opinions, and to reflect on them, subject
them to a particular kind of scrutiny, and above all, requires a degree of indifference in judging that may conflict
with our own needs and desires.
 5 Practice Essays

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 Unit F : Mock Tests (Mains)
Paper

MOCK TEST
Specific Instructions
1
Please read each of the following instructions carefully before attempting questions:
 There are Twenty questions printed in English.
 All questions are compulsory.
 The number of marks carried by a question/part is indicated against it.
 Answer must be written in the medium authorized in the Admission Certificate which must be stated
clearly on the cover of this Questions-cum-Answer (QCA) Booklet in the space provided. No marks will
be given for answers written in medium other than the authorized one.
 Answers to Questions no. 1 to 10 should be in 150 words, whereas answers to questions no. 11 to 20
should be in 250 words.
 Keep the word limit indicated in the questions in mind.

1. There may be some Persian and Hellenistic influence on Mauryan art, but the theme, spirit and details are purely
Indian. Discuss.  (Answer in 150 words) 10
2. The war of 1857 was much more than just a sepoy mutiny or a peasant revolt. Elucidate. (Answer in 150
words) 10
3. In India, the growth of modern nationalism is intimately connected to the
anti-colonial movement, but each class and group felt the effects of colonialism differently, their experiences
were varied, and their notions of freedom were not always the same. Discuss. 
 (Answer in 150 words) 10
4. Assess the concern over the key changes in the Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) draft Notification 2020?
 (Answer in 150 words) 10
5. Discuss the importance of e-waste management in India. How have the new laws on e-waste management in
India been effective? 
 (Answer in 150 words) 10
6. Why is the locust surge posing a threat to agriculture in India? What is the climate link to the infestation?
 (Answer in 150 words) 10
7. The environment and development related issues are mainly due to increasing conflicts of interests over resources.
How to achieve an Environmentally Sustainable Rural Development?
 (Answer in 150 words) 10
2

8. Women’s empowerment will be achieved only when women perceive gender empowerment. Discuss. (Answer
in 150 words) 10
9. The country witnessed emergence of a generation of ‘new’ educated middle class among Schedule Casts and
Schedule Tribes. Elucidate.  (Answer in 150 words) 10
10. More than an abstract idea, secularism is a way of life in India? 
 (Answer in 150 words) 10
11. India’s Independence changed the world. But it was also shaped by the world; Indian nationalism was a global
product. Elaborate.
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
12. Non-violent struggle led by Mahatma Gandhi was ended in the most violent and bloodiest partition of the country.
Discuss.
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
13. For the first time in history, the word “World Revolution” was used to connote the big conseuences associated
with the October Revolution in Russia of 1917. Elaborate. (Answer in 250 words) 15
14. The extreme eutrophication of lakes and water bodies can have major impact on aquatic flora and fauna. Why
should we worry about eutrophication and how is this problem managed?
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
15. Population size and growth and related consumption patterns are critical elements in the many environmental
degradation and social problems we currently face. Comment.  (Answer in 250 words) 15
16. Various natural resources can be utilised for the betterment of mankind and our limited resources can be
maximized. Explain. 
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
17. “There has been a great increase in atmospheric concentrations of heat-trapping gases which is bringing about
irreversible modification of the entire Earth System including the oceans’. Elaborate.
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
18. “Culture in itself does not create a nation, but it enables the transformation of different existing identities into a
national identity”. Elucidate 
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
19. The country’s youth especially in the rural regions are gearing up for entrepreneurship to overcome poverty and
unemployment. Elucidate.
(Answer in 250 words) 15
20. Sanskritization and Westernization are linked processes in modern India. Discuss. (Answer in 250 words) 15
 3

MOCK TEST-1
1 European scholars trace the foreign influence on Mauryan Sculpture. Sir John Marshall is of the opinion that
the Ashokan pillars were adopted and copied from the Persian pillars. Ashoka may have borrowed the idea to raise
pillars from Persian art, but it is not reasonable to say that the whole pillar is the imitation of the Persian Pillar. The
Sarnath pillar is far less conventional than its prototypes and much superior in both design and execution to anything
in Persia. Scholars like V. Smith find Greek influence on the animal sculpture of the Mauryan period. The treatment of
the body and its different parts are said to have been derived from the Greek originals. But the Indian scholars point
that we have our own traditions of carving animals for we find much resemblance between the Mauryan bull and that
of Indus Valley. Therefore, it may be concluded that though there may be some Hellenistic influence on Mauryan art,
yet the theme, spirit and details are purely Indian.

2 The historians from the colonial school termed this event as mutiny of Bharatiya troops in British army while
those following the Marxist school of history have termed it as an outcome of the distress among the peasants.
Noted historian RC Majumdar in his monumental work, The Sepoy Mutiny and the Revolt of 1857, wrote, “There
were some special reasons for bitterness in the relation between the two communities.
Majumdar highlights the role played by Christian Missionaries as they went all out for conversions in a planned
manner that resulted in a strong reaction from the society at that time. In light of these facts, it is clear that The first
war of independence was much more than a sepoy mutiny or a peasant revolt, it was an assertion of the sociocultural
identity which Bharatiya society had preserved for more than 5000 years and which was under attack from the British.

3 In the first half of the twentieth century, a growing anger against the colonial government was thus bringing
together various groups and classes of Indians into a common struggle for freedom. The Congress under the leadership
of Mahatma Gandhi tried to channel people’s grievances into organised movements for independence. Through such
movements the nationalists tried to forge a national unity. But as we have seen, diverse groups and classes participated
in these movements with varied aspirations and expectations. As their grievances were wide-ranging, freedom from
colonial rule also meant different things to different people. The Congress continuously attempted to resolve differences,
and ensure that the demands of one group did not alienate another. This is precisely why the unity within the movement
often broke down. The high points of Congress activity and nationalist unity were followed by phases of disunity and
inner conflict between groups. In other words, what was emerging was a nation with many voices wanting freedom
from colonial rule.

4 The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) has published the draft Environment
Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification 2020. The government wants to incorporate modifications made to the
regulations through amendments in the interim period. Among the major departures from existing regulations is the
removal of several activities from the purview of public consultation. There is apprehension that the exemption from
EIA and public consultation for listed B2 category activity and expansion and modernisation projects will seriously
affect the environment, since these will be carried out without oversight. Combined with a new provision for post-
facto environmental clearance (of projects executed without prior clearance), this would further weaken protections.
Moreover, the notice period for public hearing has been cut from 30 days to 20 days. This will make it difficult to
study the draft EIA report, more so when it is not widely available or provided in the regional language.

5 When improperly disposed of, the heavy metals, plastics and glass in e-waste can pollute the air or seep
into waterways. Recycling e-waste can significantly decrease the demand for mining heavy metals and reduce the
greenhouse gas emissions from manufacturing virgin materials.
E-waste (Management) Rules, 2016 was enacted on October 1, 2017. Over 21 products (Schedule-I) were included
under the purview of the rule.
4

•• The rule also extended its purview to components or consumables or parts or spares of Electrical and Electronic
Equipment (EEE), along with their products.
•• The rule has strengthened the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), which is the global best practice to ensure
the take-back of the end-of-life products.
•• A new arrangement called Producer Responsibility Organisation (PRO) has been introduced to strengthen EPR
further.
•• The law also says that the responsibility of producers is not confined to waste collection, but also to ensure that the
waste reaches the authorised recycler/dismantler.

6 India has been hit by the worst locust storm the country has experienced in nearly 30 years. According
to FAO, an adult locust can eat a quantity equal to its weight – about 2 grams – every single day. A single square
kilometer of the swarm can contain somewhere between 40-80 million adult locusts. Every single day, if they cover
130-150 kilometers, they can eat the food consumed by as many as 35,000 people.
The current outbreak, it is clear, has its roots in the unseasonal heavy rains – caused by climate change in the case
of the rains in parts of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, which have played the most crucial role in the worst locust
attack that India has witnessed in decades. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) believes that the current locust
crisis was caused by the strong winds that followed the Cyclone Amphan that hit India and Bangladesh on May 20.

7 Over the last years rural activity or farming has faced several hurdles as regards development and evolution.
Unsustainable behaviours and practices in the country have now become widespread. FAO (Food and Agriculture
Organisation) describes a series of challenges in the Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development (SARD) process,
namely: ensuring a sustainable diet for present and future generations; offering steady and sustainable jobs; reducing
the vulnerability of the farming sector; maintaining or increasing the productive and regenerative capacity of natural
resources.
Achieving these goals is not an easy task and requires the so-called New Rural Culture for a transition to sustainability.
In this New Rural Culture, it is important to appreciate the role of the rural world in the preservation of nature, create a
local consumption culture, facilitate the formative and management resources for a sustainable economy, make urban
societies aware of the importance of rural areas, and so on.

8 Acknowledging that women’s empowerment is a process in which women increase their choices and freedom
to participate, negotiate, influence and hold accountable institutions that affect their lives is a step in the right
direction. However, women’s empowerment will be achieved only when women perceive gender empowerment
as a meaningful goal worth striving for. This necessitates harnessing women’s power, utilizing their potential and
encouraging women to work towards goals defined by them. Creating conditions wherein these goals are a possibility
demands the incorporation of women’s voice and agency as central prerequisites in gender empowerment policies
and programmes. The World Bank (2002) identifies empowerment as being about increasing people’s choices and
freedom of action to participate in, negotiate with, influence, control and hold accountable, institutions that affect
their lives.
Women’s empowerment is a process in which women gain greater share of control over resources – material, human
and intellectual, like knowledge information, ideas and financial resources like money – and access to money and
control over decision making in the home, community, society and nation and to gain “power”.

9 Certain castes and tribes are privileged in comparison to others is a well known ‘social fact’. As a precursor to
the rising ambitions and aspirations to emerge as a small fraction of a ‘neo’ commercial class, the country witnessed
emergence of a generation of ‘new’ educated middle class among SCs and STs. Studies have documented enough of
the role that affirmative policies in education and employment have played in bringing about this change within the
hitherto rigid social structure. Without doubt, one can safely claim that reservations in education and in government
employment are the main sources of creating a ‘new’ educated middle class among the Scheduled Castes and Tribes
 5
in the post-independent India. The stricter implementation of reservations in education and in government jobs have
even motivated more and more first generation SCs and STs to break the glass-ceiling of social mobility, thereby
empowering them in all respects - social, economic and political.

10 . India is the only nation on the subcontinent to not have dabbled in constitutional majoritarianism. We have
insisted on the principle that Indians are equal and our religion, caste and gender (and today even our sexuality)
does not separate us one from another. More than an idea, constitutional ideal or political practice, and secularism
approximate a way of life for most Indians. Even when politics may have failed it, secularism appears to be a throbbing
reality in the country.
As a political idea, secularism has two interpretations in India: In the first version, the state ought to minimise the
role of religion in politics. This political aspiration is understandable given the immense inter-religious violence at
the country’s founding.
In a deeply religious place, though, the version would over time be narrowly applied — the state thus would remain
equidistant from and neutral to all religions (dharma nirapekshta). In contrast, the second version embraces the
inseparability of religion and politics, and sees truth in all religions.

11 At the beginning of 19th century India came into close contact with a Europe and England that was
experiencing these varied forms of nationalism. Most of the iconic leaders of the nationalist movement—Gandhi,
Nehru, and others — were formed by experiences abroad. More importantly, the movement by the Congress that they
led made Independence its objective under the influence of radical influences from beyond the subcontinent. British
suppression of the First War of Independence of 1857 led to the scattering of Indian rebels around the world. The
Delhi-born Lala Har Dayal met this community when his global wanderings took him to San Francisco. Around 1913,
he led the foundation of the Ghadar Party here. The party’s newspaper distributed revolutionary poetry and news from
around the world — from Ireland, Russia, India, and elsewhere. These international networks of anti-colonialism were
politically heterodox-a mix of nationalists, communists, anarchists, regionalists, those invested in “pan” movements
(for example, Pan-Arabism, Pan-Asianism, Pan-Islam). Ghadar linked militant diaspora intellectuals with activists in
the subcontinent.
Indians in India were also engaged in anti-colonial activities, inspired by a mix of local and global ideas. There was
the “gentlemanly terrorism” of Bengal, influenced by the ideas of European revolutionaries from Mazzini to Marx.
Ghadar publicity inspired Punjabi Muslim soldiers in the Fifth Madras Light Infantry in Singapore to mutiny in 1915.
The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 fortified the resolve of such rebels. Many radicals continued to pursue other forms
of organisation — workers’ and peasants’ movements, the Communist Party, the Progressive Writers’ Movement, and
so on.

12 On the 16 August 1946, when Jinnah called for a ‘Direct Action Day’ by followers of the League in support
of the demand for Pakistan. In July 1947, the British Parliament approved the Indian Independence Act, dividing
the subcontinent into two independent countries: Hindu-dominated India and Muslim-dominated Pakistan. Millions
of Hindus soon fled Pakistan for India, as millions of Muslims left India for Pakistan (though many more stayed in
India and remain today). More than 10 million people became refugees, and as many as a million people were killed
in violence between the two groups. The failure of the Congress to prevent partition stemmed from its inability to
understand the threat and danger of communal forces. It devoted little attention to develop a strategy to combat the
communal forces. The Congress leaders, including Gandhi, believed that the communal rift between the Hindus and
the Muslims was a direct result of British presence in India. Once the British quit India, the communal differences
would disappear on its own accord. When they finally realized the destructive power of communalism in 1946, it was
too late. The long freedom struggle in India culminated in a victory when in 1947 the country gained its independence
from one hundred fifty years of British rule. The irony of this largely non-violent struggle led by Mahatma Gandhi
was that it ended in the most violent and bloodiest partition of the country which claimed the lives of two million
civilians and uprooted countless millions in what became the largest forced migration of people the world has ever
witnessed.
6

13 The October Revolution in Russia of 1917 had global ramifications. It was Lenin who was the first to utter
the term “World Revolution.” In 1946, British historian, E.H. Carr, published a book called The Soviet Impact on
the Western World. Carr argued that the future of the world was Soviet, in the sense that the underlying ideas of the
Russian Revolution — human equality, social responsibility, popular empowerment, and participatory democracy —
had become embedded across the globe.
First, the revolution of 1917 in Russia influenced all further world development, stimulating the disintegration
of colonial systems, the awakening of the East, and the formation of independent states including such large and
powerful ones as China and India.
Secondly, the revolution in Russia, despite its huge costs and sacrifices, has moved the social and political development
of the whole world far ahead—not just the developing countries and former colonies and semi-colonies, but also the
developed Western countries.
Third, only post-revolutionary Russia, with its enormous mobilization potential and the ideology of internationalism,
could long and effectively resist Nazi Germany, which enslaved almost the whole of Europe and posed a mortal threat
to all mankind.
Finally, the 1917 revolution in Russia clearly demonstrated the danger to many countries of the liberal elite’s separation
from the bulk of the population and of a blind belief in the infallibility of Western capitalist elites.
The ideas of internationalism put forward by the revolution of 1917 are very important again—stressing however that
these are fundamentally different than currently prevalent ideas of global unification and global capitalism.

14 Eutrophication is characterized by excessive plant and algal growth due to the increased availability of one
or more limiting growth factors needed for photosynthesis, such as sunlight, carbon dioxide, and nutrient fertilizers.
Eutrophication occurs naturally over centuries as lakes age and are filled in with sediments. However, human activities
have accelerated the rate and extent of eutrophication through both point-source discharges and non-point loadings of
limiting nutrients.
Eutrophication leads to significant changes in water quality. It lowers the value of surface waters for the industrial and
recreational uses. The algae growing in long strands often twine around boat propellers and make boating difficult.
The eutrophication in an aquatic ecosystem also causes significant changes in biodiversity. The eutrophication causes
an increase in plant and animal biomass, frequency of algal blooms, growth of rooted plants, and decreases the
species diversity. Due to eutrophication, an increase in turbidity and anoxic conditions occurs. Because of the high
density of aquatic organisms in a eutrophic system, there is often a lot of competition for resources.
The following is a list of methods that can be used to control eutrophication:
•• Planting vegetation along streambeds to slow erosion and absorb nutrients.
•• Controlling application amount and timing of fertilizer.
•• Controlling runoff from feedlots.
•• The best, easiest, and most efficient way to prevent eutrophication is by preventing excess nutrients from reaching
water bodies. This can be done in a number of ways, the simplest of which is just being aware of the chemicals
and fertilizers that we are using.

15 The world population is growing by approximately 74 million people per year. Population growth is not
evenly distributed across the globe. Scientists are yet to conclusively determine the human ‘carrying capacity’ of
Earth. Population is only one of many factors influencing the environment. We have consumed more resources in the
last 50 years than the whole of humanity before us. The global population, which has now passed 7 billion people,
and the average per capita energy consumption have both increased sevenfold over the past 150 years, for an overall
fiftyfold increase in the emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. And both are still increasing. The ageing
of populations in many countries around the world is also a relevant sustainable development issue. The economic,
social and environmental implications are as yet unclear but this trend will undoubtedly have an impact. Whether it is
positive or negative depends to a large extent on how countries prepare e.g., in evaluating what an ageing population
 7
will mean for economic productivity, consumption of goods and services, and in terms of urban planning, financial,
health and social care systems etc.
It’s no surprise that as the world population continues to grow, the limits of essential global resources such as potable
water, fertile land, forests and fisheries are becoming more obvious.
The impact of so many humans on the environment takes two major forms:
•• consumption of resources such as land, food, water, air, fossil fuels and minerals.
•• waste products as a result of consumption such as air and water pollutants, toxic materials and greenhouse gases.

16 The consequences of our resource use in terms of impacts on the environment may induce serious damages
that go beyond the carrying capacity of the environment. We can use natural resources very ecologically. That is by
using the renewable resources of energy like solar energy, tidal power etc. We have to use our natural resources in
a sustainable fashion, that is, so they won’t run out. Timber can be used for building and other important things if
we use plantation timber, that is, if a new tree is growing to maturity as we cut down the first one. Environmental
problems can be mitigated by utilising the natural resources in a sustainable basis.
There is need to develop approaches and management strategies that should combine both developmental efforts and
conservation measures of the natural resources. This would improve, maintain and protect the natural environment
and its resources for the benefit of all mankind. Natural resources are finite, limited, and capable of being destroyed
by unsustainable use and this can be a limiting factor on sustainable development. Some of the natural resources
have been there in the past but this might not be the case in the future for it will depend on their mode of utilization.
Hence environmental education on the characteristics of natural resources is required if they have to be managed in a
sustainable manner so that they do not become limiting factors to sustainable development. As communities think of
advancement in engineering and technology, there is also need to know the problems associated with the utilization of
natural resources.

17 Human enterprise has increased by 40 per cent since the Industrial Revolution, which was around 250 years
ago. Since then, there has been a great increase in atmospheric concentrations of heat-trapping gases (carbon dioxide,
methane and nitrous oxide) which is bringing about irreversible modification of the entire Earth System including the
oceans. The oceans do not have unlimited capacity for waste assimilation, and continued unsustainable exploitation
of the ocean will severely affect the invaluable ecosystem services they offer.
The average atmospheric temperature has risen by about 1° C. The temperature increase would have been even more
but for the fact that 80 per cent of the extra heat retained by the planet goes into the ocean, increasing its heat content
and water temperature.
First, thermal expansion of seawater and melting of polar ice will lead to increase in sea levels by as much as 0.8 m
by the end of the century. This will cause flooding in many coastal areas, and enormous economic loss.
As marine organisms are not adapted to high sea surface temperatures, warming will cause severe ecological
disturbances. About a quarter of all carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere (over 11 trillion tonnes at present)
is absorbed by the ocean, making seawater acidic. This impacts organisms that build calcareous shells as it will be
difficult to do so in an acidic ocean, which will in turn impact oceanic food webs. The coral reef ecosystems that
account for 20 per cent of the oceanic biodiversity will be the worst affected.

18 Nation is a political and not a cultural construct; yet, a nation cannot come into being without its people
having a sense of cultural belonging as a shared experience. Culture in itself does not create a nation, but it enables
the transformation of different existing identities into a national identity. Antony D. Smith refers to this reality: The
ideologies of nationalism require an immersion in the culture of the nation rediscovery of its history, revival of its
vernacular language through such disciplines as philology and lexicography, cultivation of its literature, especially its
drama and poetry, and the restoration of its vernacular arts and crafts, as well as its music, including the native dance
and folk song.
In India, such a process of immersion in the culture of the nation took place during the period of renaissance although
with limitations and weaknesses. The intellectual enquiries of the 19th century were concerned with cultural retrieval
and regeneration. The endeavours of the intelligentsia of this period were all centred on cultural or social issues.
Attempts were made to revive, enrich and simplify vernaculars. At the same time, considerable interest was evinced
in ancient Indian theatre, dance forms, and so on. In the process, the cultural and civilisational character of the nation
8

received considerable attention. Much before the emergence of political consciousness, initiatives for the defence of
indigenous culture against the intrusion of colonial rulers had found articulation. The search for the cultural resources
of the nation resulting from such initiatives was not sectarian but composite in outlook.

19 . A study conducted by Pratham for NITI Aayog suggests that, “about 70 per cent of respondents who come
from semi-urban or rural areas aspire to become ‘self-employed’ entrepreneurs, in stark contrast to their urban
counterparts. India is a nation of youths with enthusiasm and courage. If we see the demographic profiles of youth,
most of them come from marginalized communities in the rural areas which are largely resource constrained
environments. However, there is an intrinsic entrepreneurial trait among these individuals which can be groomed to
evolve successful entrepreneurs.
Inventing new products, solving complex social problems through novel solutions and breakthrough strategies
fascinate them. They aspire to be the change agents in society. All they need is a reliable support system with proper
guidance to take forward their ideas as new business, and convert them into successful ventures.
The largest annual study of entrepreneurial dynamics in the world, The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM)
Report 2016-17 finds an increase in the rate of ‘entrepreneurial intention’ to 14.9 per cent compared to 9 per cent
2015-16, whereas the ‘fear of failure’ declined from 44 per cent in 2015-16 to 37.5 per cent in 2016-17. The GEM
Report 2016-17 finds that nearly 44 per cent of the adults in India see ‘good opportunities to start a business’ while
44 per cent perceive they have ‘capabilities to start a business’.
The future of entrepreneurship is encouraging as the perception has changed significantly about it in society. Also this
is a healthy sign for entrepreneurship development in the country.

20 Like Sanskritization, the term Westernization is a culture-logical concept used by Sociologist M.N.
Srinivas to denote the process of social and cultural change in Modern India. Srinivas maintains that the British rule
produced some radical and lasting changes in the Indian society and culture. Unlike any previous period in Indian
history, the British brought with them new technology, institutions, knowledge, beliefs and values. In the Indian
context, Westernization refers to changes brought about in Indian social life as a consequence of its contact with
the British. For a thorough understanding of the term, it is necessary to distinguish between Westernization and
Sanskritization. Sanskritization and Westernization are linked processes in modern India and it is not possible to
understand one without a reference to the other. This does not mean that both are synonymous. No doubt, they are
complementary to each other. Westernization is not hostile to the process of Sanskritization rather it contributes to
the spread of Sanskritization. In spite this complementarity, Sanskritization differs from Westernization in certain
respects. Sanskritization implies mobility within the caste system whereas westernization implies mobility outside
the framework of caste. Compared to Sanskritization, Westernization is a simpler concept. Sanskritization occurs
among the lower castes, whereas it is the high castes who first turned towards western culture. Sanskritization puts
a ban on meat eating and alcohol consumption whereas westernization promotes meat-eating and consumption of
alcohol, Sanskritization promotes a sacred out-looks whereas westernization promotes a secular world view. Lastly,
Sanskritization would mean a process of endogamous change while westernization would mean exogamous change.
 9

Paper

MOCK TEST
Specific Instructions
2
Please read each of the following instructions carefully before attempting questions:
 There are Twenty questions printed in English.
 All questions are compulsory.
 The number of marks carried by a question/part is indicated against it.
 Answer must be written in the medium authorized in the Admission Certificate which must be stated
clearly on the cover of this Questions-cum-Answer (QCA) Booklet in the space provided. No marks will
be given for answers written in medium other than the authorized one.
 Answers to Questions no. 1 to 10 should be in 150 words, whereas answers to questions no. 11 to 20
should be in 250 words.
 Keep the word limit indicated in the questions in mind.

1. In the backdrop of the recent observations made by the Supreme Court of India, critically examine the need of
reviewing the reservation policy and process from time to time.  (Answer in 150 words) 10
2. The recent crisis with respect to the India-China relations has widened the trust deficit between the countries.
How far will it affect the trade relations of both the countries? Elucidate. (Answer in 150 words) 10
3. The Centre has recently announced the formation of committees and a Group of Ministers (GoMs) to sell enemy
properties. In the light of the above statement and their previous abolitions, explain the need and importance of
the Group of Ministers. (Answer in 150 words) 10
4. Does the new Seeds Bill is tilted against farmers’ interests and loaded in favour of seed companies? Examine.
 (Answer in 150 words) 10
5. “The sustainable reduction in gender gap in India is a distant dream”. In light this statement, enumerate the
underlying reasons behind the persistent gender gap in India.  (Answer in 150 words) 10
6. The gender-gap is actually growing despite women doing well in politics, health and education. Suggest some
measures to diminish the structural discrimination, which has held them back.
 (Answer in 150 words) 10
7. Do you think that the beggary should be decriminalized across the country? Analyze in the light of recent
judgment by the High Court of Jammu and Kashmir. (Answer in 150 words) 10
8. The ‘Saansad Adarsh Gram Yojana (SAGY)’ has not been able to achieve the desired objectives and failed to
make a significant impact. Comment.  (Answer in 150 words) 10
9. Explain the importance of the National Data and Analytics Platform to modernize and democratize the access to
10

publicly available Government data.  (Answer in 150 words) 10

10. “The ‘Digital India’ initiative has proved to be a vital element in the electronic delivery of Public Services as well
as enhancing digital awareness and Literacy.” Elucidate. (Answer in 150 words) 10
11. This is the need of the hour that the Parliament should replace the Speaker with a “permanent tribunal” or
external mechanism to render quick and impartial decisions on questions of defection. Discuss in the light of the
Supreme Court’s latest decision. (Answer in 250 words) 15
12. ‘The SC’s judgment to bring the CJI under the ambit of the RTI Act will give a much-required boost to the Act
itself, which has been facing pressures of dilution’. Discuss. (Answer in 250 words) 15
13. The court’s power to act against the contempt of Court needs to be reconciled with the constitutional values of
free and fair criticism to save its own standing as the balancing and harmonizing institution. Discuss. 
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
14. What are the powers of the Election Commission? Explain the challenges which threaten its institutional
autonomy.
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
15. In the light of recent developments, discuss the future prospects of the rising equation between countries in Indo-
Pacific region.
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
16. India has recently joined the ‘Global Partnership on artificial intelligence’ as a founding member. How will it
help India to achieve the goal of becoming a global leader? Explain.
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
17. How far do you agree with the view that the establishment of more Fast-track Courts will help do deal with the
issue of mounting backlog and pendency of cases in India? (Answer in 250 words) 15
18. “Unless some limitations are read into the centre’s role under Article 356, the designated powers of the states are
in Peril”. Substantiate with examples.  (Answer in 250 words) 15
19. Discuss the need to relook the Seventh schedule of the Indian constitution in the light of the recent disputes
between the centre and the states. 
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
20. In the wake of the recent pandemic, discuss its ill-effects on the ‘migrant economy’? Suggest some measures to
help the migrants to get rid of the viscous cycle of migration. (Answer in 250 words) 15
 11

MOCK Test-1
1 Reservation in India is a system of affirmative action that provides representation for historically and currently
disadvantaged groups in Indian society in education, employment and politics through articles and acts.
Reservations are not a fundamental right but a policy to correct for historical and continuing deprivations and enable
deprived sections to actualize their fundamental rights.
Advantage of Reservation:
•• Reservation in government employment and colleges to backward society based on caste.
•• Helps people to improve their social and economic status.
Disadvantage:
•• Breaks our country on basis of caste, and religion and hence threatens our nation’s solidarity.
•• It creates a sense of supremacy and inferiority among a various class of people.
Making good on this observation requires political will, support of stakeholders and consensus in the broader polity.
The poorest lot of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes (SCs and STs) should be mobilized, in particular.
The policy design must be such that it erodes, rather than reinforces, perceptions of inferiority. If sections of SCs and
STs start competing without relying on quotas, that would erode notions of inherent inferiority.

2 With the deaths Indian soldiers and reports of Chinese soldier casualties in clashes at the Galwan valley
in Ladakh, India and China have entered uncharted territory on the Line of Actual Control. Even several talks on
different levels have failed to tranquillize the present situation.
Consequences:
•• China will lose a big market like India
•• It can pose threats on the investors of China which are in large numbers in India.
•• India will have to shift towards the manufacturing economy.
•• Other countries can find better opportunity to penetrate Indian market,
especially in Pharmaceuticals and Technology sectors.
The Indian Government has already taken some of the measures towards this- banning of Chinese apps and cancelling
the deals with Chinese Investors. E.g. Telecommunication and Railways, etc.
Way Forward:
Both are powerful countries of Asian region and any kind of dryness in the relationship between both, will not
only affect both the nation’s economy but also the Asia and the world. So, it is in their strategic favour to tackle the
situation through talks and compromise. On the other hand International organization should come up to help them
to negotiate in the matter.

3 Cabinet committees are extra-constitutional in emergence. In other words, they are not mentioned in the
Constitution. However, the Rules of Business provide for their establishment. They are of two types—standing and
ad hoc.
In addition to cabinet committees, several Groups of Ministers (GoMs) have been constituted to look into different
issues/ subjects. Some of these GoMs have been empowered to take decisions on behalf of the Cabinet whereas the
others make recommendations to the Cabinet.
Signalling a break from the past, the previous govt. announced the abolition of all Groups of Ministers (GoMs) and
Empowered Groups of Ministers (EGoMs) for greater accountability and empowerment.
Need and Importance:
•• Cabinet committees are organizational device to reduce the enormous workload of the Cabinet.
•• They also facilitate in-depth examination of policy issues and effective coordination.
12

• They are based on the principles of division of labour and effective delegation.
•• Some of the GoMs take decisions on behalf of the Cabinet whereas the others make recommendations to the
Cabinet.

4 After passing through at least two versions (2004 and 2010), Seeds Bill 2019 is now under Parliament’s
consideration.
Need of new seed bill:
•• To enhance seed replacement rate in Indian agriculture
•• Specify the registration of seed variety
•• Enforce registration from seed producer to seed retailers
Problems with the new Seed Bill:
•• It is based on compulsory registration: The breeder would get exclusive marketing rights.
•• It demands no information of parental lines from which the seed variety has been derived, which reflects the
farmers’ contribution.
•• Pvt. Companies can re-register their seeds an infinite numbers of time.
•• In case of failure of registered variety, farmers can’t claim for compensation.
Given the inherent nature of seeds, farmer-friendly pieces of seed legislation are difficult to frame and execute. For
the seed sector and its laws to be truly farmer-friendly, the public sector has to recapture its lost space.

5 The trends of Gender Gap shows a pattern of stagnancy or decline as per various indices. It reveals inadequate
efforts undermining the cherished dream of gender equality.
The prevalent gender gap in our country has reasons from historic to contemporary, such as:
•• Women historically have been entrusted with the primary responsibility of household management which has not
changed significantly in the contemporary times.
•• In education, women’s share in STEM fields still shows scope for improvement.
•• The stereotype of women being fit for “pink collar jobs” only, denies them other opportunities.
•• Retreat from employment due to family pressure is a roadblock in their financial independence.
•• The push towards the enhanced Maternity Benefit has become a double edged sword.
•• The gender pay gaps for the same work discourages female work-force participation.
Change in the societal mindset is required to bridge the gaps in gender equality. Apart from family and workplace
support, use of technology is required to maintain work-life balance.

6 Equality at the workplace is a distant dream for women, with a World Economic Forum (WEF) report saying
that the gap will be closed only by 2276. Women’s participation in the workforce is just 28% in India.
Many things keep Indian women out of the workplace, from inherent patriarchy, safety concerns, prevalent stereotypes
and the difficulty in gaining a foothold in male-dominated jobs.
Measures that can be taken to end the structural discrimination are:
•• Eliminating harassment and discrimination at the workplace;
•• Making hours more flexible
•• Equipping women with skills in fields like technology
•• Pushing the private sector to create a level playing field in the workplace and
•• Making it easier for women to access finances for self-employment
The alarming figures on parity at workplace must serve as a wake-up call that the issue of equality needs a far more
concerted push. India must address this issue. This will require a comprehensive approach.

7 The post-colonial Indian state replicated many of the worst excesses of the British regime. One glaring
example of this is the “beggary law”, which was enacted in Bombay in 1958, and later extended to many States and
 13
Union Territories.
In a landmark verdict, the Jammu and Kashmir High Court struck down that state’s iteration of the Beggary Act.
the court noted that there existed a large number of itinerant communities such as the Gujjars and the Bakarwals,
whose very nature of existence — moving from place to place, and displaying none of the “conventional means of
subsistence” — would bring them within the ambit of the beggary law.
Considering the judgment of the high court of Jammu and Kashmir the Supreme Court should take suo-moto regarding
the existing law of criminalizing the act of Beggary, the same should be considered by the law makers. But with its
decriminalization, it should also be minded that the beggary in India also attracts the Human-Trafficking. So the law
makers will also be laying fence against this kind of misuses.

8 Under the Saansad Adarsh Gram Yojana, Members of Parliament (MPs) are responsible for developing the
socio-economic and physical infrastructure of three villages each by 2019, and a total of eight villages each by 2024.
Nearly half the projects in villages adopted under the Saansad Adarsh Gram Yojana (SAGY) have not been completed
so far.
Reasons:
•• Cases of Misuse: Reports of underutilization and misutilization of funds continue to surface at regular intervals.
•• Gaps in utilization: There are wide variations in the utilization of the amount in various constituencies.
•• Lack of sensitivity: Somewhere, the MPs restrain themselves to be involved in the development of villages because
of sensitivity towards rural population.
•• Delays in issuing work orders; no accountability for the expenditure in terms of the quality and quantities executed
against specifications
In the Government’s review report, the worst performing states were Rajasthan, Bihar and Orissa, among which Bihar
sends the highest number of MPs (54).
The MPs should understand the responsibility of their posts towards the service of people so that they can render their
service under the scheme towards rural development.

9 “National Data And Analytics Platform” (NDAP), is a flagship initiative of NITI Aayog in the space of
promoting larger access and better use of data. The platform aims to democratize access to publicly available
government data.
NDAP has the potential to deepen our understanding of India’s dynamic economy and social conditions. This will in
turn help improve crores of lives by making the government’s action more scientific and data-driven.
Importance of NDAP:
•• The NDAP proposes a simple, interactive, visual, and robust platform that will host various Central and state
government datasets.
•• NDAP will provide access to data from multiple sectors in one place
•• NDAP has the potential to transform data-driven discourse, research, innovation, and decision-making in India.
•• It will be a reliable platform for up-to-date data
NDAP is a pan-India initiative by NITI Aayog. Its success requires extensive support and cooperation of various
stakeholders such as Central Ministries, State Governments and guidance from experts to realize the vision and meet
the timelines.

10 In these past few years, digital technology has become a vital factor in accelerating the pace of India’s
economic growth, in promoting social and economic equity by enhancing access for all to information, markets and
public services.
After its launch in 2015, one can say that there have been dramatic improvements in all of its three key facets:
•• In the creation of pervasive national digital infrastructure
•• In the electronic delivery of public services and financial succor to citizens, and
14

•• In enhancing digital awareness and literacy

One of the most successful outcomes of the ’Digital India’ initiative has been the BharatNet programme and iconic
runaway success of the Jandhan-Aadhaar- Mobile [JAM] initiative, which has provided a digital identity to more than
a billion Indian citizens as well as access to the banking system to millions of Indians who were earlier excluded from
the formal economy.
We can justly be proud of the fact that India is one of the fastest digitizing nations in the world; driven by an explosion
in mobile connectivity as well as creating new livelihoods, services and wealth for millions Indians.

11 There are two significant aspects to the Supreme Court’s latest decision on the Speaker as the adjudicating
authority under the anti-defection law.
(i) Parliament should replace the Speaker with a “permanent tribunal” or external mechanism to render quick and
impartial decisions on questions of defection.
(ii) The second is its extraordinary ruling that the reference by another Bench, in 2016, of a key question to a
Constitution Bench was itself unnecessary.
The question had arisen because several presiding officers have allowed defectors to bolster the strength of ruling
parties and even be sworn in Ministers by merely refraining from adjudicating on complaints against them. Some
States have seen en masse defections soon after elections.
Secure in the belief that no court would question the delay in disposal of disqualification matters as long as the matter
was pending before a Constitution Bench, Speakers have been willfully failing to act as per law, thereby helping the
ruling party, which invariably is the one that helped them get to the Chair.
As “failure to exercise jurisdiction” is a recognized stage at which the court can now intervene, the court has thus
opened a window for judicial intervention in cases in which Speakers refuse to act. This augurs well for the enforcement
of the law against defection in letter and spirit.
It is time Parliament rethinks on whether disqualification petitions ought to be entrusted to a Speaker as a quasi-
judicial authority when such Speaker continues to belong to a particular political party either de jure or de facto.

12 Right to Information is an act of the Parliament of India which sets out the rules and procedures regarding
citizens’ right to information.
The welcome ruling by the Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court that the office of the Chief Justice of India is a
“public authority” under the RTI Act, as much as the apex court itself, now enables the disclosure of information such
as the judges’ personal assets.
Advantages of this step by the Supreme Court:
•• It will give impetus to the transparency in the system of justice
•• Pave the way for further strengthening of RTI rules in judiciary
•• Will make judiciary more accountable
•• Will strengthen the RTI act in other forms of governance
The Bench unanimously argued that the right to know under the RTI Act was not absolute and this had to be balanced
with the right of privacy of judges. But the key take away from the judgment is that disclosure of details of serving
judges’ personal assets was not a violation of their right to privacy.
The RTI Act is a strong weapon that enhances accountability, citizen activism and, consequently, participative
democracy, even if its implementation has come under strain in recent years due mainly to the Central government’s
apathy and disregard for the nuts and bolts of the Act. Yet, despite this, the Supreme Court judgment paves the way for
greater transparency and could now impinge upon issues such as disclosure, under the RTI Act, by other institutions
such as registered political parties.

13 As a concept it seeks to protect judicial institutions from motivated attacks and unwarranted criticism, and to punish
those who lower its authority.
 15
Article 129 and 215 of the Constitution confreres the power on the Supreme Court and High Courts to punish against
contempt of itself. Besides, The Contempt of Courts Act, 1971, gives statutory backing to the idea.
The Contempt of Courts Act, 1971
It classifies contempt as civil and criminal. Civil contempt is committed when someone wilfully disobeys a court
order but Criminal contempt is more complex. It comprises:
•• Words, written or spoken, signs and actions that “scandalize” or “tend to scandalize” or “lower” or “tends to
lower” the authority of any court
•• Interferes with any judicial proceeding and or obstructs the administration of justice
Although neither the fair and accurate reporting of judicial proceedings nor any fair criticism will amount to the
contempt.
Law Commission: According to a review report by the Law Commission, the high number of cases in SC and HC
justify the continuing relevance of the Act.
Restrictions on freedom of speech and expression
When the Constitution was adopted, contempt of court was made one of the restrictions on freedom of speech and
expression, which is a fundamental right under the Article 19(1) (a).
The recent order of the Supreme Court, referring a conviction, against an advocate of SC, would be read as the SC
wielding the offence of contempt to constrict the fundamental freedom of expression.
Way forward
The judiciary is the protector of the fundamental rights and also keeps judicial institutions within constitutional
bounds. Therefore, care must be taken to ensure the public trust in it.

14 Election Commission is an all-India body in the sense that it is common to both the Central government and
the state governments.
Following are the powers of the Election Commission:
•• To determine the territorial areas of the electoral constituencies throughout the country on the basis of the
Delimitation Commission Act of Parliament
•• To grant recognition to political parties and allot election symbols to them.
•• To act as a court for settling disputes related to granting of recognition to political parties and allotment of election
symbols to them.
•• To supervise the machinery of elections throughout the country to ensure free and fair elections.
•• To cancel polls in the event of rigging, booth capturing, violence and other irregularities.
Challenges before its autonomy:
•• The flawed system of appointment of election commissioners, who are appointed unilaterally by the government
(through president) of the day
•• The government can control a defiant CEC through the majority voting power of the two commissioners.
•• The system of removal of Election Commissioners also needs correction. Only the Chief Election Commissioner
(CEC) is protected from being removed except through impeachment.
•• The EC has been seeking the power to de-register political parties, among many other reforms, which the EC has
been wanting.
Way forward
Elections are the bedrock of democracy and the EC’s credibility is central to democratic legitimacy. Hence, the
guardian of elections itself needs urgent institutional safeguards to protect its autonomy. It is time that action is taken
to depoliticize constitutional appointments and the EC empowered to de-register parties for electoral misconduct. It
is a step needed towards restoring all-important public faith in the institution.
16

15 In the present changing political scenario, where shift of powers and strategic relations are taking place, it is
important to consider the activities of countries in Indo-Pacific region.
Different groupings like APEC and QUAD and different bilateral meetings and talks like “2+2”, have divided the
world into many groups based on their common needs and understandings. On the same line if we talk about India,
it has its different bilateral and multilateral presence with many pacific countries too like Military exercises (Yudh
Abhyas with US, Dharma Guardian with JAPAN, etc)with different pacific countries, which open multi facets of these
relations with regard to cultural, public-public connect and most important, trades.
It has been argued that the concept of the Indo-Pacific may lead to a change in popular “mental maps” of how the
world is understood in strategic terms. Few years back, US officials have begun using the term “Indo-Asia Pacific”.
This enabled America to maintain its geographic inclusiveness in the new coinage of ‘Indo-Pacific’.
In the recent past this region is witnessing a new pivot among the most developed and developing economies of the
world. In 2019, the U.S. State Department published a document formalizing the concept of a “Free and Open Indo-
Pacific”, among members of “the Quad”, a partnership of four Indo-Pacific democracies led by the United-States, in
concert with Australia, India, and Japan.
The reasons behind strategic shift can be many and temporary but in Indian geopolitical context, it is important for the
country to manage the relations with west and east and in an effective way, because at the end, they are the neighbours
who matters, either to protect for or protect against.

16 After the evolution of the world technology market, if we try to understand its chronology, we find that within
few decades of technology revolution we are talking about sending of Humans on the mars and beyond, covering
the whole earth in few hours, etc. it shows that for a nation to be in race, it will have to be aligned with the current
technological advancement and developments. And the new technological advancement is Artificial Intelligence (AI).
Whatever industry we look in today’s world science, agro, space, climate all the complications are dealt with Artificial
Intelligence. And now artificial intelligence is the backbone of any industry.
Global Partnership on artificial intelligence (GPAI), which India is also a part will lead the nation with AI. It will help
India to achieve a new height:
•• AI could foster the bridge gap between theoretical and practical practices. For e.g. AI introduction in electricity-
generating industries helped much to substations.
•• India is working on developing many sectors in such a way that they can adopt the AI as a new medium of work
•• It would help Indian startups who are investing in AI in a hope that it will expand their avenues.
•• To be a founding member of GPAI, it will help India to penetrate the raw market for AI and making itself a
manufacturing hub in the field of technology in the future.
A smart technology nation will be the most powerful nation in the future. The nation that is going to invest in smart
technology by AI will conquer the world. That needs to be introduced in each section of every industry.

17 The Fast Track Courts (FTCs) were established in India in the year 2000 with an aim to clear the long
pending Sessions and other lower judicial cases. According to estimates, crores of cases are pending across all the
courts in the country. Recently, the Supreme Court in a suo motu petition had issued directions, stating that districts
with more than 100 cases pending under the POCSO Act need to set up special courts that can deal specifically with
cases of sexual offence against children.
While the Centre is promising to set up FTCs across the country, the moot question is: will a mere increase in
the number of judges lead to a direct reduction in pendency of cases?  For instance, in Karnataka, the number of
working judges increased between 2012 and 2017 (with occasional dips in certain years) but pendency did not reduce.
Similarly in other States, such as Maharashtra, Kerala, Delhi and West Bengal, increase or decrease in the number of
judges did not affect pendency of cases.
There are several factors that have an impact on disposal of cases:
•• Inadequate staff and IT infrastructure,
 17
•• Delay in getting reports from the understaffed forensic science laboratories
•• Frivolous adjournments and over-listing of cases
Increasing the number of courts as recourse to deal with the mounting backlog has been a common practice. However,
while large sums of money and attention are being devoted to creating additional posts, little is being done to identify
and address the prevalent systemic issues. For the overall system to work productively, it is important to ensure that
its various components work efficiently and without any hindrance.

18 Article 356 of the Constitution confers a power upon the President to be exercised only where he is satisfied
that a situation has arisen where the government of a State cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of
the Constitution.
In the realm of law and policy, the Centre may issue orders or enact laws that fundamentally alter the State’s policies
and programmes. This appears to be permissible under the Constitutional scheme of Article 356, which says the
President may assume to himself all or any of the functions of the State government.
For example, Hollowing out Article 370 and downgrading the State into two Union Territories. One clear way to
question and challenge the legality of the measures is to find out whether there are any limitations on the Centre or
Parliament using the prevalence of President’s Rule to do anything that is not realistically possible to be done if there
were a popularly elected legislature in a State.
Notwithstanding the Centre taking over all the State government’s functions under Article 356, there are certain
functions that the States alone can do. If these functions are allowed to be performed by the Centre in lieu of the State
government or Assembly in the garb of President’s Rule, the concept of States being supreme in their own domain is
completely destroyed.
Therefore, it is inevitable for the sake of public order and the required autonomy of the states against the capricious
move of the centre to limit the centre’s role under article 356 through parliamentary act.

19 The Constitution of India, being federal in structure, divides powers (legislative, executive, and financial)
between the Centre and the states.
Although, the Centre and the states are supreme in their respective domains, the Seventh Schedule contains a three-
fold distribution of legislative subjects between the Centre and the states, viz., List-I (the Union List), List-II (the
State List) and List-III (the Concurrent List).
However, the dealings with the recent tussle of central sector and centrally sponsored schemes and COVID pandemic
have highlighted the issues with the distribution of subjects between the centre and states. For example, the current
COVID pandemic is primarily a health and public order issue (State subjects), so states tried to impose lockdown
through Epidemic Disease Act, 1897, but because of its communicable nature, the centre imposed a blanket lockdown
through Disaster management act, 2005 (highly centralized in nature), leaving states with restricted hands to maneuver
according to their conditions.
Reasons to relook:
•• Demand of states:
•• Governance system is not a static function
•• Concern over Residuary powers
•• According to the Sarkaria Commission, nine central laws have been passed solely under the residuary power of
Parliament. This practice indicates that use of residuary powers has been at the cost of states’ autonomy.
In a country with federal setup, where powers are divided on different issues, but still have ambiguity, it is the
responsibility of the system or parliament to review the division of powers between centre and states, so that the
governance can work at its best.

20 Because of social distancing and the lockdown, businesses are mostly shut and only a few people are working.
India announced a nationwide lockdown.
Migrants have an important role in India’s economy. Among the most visible economic impacts of the lockdown has
been a massive reverse migration of workers to villages. Reverse migration also entails loss of income for migrant
18

workers. Evidence suggests that the number is likely to be far more than millions. For example, the Uttar Pradesh
government alone was looking at expanding daily employment under the MGNREGA by 3 million in March 2020.
India’s workforce was already under distress even before the pandemic. The sudden exodus of migrants who have
returned to their villages from the cities will push wages down even more. This will further squeeze earnings and
subsequently demand. Weakness in demand may generate additional headwinds for revival of economic activity even
in urban areas.
Some measures to help the migrants:
Local employment avenues should be made available to migrants
Make agriculture a viable profession- make better irrigation facilities available to them along with better payment for
the produces
Provide local artisans online haats- so that they don’t face problem of searching right market for higher/genuine price
for their products.
Proper implementation of existing policies/schemes- related to MSP, APMC, e-NaM, etc.
Now with the rolling economy, it will be a gargantuan task for the government to assure the migrants a regular and
respectful livelihood, but it is them who are the backbone of unorganized sector and hence of Indian economy. So it
will be a necessary step by the government at central and state both to help this downhearted section of our society.
 Paper

MOCK TEST
Specific Instructions
3
Please read each of the following instructions carefully before attempting questions:
 There are Twenty questions printed in English.
 All questions are compulsory.
 The number of marks carried by a question/part is indicated against it.
 Answer must be written in the medium authorized in the Admission Certificate which must be stated
clearly on the cover of this Questions-cum-Answer (QCA) Booklet in the space provided. No marks will
be given for answers written in medium other than the authorized one.
 Answers to Questions no. 1 to 10 should be in 150 words, whereas answers to questions no. 11 to 20
should be in 250 words.
 Keep the word limit indicated in the questions in mind.

1. In order to encounter the general scenario of banking industry we need to understand the challenges and
opportunities lying with banking industry of India. Explain the Challenges faced by the banking system in India
after the moratorium period and how banks will change post COVID-19. (Answer in 150 words) 10
2. Do you agree with the view that the next phase of transformation of India’s agriculture will need reforms in
agricultural marketing system? Give reasons in support of your arguments.
 (Answer in 150 words) 10
3. “There is a need to understand the soil health and the systems that affect it, so as to devise strategies for its
sustainable use for providing the human needs in the future”. Elucidate  (Answer in 150 words) 10
4. What is climate-smart agriculture? Elaborate the impact of Climate-smart crop production practices and
technologies.
 (Answer in 150 words) 10
5. “Access to affordable, stable and sustainable energy supply, is essential for maintaining a high growth trajectory”.
Comment.
 (Answer in 150 words) 10
6. ISRO has been encouraging student community in a big way in developing satellites. In October, 2019, DHRUV
(MHRD Programme) was launched from ISRO headquarters. How do you foresee it? (Answer in 150 words)
10
20

7. Rainwater harvesting measure is deemed to be a desirable concept since the last few years. Discuss two major
techniques of rainwater harvesting. (Answer in 150 words) 10
8. Over the years, losses due to disasters have shown growing trend in terms of lives and property throughout the
world. Explain how Disasters are intertwined with development.
 (Answer in 150 words) 10
9. How Common Property Resources is one of the cause of discontent leading to the emergence of the Naxalite
movement.
 (Answer in 150 words) 10
10. A dedicated policy for space and legislation on space activities has been under works for some time now. What
India’s Space Activities Bill must address? (Answer in 150 words) 10
11. In the past seven decades, India has strategically initiated interventions to create economic empowerment
opportunities for every stratum. Explain the challenges and opportunities in promoting entrepreneurship abilities
among the marginalized and socially backward sections of our nation. (Answer in 250 words) 15
12. India is essentially a knowledge-based, entrepreneurship driven economy. Do you think that, any understanding of
India’s growth trajectory is incomplete without an introduction to India’s Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
(MSMEs) sector, and the spirit with which they work? (Answer in 250 words) 15
13. What are Haircuts in the banking system and when do lenders opt for haircuts in India? Why would lenders opt
for such a route?
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
14. In the increasingly rising share of non-agriculture activities of contemporary rural India, processing industries
can play a vital role in achieving the avowed objective of ‘doubling farm income’. Elucidate. (Answer in 250
words) 15
15. Ayurveda is undergoing somewhat of a renaissance. How has Ayurveda evolved over the past couple of decades
and also involved in the fight against COVID-19? Do you see more acceptances to Ayurveda as a medical
science? (Answer in 250 words) 15
16. Define the concept of ‘hidden hunger’ and ‘biofortification’. Explain how it can improve both food and nutritional
security.
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
17. “Exploitation of shale gas poses a bigger challenge than other sources of gas.” Explain the challenges to exploit
our shale gas prospects.
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
18. Government of India is committed to develop a vibrant Community Radio movement through participation,
involvement and ownership of the local community. Explain how Community Radio will play an important role
in disaster risk reduction, especially in pre-disaster preparedness and mitigation. (Answer in 250 words) 15
19. Dimensions of drug trafficking and narco terrorism extend much beyond trafficking and smuggling. Explain.
 (Answer in 250 words) 15
20. “India’s internal security challenges can be categorized under two heads – insurgency and extremism.” Explore
the internal security threats to India in these lines. Which is greater threat - internal or external?(Answer in 250
words) 15
 21

MOCK test-1
1 The complete shutdown of businesses has led to a dramatic reduction in cash flow and this poses a huge threat
to banking operations. The banks are going to face a number of challenges at the micro and macro-levels in the post-
Covid period. Post September, NPAs are expected to shoot up from the current level of around Rs 10 lakh crore, when
these loans come up for repayments.
The Net Interest Margin (NIM) relies on internal factors like Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR), Current and Savings
Account ratio (CASA), loan book size, operating costs and external factors such as repo rate and GDP rate. All of
these, except the repo rate, are on a decline.
Only recently, new forms of banking such as Payment Banks and Small Finance Banks (SFBs) had found their feet in
the financial sector. With limited offerings and a lean revenue stream, these banks were already fraught with hardships.

2 Agricultural marketing has not kept pace with the changes in economy, particularly relating to setting up
of an efficient supply chain. We are therefore, faced with new challenges in terms of finding an efficient market
for the marketable surplus. There is enormous concern over several aspects of our agricultural marketing system.
For one, agriculture marketing is administered by the States as per their agri-marketing regulations under which
State is divided into several market areas, each of which is administered by a separate Agricultural Produce. As a
consequence, this fragmentation of markets, even within the State hinders free flow of agri-commodities from one
market area to another and multiple handling of agri-produce and multiple levels of mandi charges end up escalating
the prices for the consumers without commensurate benefit to the farmer. The need to unify markets both at State and
National level is, therefore, clearly the requirement of time.

3 Soil is a dynamic system, consisting of organic and mineral matters, air, water and living organisms along
with their interactive processes. Soil is formed through a complex process which takes thousands of years to make
an inch of soil. But it can easily be contaminated, eroded and destroyed in a very short span of time, if managed
unscientifically. Increasing population and shrinking land resources for agriculture is tremendously increasing
pressure on soil beyond the boundaries of sustainability. Our consumerism attitude or greed results in indiscriminate
use of fertilizers, pesticides and land resource, which disturbs the harmony existing within the soil thereby affecting
the physico-chemical properties of the soil system.
Soil health concept involves integration of physical, chemical and biological properties of a soil and role of this
harmonious blend in sustaining growth, productivity and environmental security. Thus, soil is an ecosystem full of
life that needs to be carefully managed to regain and maintain the ability to function optimally.

4 Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) may be defined as an approach for transforming and reorienting agricultural
development under the new realities of climate change. CSA aims to simultaneously achieve three outcomes: Increased
productivity Enhanced resilience and reduced emissions.
In changing climate scenario, developing cultivars resistant to climate change may become important adaptive
mechanism for maximizing resource-use efficiency. For example, crop varieties that are resistant to lodging (e.g.,
short rice cultivars), may withstand strong winds during the sensitive stage of crop growth, are viable alternative.
Similarly, change of planting dates to minimize the effect of temperature increase and reducing spikelet sterility
can be used to enhance yield stability, by avoiding the flowering period to coincide with the hottest period. Such
adaptation measures like change in crop calendar to reduce the negative effects of increased climatic variability in
arid and semi-arid tropics proved advantageous to avoid extreme weather events (e.g. typhoons and storms) during
the growing season.

5 India is also the third largest consumer of energy in the world, with demand rising by five percent annually.
With energy demand set to double by 2040, India needs a robust and healthy energy sector.
22

Energy access is essential for commerce and industry—to thrive and create income-generating opportunities and
satisfy the huge number of job seekers. In the manufacturing sector, it enables capital investments in machinery and
advanced technology, which exponentially increases operational capacity and output. Even on a micro level, firms
with energy access have higher labour productivity due to reasons of efficiency, comfort and resource optimization.
Improved energy access will inject necessary momentum into the Government’s flagship schemes like Make in India,
which was launched to boost domestic manufacturing. In India, where a large part of the population is engaged in
agriculture, energy access can also help realize the Government’s goal of augmenting farmer income through better
irrigation, mechanized ploughing and harvesting and by ensuring a wider market for their output.

6 DHRUV, the Pradhan Mantri Innovative Learning Programme, is a unique initiative. The Programme was
started to identify and encourage talented children to enrich their skills and knowledge. Gifted children will be
mentored and nurtured by renowned experts in different areas in centres of excellence across the country, so that they
can reach their full potential. DHRUV acts as a platform to explore the talent of outshining and meritorious students,
and help them achieve excellence in their specific areas of interest may it be science, performing arts or creative
writing. In this way, these talented students will not only realise their full potential but also contribute to the society in
a big way. It is expected that many of the students selected will reach the highest levels in their chosen fields and bring
laurels to their community, State and Nation. With children drawn from all over the country, the DHRUV programme
reflects the true spirit of EK Bharat Shreshth Bharat.

7 There are two major techniques of rainwater harvesting.

(i) S  urface runoff harvesting: In this method, rainwater flows away as surface runoff and can be stored for future
use. Surface water can be stored by diverting the flow of small creeks and streams into reservoirs on the surface
or underground. It can provide water for farming, for cattle and also for general domestic use. Surface runoff
harvesting is most suitable in urban areas. Rooftop rainwater/storm runoff can be harvested in urban areas
through- Recharge Pit, Recharge Trench, Tubewell and Recharge Well etc.
(ii) Groundwater recharge: Groundwater recharge is a hydrologic process where water moves downward from
surface water to groundwater. Recharge is the primary method through which water enters an aquifer. The aquifer
also serves as a distribution system. The surplus rainwater can then be used to recharge groundwater aquifer
through artificial recharge techniques. Rainwater in rural areas can be harvested through- Gully Plug, Contour
Bund, Dugwell Recharge, Percolation Tank, Check Dam/Cement Plug/Nala Bund and Recharge Shaft etc.

8 Disasters resulting from natural hazards, such as flood, cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire and many more
impact development in several ways. Disasters damage infrastructures, lifeline and critical facilities resulting in
human, financial and environmental losses. Thus, natural disaster risk is intimately connected to the processes of
development.
Disasters are intertwined with development in a three-dimensional nexus. First, disasters eat away hard earned gains
of development of years and decades. Second, lack of development exposes vulnerable communities to the risks of
disasters. Third and ironically in an opposite direction, development creates new risks of disasters, such as houses
and infrastructure without compliance of zoning and building regulations are vulnerable; mining and industries
in ecologically sensitive zones may destroy the natural buffer to disasters, while fossil fuel based production and
consumption enhance risks of climate related disasters.
The whole relationship between disaster and development depends on the development choice made by the individual,
community and the nation who implement the development programmes.

9 Naxalism started as a movement against land alienation. Today it has become a popular movement against
natural resource alienation, particularly forests. Large areas of densely forested regions in the country are controlled
by Naxalites. In these forested areas, the state and forest administration dare not enter. Naxalites use the growing
alienation of tribal people against forest laws to gain ground.
 23

Common Property Resources (CPR) constitutes important components of the natural resource endowments which
contributes significantly to the rural economy and provide sustenance to local communities in rural areas. CPRs
cover a wide basket of land, water and vegetation resources consisting of community pastures, common dumping
and threshing grounds, watershed drainages, village tanks, rivers and rivulets, and wastelands. The poor depend upon
CPRs far more than the rich due to their lack of or low-productive assets, not enough work or purchasing power,
particularly in the lean seasons. Therefore, the health of CPRs and ease of access are critical for these vulnerable
groups.

10 . India is at the brink of a dawn of a new era in the space sector. The space policy and the Space Activities Bill
are in the final stages, the government opened up the space sector for private players.
The Space Activities Bill needs to clearly address the role which the private sector will play in International Space
Treaties and the liabilities associated with it. The space sector has limited accessibility because of the high costs
involved for general audiences. As we create policies to increase equality worldwide, we also need to create policies
which increase accessibility and inclusivity in space. With increased privatisation, there may be an increase in
inequality in space exploration in the world.
There is also a possibility that space objects created by private companies cause damage to Indian property itself.
The government needs to clarify rules and regulations for various situations of possible damage created by private
companies.

11 Lack of education and skills is a major impediment among the marginalized. It results in lack of confidence to
undertake responsibilities. Such lack of confidence and self-belief is seen particularly among women. Entrepreneurship
motivation and Skill development with hands-on training can address these deficiencies. Workshops and seminar
sessions have proved to be time-tested methods of attitude orientation and confidence building among youth. Through
strategic planning approach comprising focussed entrepreneurial training, guidance and mentoring, the marginalised
sections of the population can be geared towards self-employment opportunities.
Shortage of finance, fear of risk and lack of functional literacy are some of the reasons that hold them back from
starting their own enterprises. Further, research findings in this field identify constraints in raw materials supply, lack
of adequate capital, absence of marketing infrastructure etc. as some of the primary hindrances for a rural entrepreneur.
Moreover, due to lack of education, rural entrepreneurs also suffer from lack of aptitude and competency and lack
of awareness towards various facilities available to them. Hence they often keep themselves away from venturing
into self-employment businesses and resort to working as daily wage labourers. Keeping in mind the aforementioned
potential and challenges for rural enterprises, it is significant to contextualize entrepreneurship for the rural setup. It
is fair to conclude that promoting entrepreneurship abilities among the marginalized and socially backward sections
of our nation (especially those who fall under the intersections of the discriminatory forces i.e. lower-caste disabled
women) can lead to multi-dimensional progress both on the social and economic fronts.

12 India is essentially a knowledge-based, entrepreneurship driven economy. India is the world’s third-largest
Startup base but its entrepreneurial spirit is not limited to the Startup world; they represent only one aspect of it. The
Indian spirit of enterprise is not yet branded and advertised but it catches the attention of the world. A good amount
of research is being done by foreign researchers (some do their postdoctoral) on the business communities of India.
The real performers often prefer to stay in the background but they do the heavy lifting. India’s Micro, Small and
Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) are those silent performers who are carrying India’s 5 trillion dollar economy goal on
their shoulders.
Any understanding of India’s growth trajectory is incomplete without an introduction to India’s MSME sector, and
the spirit with which they work. There are 63.4 million Micro, Small and Medium enterprise units in India (mainly
in rural and semi-urban areas) which contributes around 29% to India’s GDP and 49% to its exports. The MSME
sector is called the backbone sector of the Indian economy as it provides employment to over 111 million people
and produces over 8000 products, ranging from traditional to high tech precision items. MSMEs constitute around
24

95% of the total industries in India and their contributions to national income are immense, yet this sector has never
demanded any kind of security (financial, social, medical or pension) from the government. They have built a strong
community culture based on trust, cooperation and relationship which is today difficult to replicate even in some
global multinational corporation (MNCs).

13 With commercial banks posting weak numbers quarters after quarter, there have been serious efforts both
by banks and RBI to address bad loans because stressed assets erode profitability. ‘Haircut’ is one of the options to
address the problem of non-performing assets. A haircut is the difference between the loan amount and the actual
value of the asset used as collateral. The haircut reflects the lender’s perception of the risk of fall in the value of
assets. In the context of loan recoveries, it is the difference between the actual dues from a borrower and the amount
he settles with the bank. Haircuts are used as a last resort when there is absolutely no hope of a recovery and the loan
is written off for a one time settlement.
Haircuts are not common in India. However, there have been instances in the past when a lender settles for some
equity of a borrower to compensate for a loan loss. But it is often a last resort when there is absolutely no hope of a
recovery and the loan is written off for a one time settlement. The regulators in the recent past have made many other
options for banks like the corporate-debt restructuring or allowing sale of bad loans to asset reconstruction companies
among others. Experts say there is no single model to arrive at a haircut for a particular loan. Besides, lenders also fear
that investigative agencies may get back at them for their judgement on a particular valuation of a haircut.

14 Food processing is where agriculture meets industry. Food processing is the sector with the largest share
of employment in the organised segment and third largest in the unorganised segment even with a very low value
added in comparison with manufacturing as a whole. The consumption of processed foods is synchronous with the
rise in incomes as income elasticity of these foods is very high. It is worth noting that our country reached the status
of ‘lower middle-income’ among the countries in the world and therefore, the share of processed food in the food
basket of our population is bound to go up. Diversification of diets, globalisation of diets, urbanisation, rising share
of women in work force, nuclear families juxtaposed with supply-side factors like changing policy perspectives
including digitalisation and export opportunities propel growth of food processing sector in India.
There is a need to infuse more technology in both the organised and unorganised segments with liberal provision
of credit. Value of land poses the biggest threat to unorganised manufacturing in general and food processing in
particular, and needs attention of the policy makers. Some of the tax slabs in GST also can have negative impact on
this sector. The recent spurt in the inflow of foreign direct investment is encouraging and augurs well for the sector.
Recent initiatives like mega food parks, and cold chain schemes are well conceived and showing signs of positive
impact. The government needs to move fast to leverage the advantages of this segment for employment, growth of
value added and exports by taking appropriate measures.

15 After years of wilderness in post-independence India, Ayurveda is now poised to truly and actively participate
in the health and medical care system. Ayurveda as a science has seen a spurt of interest in the last three to four years.
From the mid 80s to mid 2000s, this science had lost its appeal among the modern consumers. Consumers had moved
towards allopathic products because Ayurvedic products did not appeal to the consumer in terms of packaging and
ease of use. With consumers understanding the harmful effects of chemicals, Ayurveda is undergoing somewhat of
a renaissance. Education and acceptability are key drivers to capture the modern consumer. While preserving its
core strengths, it is using modern science to unravel clinical evidence. Along with its powerful individual holistic
approach, the system is advocating several general means, including Yoga, to improve people’s health.
Ayurveda is also involved in the fight against COVID-19. The government has announced innovative clinical drug
trials to evaluate the safe and effective use of selected and standardised Ayurvedic medicines in the prophylaxis and
treatment of COVID-19. This is probably the first of its kind and magnitude, where modern medicine physicians will
work alongside vaidyas to manage this dreadful infectious disease.
 25

Ayurveda has carried forward some of the finest traditions in healing and cure the world has ever seen. It has
undergone some transformation to suit modern India, but more is required. The national spirit is in its favour and it
now enjoys unprecedented state patronage. A renaissance has begun. Ayurveda should aim for its rightful place along
with modern medicine as a mainstream medicinal system.

16 Today, our focus has shifted from quantity to quality. ‘Hidden hunger’ is a term used to describe dietary
micronutrient deficiencies, must be taken care of. Hidden hunger occurs when the quality of food people eat does
not meet their nutrient requirements, so the food is deficient in micronutrients such as the vitamins and minerals that
they need for their growth and development.
Biofortification can be defined as a process to increase the bioavailability and the concentration of nutrients in crops
through both conventional plant breeding and recombinant DNA technology (genetic engineering).
All grains inherently have a certain amount of micronutrients. This forms the basis for crop selection. The first step
in selective breeding is screening. Existing crop varieties with the desired characteristics are identified. These are
then cross-pollinated over several generations to produce plants with the desired levels of micronutrients as well as
other traits, such as high yield per cycle. After thorough testing in labs and on farms, the plants are evaluated for the
required trait (like iron content) as well as other traits, such as pest resistance and weather resilience. Finally, the seeds
of the best-performing plants are multiplied and supplied to farmers.
Recently, significant efforts have been made to identify the practices that can improve both food and nutritional
security. Many interventions in agriculture have been designed to have an impact on nutritional outcomes. Progress
has been made to enhance protein, vitamin A, iron, and zinc nutrients in food through biofortification. Scientific
evidence shows this is technically feasible without compromising agronomic productivity.

17 They are different from conventional gas sources, also because being completely on land; shale gas exploitation
leaves greater footprints. Even technologically, producing this source is very challenging. Due to the tightness of the
reservoirs, these require hydraulic fracturing horizontally to cover a large part of the reservoir and sometimes require
multi-stage fracturing and frequent stimulation. The typical flow rates of a shale gas well is very high in the first 1-2
years, and then tapers to a much slow rate extended over many years. This requires drilling of a large number of wells
leading to greater interface with the communities, environment and effort.
The biggest apprehension in exploitation of shale gas is the hydraulic fracturing job wherein a large amount of water
mixed with fracturing fluids/proppants is injected at high pressure into the reservoirs. The horizontal drilling within
the shale gas bearing zones has to be enabled to receive gas trapped in the horizontal shales. Even the fear of gas
escaping thorough these fractures and contaminating the ground water has been a cause of concern.
Apart from the main concern of water contamination, there are other multiple challenges while exploring and
producing shale gas. A large amount of water, from few thousands to 20 thousand cubic metres per well is required
for hydraulic fracturing. Local environmental challenges and issue of water availability and water disposal after
fracturing jobs pose serious threats to the environment. Shale requires a vast land cover in comparison to conventional
oil and gas, which is also a challenge especially for countries like India which have a heavy pressure on land.

18 Community radio specialises in providing local information to the local people. The presence of community
radio in every phase of a disaster- -disaster mitigation, preparation, early warning, response, recovery and revitalisation,
is essential for the exchange and sharing of information and dialogue among residents as well as the enhancement of
the community’s capability and of self governance ability.
Community radio can play a crucial role in disaster management via assisting the community in three stages:
26

Pre-Disaster: In the pre-disaster stage, community radio stations can provide guidance regarding its preparedness.
Information regarding gathering locations and safety shelters can be disseminated. Programmes regarding sanitation
measures and first aid practices can be broadcasted. Another important task is broadcasting warning signals in case
there is a calamity foreseen or likely to occur.
During Disaster: At the time of a disaster, most forms of communication are disrupted barring radio signals.
Community radio can help the community link with the relief agencies and Government control room. Two prime
advantages of community radio are that they focus to the affected communities and the content is delivered in the
local language. This can help in disseminating rescue operation information by location-specific stations
Post Disaster: This is a very crucial phase as during rehabilitation the community requires maximum support. Post-
trauma counseling and updates on relief and aid can be a part of the content being broadcasted. Guidelines regarding
disposal of wastage, restoration of safe water supply and basic sanitation can be provided.
In this manner, the local community itself can be enabled through infrastructure and training to make use of community
radio approach.

19 . For the last three decades India has become a transit hub as well as a destination for heroin and hashish
produced in the ‘Golden Triangle’ and the ‘Golden Crescent’. In addition, various psychotropic and pharmaceutical
preparations and precursor chemicals produced domestically as well as in various parts of the world are also trafficked
through Indian territory. The two-way illegal flow of these drugs and chemicals not only violates India’s borders, but
also poses a significant threat to national security. The nexus between drug traffickers, organised criminal networks
and terrorists has created a force powerful enough to cause instability in the country. Money generated through
drug trade has been used to fund various insurgent and terrorist movements. For instance, it has been estimated that
money generated from the illegal sale of narcotics accounted for 15 per cent of the finances to militant groups in
Jammu and Kashmir. Similarly, Sikh militant groups in Punjab and Northeast insurgent groups like the Nationalist
Socialist Council of Nagaland (Isak-Muivah) [NSCN (IM)] are known to channellise drugs into India to finance their
operations. Further, drug trafficking facilitates other organised criminal enterprises such as human trafficking and gun
running, all of which use the same networks and routes to smuggle people, arms and contraband. To cite an example,
the explosives used in the 1993 Mumbai terrorist attacks were smuggled into India using the same routes through
which drugs and other contraband items were trafficked by the Dawood gang. Even today, terrorist groups use these
routes to source weapons and explosives across the borders.

20 : India’s internal security challenges, since decades, have also been pronouncedly sponsored and largely
influenced by external machinations and subterfuge. However, it is also an accepted reality that, in recent times,
external and internal threats do overlap seamlessly, apart from having multiplied in their intensity. Asymmetric and
proxy wars are part of this new dynamic.
Over the last 70 years, India’s internal conflicts have ranged from Pakistani planned and supported insurgency,
terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir and other Indian states, on-off-on internal unrest in some of India’s restive North
Eastern (NE) states including Assam. Additionally, persistent efforts by Pakistan’s notorious spy agency, the Inter
Services Intelligence (ISI), to foment communal trouble in Punjab and fan ‘Khalistani’ separatism, growing Naxal-
Maoist Left Wing Extremism (LWE) threats in India’s hinterland, occasional sectarian, communal and language
tensions, organized crime, money laundering, drug trafficking and now cyber driven crimes are the major internal
security challenges confronting the Indian state. That since the last 2 years or so there has also been an upsurge in
undesirable extremist tendencies among some fringe elements inside India cannot be denied.
Similarly insurgencies in India are abetted and supported by our adversaries and the impact of the two challenges
cannot be isolated per se. In area as humongous as national security it is difficult to ascertain which of the two threats
– external or internal – will pose greater security threat to the country going forward. But if we take nation as an
organism, to fight an external adversary internal strength is prerequisite.
 27

Paper

MOCK TEST
4
Specific Instructions
Please read each of the following instructions carefully before attempting questions:
 There are Twelve/Fourteen questions divided in two sections and printed in English.
 All questions are compulsory.
 The number of marks carried by a question/part is indicated against it.
 Answer must be written in the medium authorized in the Admission Certificate which must be stated clearly
on the cover of this Questions-cum-Answer (QCA) Booklet in the space provided. No marks will be given
for answers written in medium other than the authorized one.
 Keep the word limit indicated in the questions in mind.

SECTION-A
1 (a) What is meant by ‘informed consent’? Why is it important to study? Discuss any one example of informed
consent from the viewpoint of ethics of healthcare.  (150 words) (10)
(b) Differentiate between the following  (10 marks) (200 Words)
(i) Legal rights and Moral rights
(ii) Suicide and Physician assisted suicide
(iii) Moral code of conduct and professional code of conduct
(iv) Normative Ethics and Deontology
2. Given are two quotations of moral thinkers/philosophers. For each of these bring out what it means to you in the
present context.
(a) “Ethics and equity and the principles of justice do not change with the calendar.” (10) (150 words)
(b) “Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all.”  (10 marks) (150 words)
3. (a) “If you want to test cosmetics, why do it on some poor animal who hasn’t done anything? They should use
prisoners who have been convicted of murder or rape instead. So, rather than seeing if perfume irritates a bunny
rabbit’s eyes, they should throw it in Charles Manson’s eyes and ask him if it hurts.” Do you agree? Explain with
the help of two examples where (i) an act of animal cruelty is ethically right, but not legally and (ii) an act of
animal cruelty is legally right, but not ethically.  (10 Marks) (150 words)
(b) How do the virtues of accountability and transparency get manifested in public service? Explain with
examples (10) (150 words)
28

4. (a) Duties are more important than rights. Discuss the above statement with examples in the context of the
national development.  (150 words) (10 Marks)
(b) The emergence of social media and citizen journalism has a lot of potential to be used for governance
purposes, but that this is not capitalised on in most contexts. Many governments are using e-government strategies
and disseminating information through online channels, but not soliciting citizen feedback. Where there are two-
way channels, it is very unclear whether citizen feedback is acted upon. There is promising evidence on social
media improving transparency of organisations and government ministries, but less evidence on whether this
improves accountability.
Analyse the situation in detail and suggest how the dichotomy can be resolved. Suggest how accountability can
be improved with the use of social media. (150 words) (10 Marks)
5. Public servants are accountable to their political masters. But they are also responsible to public for whose welfare
they work. This often results in two different attitudes towards their work, identified as bureaucratic attitude and the
democratic attitude.
 (10 Marks) (150 words)
(a) Give an example to Distinguish between these two terms.
(b) Is it possible to balance the two to create a better administration for the faster development of our country?
6. Several steps have been taken in recent years to control corrupt practices such as RTI, online registration for
government contracts, transparency, and various other legal mechanisms. How far have these measures been
successful in curbing corruption? 
 (10 Marks) (150 words)
(a) Evaluate the effectiveness of these measures with justifications
(b) Suggest more effective strategies to tackle this menace
7. At the international level, there are several hindrances to good bilateral relations between neighboring nations.
One of the hindrances is the national border. The border relations are governed on the policy of promoting one’s
own national interest. This may lead to conflicts and tension between the nations. How can ethical consideration
help resolve such tensions? Discuss with specific examples. 
 (10 Marks) (150 words)
8. Public servants are likely to confront with the conflict between law and duty. For instance, the law may forbid
them from doing something while their duty requires them to do it. Think of this situation and explain with an
example how does it manifest in the decision making by public servants? If faced with this situation how would
you resolve it? Explain with the help of examples. (10 Marks) (150 words)
Section-B
9. You are the CEO of a private company. This company is known for its efficiency, transparency and employee
welfare. The company though owned by a private individual has a cooperative character where employees feel a
sense of ownership. The company employs nearly 1000 personnel and they have voluntarily decided not to form
union.
One day you receive a phone call from a minister in the state who is also the leader of a political party. He asks
you to employ 50 persons whose names he says he will send you. You inform the minister that there is a process
of induction whenever vacancies are announced. The minister says he has no time to wait for the vacancies and
as the election is approaching near, he must satisfy the demands of his constituency.
The company maintains high standards in integrity and does not extend favours to politicians or administrators.
 29

However, you also know that if you do not meet the demand of the minister, he can create bureaucratic and other
legal troubles for your company 
 (20 Marks) (250 Words)
(a) Since you are the CEO of the company, the board of the company asks you to handle the situation at your
level. What would you do to diffuse the situation currently?
(b) What can be the long term solution to the issue discussed in the case?
(c) Every solution/action that you suggest will have a negative and a positive impact on you as (CEO), the
employees and the performance of the employees. Analyse the consequences of each of your suggested actions.
10. You are the doctor employed in block dispensary of the government. Of late, you have noticed several patients
coming to you with the complaints of diarrhoea and stomach ailments. You give medications but the number of
patients is increasing. When you investigate further you come to know that a sarpanch in your block who is also a
strong man and a powerful member of a political party has entered into business arrangement with a local textile
company who performs dying and tanning work using the ground water from the sarpanch’s land. You conclude
that contaminated ground water is causing the health problems in the residents of that area. However, you are a
doctor and therefore cannot confront the sarpanch who is a strong man  (20 Marks) (250 Words)
(a) Discuss some feasible strategies to overcome the problem without conflict, if possible.
(b) What should be the responsibilities of different social segments and agencies to solve this problem?
11. One of the scientists working in the R&D laboratory of a major pharmaceutical company discovers that one of
the company’s bestselling veterinary drugs has the potential to cure a currently incurable liver disease which
is prevalent in tribal areas. However, developing a variant of the drug suitable for human being entails a lot of
research and development having a huge expenditure to the extent of Rs. 50 crores. It was unlikely that company
would recover the cost as the disease was rampant only in poverty stricken areas having very little market
otherwise.
If you were the CEO, then  (20 Marks) (250 Words)
(a) Identify the various actions that you could take
(b) Evaluate the pros and cons of each of your actions
12. You are a civil servant in district bordering Pakistan. Several villages of your district have been affected by the
frequent shelling from across the border. There are daily deaths of children, young people, elderly, and also
domesticated animals. The schools have to be frequently closed due to shelling. The civilian life in your district is
disturbed. Villagers have been approaching you every day to find solution to the problem. They are complaining
that they live in danger every night and every day. The education of their children has been severely affected.
As a civil services officer of the state, how you would rescue these people why? Give justifications for the steps
you take.
 (20 Marks) (250 Words).
13. Gopal was transferred as head of finance to government undertaking. When he reached there he found that
many employees were used to asking their suppliers for favours. The suppliers would be happy to oblige. They
even paid for the holiday outings of many senior employees. Gopal felt that this was not right. He felt that the
employees should maintain a distance between their personal and professional lives; taking professional help for
personal reasons is a kind of corruption. He tried to point this out, but the employees took umbrage at his words.
They told him that he was being too rigid. Times had changed and there was no harm in social interactions with
their suppliers. None of them were corrupt; there had never been any exchange of cash for any official work.
Gopal was dissatisfied with their responses but he realised that there wasn’t much he could do.
30

Next month when it was time to review the suppliers’ contracts, Gopal chose the option which was best for the
company’s finances. Unfortunately this was not the old supplier, his colleagues disagreed with him. They cited
many technical reasons to overlook the financial implications and voted against his decision. Gopal feels they
have been swayed by the old supplier but he has no proof. 
 (25 Marks) (250 Words)
(a) He comes to you for advice. What advice will you give him?
(b) What are some of the options available to you? Discuss the merits and demerits of each of the actions you
suggest and select the best option.
14. You have been recently posted as the head of a government institute with several branches all over the country.
You have taken up the position at a time when the education is severely affected due to COVID-19.
The classes have been suspended and online education is being conducted. Your only concern is that the classes
should not be affected. So you have asked the teachers to take online classes regularly as they used to do earlier
in offline classes.
However, the institution you are heading is highly professional. There are lab classes and workshops. The
students have to make projects most of which was being borne by the institute.
While you understand online classes cannot be as effective as offline or regular classes, you cannot do anything
about it. In the online classes the students are required to make projects and bear all costs on their own.
The students have paid their last semester fee but they had to leave the institute mid way due to COVID-19.
The next semester is also decided to be conducted online due to ongoing COVID-19 situation. The students are
demanding exemption in fee but the management doesn’t relent. The management has to pay salaries, and ensure
adequate budget for other ongoing expenses.
A group of students have gone on social media with their protest. The management makes a strict rule that
students cannot use social media against the policy of the institution. After this rule is brought in students have
stopped using social media for this issue, but they still do not want to pay the entire sum of fees because it is
exorbitant in their opinion. They argue that they are not using the facilities provided by the institution, so they
have no reason to pay fees at the same rate as earlier. They also argue that there are many parents who have lost
their jobs, so they cannot make a payment. (250 words) (25 Marks)
(a) What steps would you take to ensure smooth functioning of the institution without disrupting their education?
(b) How would you manage the demands of the students for decrease or exemption in fees especially because
their argument is logical?
 31

MOCK TeST-1
1 (a) Informed consent is a process of consent between two parties, in which one of the parties gives their
consent after being informed about the issues to undergo study or intervention etc. Although the process of informed
consent can be applicable in several areas, it is especially important healthcare and research.
Informed consent is important because it is an ethical way to conduct an experiment or healthcare intervention. For
instance, if a researcher is interviewing a subject, the researcher needs to inform the subject about the study and
reasons for interview and take their consent to continue ahead. Otherwise it is unethical.
Here is an example of informed consent in healthcare. A doctor finds that surgery is necessary for a patient. The doctor
then must take the consent of the patient before performing surgery and it is the duty of the doctor to explain why
surgery is important and what consequences may arise if surgery is not performed. Only after the patient gives his/her
consent can the surgeon proceed ahead.  (words = 169)
(b) (i) Legal rights and Moral rights
The source of legal rights is law/constitution etc, while the source of moral rights can be religion/conscience/morality
etc. The legal rights are binding in nature. The moral rights are not binding in nature. The violation of legal rights is
punishable. The violation of moral rights may not be punishable.  (words = 49)
(ii) Suicide and Physician assisted suicide
Suicide is considered unethical even if it is a voluntary act. Taking away of life unless sanctioned by law under certain
cases, whether one’s own or others’ is both unethical and illegal.
Physician assisted suicide or euthanasia has been legalised in several nations which makes it legal. It is also known
as mercy killing which is an ethical act against pain and suffering with no likelihood of improvement. (words = 68)
(iii) Moral code of conduct and professional code of conduct
Moral code of conduct is a set of principles which influence the judgement. For example: Thou shalt not kill or Thou
shalt not steal. Professional code of conduct is a set of guidelines that influence employees’ actions. For example:
Respect your client or maintain discipline in the organization. Moral code of conduct has a wider application than
professional code of conduct.  (words = 62)
(iv) Normative Ethics and Deontology
Normative ethics seeks to set norms or standards for conduct. It is interested in determining the content of our moral
behaviour. It sets forth the criteria of moral right or wrong. Deontological theories set forth formal or relational criteria
such as equality or impartiality. It is an approach to ethics that determines goodness or rightness from examining acts,
or the rules and duties.  (words = 62)

2 (a) This quote is given by D.H. Lawrence. It indicates the truth of the eternal principles of ethics. What was
true about justice and equity will be true ever. In the context of current Indian scenario, it reflects the attitude of the
political dispensation to justify what cannot be justified or to ignore the acts and events that cannot be ignored.
Here is an example: Indian society is an equalitarian democracy based on the principles of justice and the rule of law.
India is also a nation with multiple faiths and regions. An equalitarian and secular society should not treat its citizens
from the lens of religions. However, by the creation of the notions of majority and minority we tend to overlook the
equalitarian principles.
However, this very principle of equity also demands that everyone should be brought to a level playing field to be
given the same treatment. Alternatively, rich and poor in certain matters like taxation can be treated differently.
 (words = 161)
(b) This statement was made by Aristotle.
Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all. Aristotle. Educating the heart refers to the
importance of not only focusing on developing the cognitive aspects (our minds) but also all the qualities that make us
human (our hearts) and ultimately give us meaning in our lives.
32

This statement was as true during the time of Aristotle as it is today.

In the present context, it is highly relevant because there is increasing focus on the development of mind and intellect
without a commensurate focus on inculcating human values that are the qualities of mind. Money and power have
dominated the minds of learners in place of doing good to the society and people. The widespread corruption and
selfishness is a reflection of the growth of the mind without the commensurate growth of heart. This kind of education
is not good because it breeds corruption and selfishness.  (words = 156)

3 (a) The author of the above statement speaks of animal rights in essence. We have to examine the ethical
question whether animals have rights, and whether it is ethically correct to harm animals to create healthcare or
cosmetic products.
The harmful use of animals in experiments is not only cruel but also often ineffective. Animals do not get many of the
human diseases that people do, such as major types of heart disease, many types of cancer, HIV, Parkinson’s disease,
or schizophrenia.
The counter argument is that the use of animals in research is essential for enabling researchers to develop new drugs
and treatments. The use of animals in the lab has dramatically improved scientists’ understanding of human biology
and health. Animal models help ensure the effectiveness and safety of new treatments.
The conclusion is that (i) animal testing should be minimized and (ii) minimum harm should be ensured during the
testing.
Example of (i) It may not be legally right to kill an animal but ethically right to eliminate the animal if it has viral
or other germ related potential to cause harm to other species. (ii) It may be legally right but ethically wrong to use
animals for experiments.  (words = 162)
(b) Formal and informal mechanisms of transparency and accountability encourage officials to act in the public
interest, or in the case of companies, in the interests of their shareholders. Without public access to records of
governance and other information, scarce resources may be squandered or mismanaged.
In recent decades, the demand for transparency in governance has moved towards linking transparency with
accountability. It is formulated by citizens as individuals, more than as a collective, in need of better public services.
Across, the world, governments are experimenting with new ways of strengthening citizen engagement in policy
making and administration. Often referred to as ‘social accountability’, representing a form of accountability that
breaks the state monopoly on oversight functions and actively encourages citizens to participate in its institutions.
India has long been considered one of the pioneers of this form of accountability-owing largely to efforts undertaken
in the civil society space. Equally, and partly as a consequence of civil society efforts, there are some important
examples of state initiated reforms that have attempted to strengthen social accountability with varying levels of
success. Crucial amongst them are efforts to strengthen decentralization of government through the 73rd and 74th
Constitutional Amendment, localization of monitoring through the creation of community based oversight bodies,
citizen charters and the Right to Information Act  (words = 170)

4 (a) Universally, great emphasis has been laid on citizens’ duties. Article 29(1) of the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights states: “Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his
personality is possible.”
The idea of citizenship has acquired a new meaning, content and purpose in the democratic world. While emphasising
on rights, it is very important that one is also sincere about his or her duties towards the society at large and the
country, especially its safety and security imperatives.
Since ancient times, people in India have had a tradition of performing their duties — even in partial disregard of their
rights and privileges. Since time immemorial, an individual’s “kartavya” — the performance of one’s duties towards
society, his/her country and his/her parents — was emphasised.
Every citizen plays a key role in building a New India — a clean, healthy and prosperous nation. Everyone performing
their duties, even mechanically, would pave the way for a better neighbourhood, better society, and ultimately, a
better country.  (words=166)
 33

(b) Right to information, Public interest litigations and media have together enhanced the spirit of democracy in recent
years. They ensure greater accountability in governance related activities of the state and bring greater transparency
in the governance. These measures help in connecting people to governance and give them opportunity to know how
they are being governed. Multiple scams have been unearthed and guilty persons were punished.
However, the effectiveness of e-governance strategies is reduced for at least two reasons (i) not seeking/not acting
upon feedbacks and (ii) misuse of these democratically given powers by the vested interests. For instance, few
groups with narrow political agenda file PILs in courts or vested interest seeking sensitive information. That could be
possibly because they have no knowledge on RTIs. Vested interests could be more interested in settling political score.
On the other hand honest bureaucrats with good intentions could also feel stifled in taking administrative actions even
where necessary out of the fear of RTI consequences.
Some measures to resolve the dichotomy:
1. create few checks in procedure to deter people filing unnecessary RTIs and PILs.
2. heavy fine should be imposed on unwarranted media news.
3. public servants must act according to public interest  (words = 178)

5 (a) Here’s an example of a public servant who encounters the conflict of bureaucratic attitude and democratic
attitude. The public servant A is bound by rules and goes strictly according to the rules. The state releases money for
the opening of schools in the allocated land. However, the land for this school is five miles from the villages being
served. There is no road or transportation available to reach the school. The villagers complain to the officer. The
rule bound officer refuses to meet the democratic demand. The school when constructed has very low attendance and
the purpose of the school is defeated because the democratic attitude has been sacrificed for bureaucratic attitude.
 (words = 112)
(b) Yes, it is possible to balance the two by (i) taking public opinion at the planning stage and by involving the gram
panchayats/stakeholders in the planning and decision-making. (ii) Involving multiple agencies in the planning so that
the plan satisfies maximum number of stakeholders (iii) introduction of flexibility in rules to accommodate reversal
of decisions on public demand.  (Words = 60)

6 (a) These measures have resulted in controlling corruption to a large extent. For instance, middle men have
been eliminated from most of these serving departments such as Railways, telecommunication, and several other
agencies serving people. The online contracts have become more transparent. However, corrupt elements have devised
ways to bypass the system. For instance, wherever the direct beneficiaries receive money directly in their account,
there have been instances of bribery and corrupt practice of taking bribe money in cash in advance from beneficiaries.
 (words = 82)
(b) It is evident that most often corruption thrives because people are not aware of their rights or people willingly or
unwillingly comply with the unfair demands of the corrupt individuals in the department or middlemen. Following
effective strategies can be adopted. (i) Make people more aware of their rights and responsibilities in the long run
(ii) Exemplary punishment including reimbursement from their pocket for corruption within a month of receiving
complaint. (iii) Strict monitoring and inclusion of beneficiary names directly by the beneficiary online (iv) minimal
rule and paperwork  (words = 89)

7 Border issues often hinder good bilateral relations. In case of India, we find the border issues with China,
Pakistan, and Nepal recently. The border claims are often disputed by the neighbouring country. There have been no
solutions to this problem even after several rounds of meetings.
Ethical consideration demands that the claims of each party be given due consideration. However, these claims must
be rational, uniform, and free from doubts and ambiguities. The criteria for the demarcation of the border must be
internationally acceptable.
It may also help to create an international agency exclusively for the border demarcation/solution task consisting
of experts. The criteria that can be manipulated should be excluded from the list. For instance, plebiscite can be
34

manipulated because of factors like resettlement etc.

Innovative approaches like ‘common conclaves’ in disputed border regions be adopted. Wherever the border line has
been changed with strategies like war or aggression should be made legally void and voidable. (words=157)

8 The decision-making of a public servant is challenging when there is a conflict between law and duty. Here is
an example: There is a clear set of criterion is choosing a beneficiary. An old and helpless woman who is not literate
and has neither bank account nor identity proof is a beneficiary of the government scheme. Till now his son had
handled the benefits on her behalf because he had the documents and papers but now the son is not there because of
which the old woman suffers. She comes to the office of the public servant with her grievance. The public servant
wants to help her but is helpless because the old lady does not have the proper documents needed for a beneficiary.
Here in this case, it is his duty to help the old woman but the law forbids.
If I was faced with this situation, I would try to reconcile and accommodate as far as I can. For example, I would
periodically revise the beneficiary list. In case of old and ailing beneficiaries, I would reach out to them to assist them
have the relevant documents.  (words = 190)

9 (a) There are several options before me.

(i) I will inform the minister that the work will be done. However, it is not a one day process but will take time. I
will not tell him on his face that the work cannot be done.
(ii) I will contact the HR department and ask them whether vacancies exist. If there are vacancies, I will ask the
HR department to advertise the vacancies in public media. I will ask the 50 men to fill in the vacancy that was just
published. In other words, I will ensure that the 50 men come through proper channel of recruitment.
(iii) If the HR department tells me there are no vacancies, I will enquire if there are vacancies in the casual/daily
work. If there are some vacancies there, I will induct those who meet the requirement and ask the rest to fulfil the
requirement.
(b) The long-term solution to this problem can be possible if there is a separate recruiting agency operating from a
central place and this agency is not related to the company.
(c) The consequence of the first action can be negative if these men have to wait for a long time. The minister may
not feel good if his men are not employed after waiting for a long time.
The consequence of the second action can be positive for some men and negative for those who are not selected. The
minister will understand that there is a process which is beyond my control.
The consequence of the third action will be again positive or negative depending on who gets the job and who doesn’t.
 (No. of words = 270)

10 (a)
(i) I will hold a meeting with the district administration and make them aware of the problem.
(ii) I will issue a health advisory to the affected villages without taking anyone’s name in particular and recommend
the use of water filtration.
(iii) I will write to the state pollution control board appraising the agency about the problem.
(iv) I will hold a meeting with the sarpanch and the textile company and recommend them alternative strategies other
than ground water so that the ground water is not contaminated.
The above are not just piecemeal solutions but different aspects of the same solution to the problem of contamination
of ground water from the avoidable source. The sarpanch will probably resist the solution, but then it is also quite
possible that meetings with sarpanch is fruitful and the sarpanch is ready to think in the larger interest of people and
as it is sarpanch and his family is also affected by contaminated water.
(b) The responsibility of the textile mill owner is to ensure safe means to dispose off contaminated water to save
the ground water. The responsibility of sarpanch and citizens affected is to initiate steps to avoid pollution. The
 35

district agencies must take notice of the situation and prohibit any action that is not safe to the health of the people.
The pollution control board must take cognizance of the matter and conduct water testing to determine the level of
pollution and subsequently provide guidelines for decontamination. If the sarpanch is not ready to take positive steps,
then law enforcement agency should come into action.  (No of words = 255)

11 (a)
(i) I will arrange for the government funding from the department of tribal welfare and enter into an agreement the
ministry/department.
(ii) I will contact the donor agencies/NGOs working in the tribal welfare sector for the funding.
(iii) I will contact the philanthropic individuals and organizations for funding.
(iv) It is clear that one or more of these three approaches will come through. In case the above approaches are not
successful, I will use the company funds. In case the company funds are not sufficient or not allocable, I will introduce
a short-term additional cess (price) on the company’s other best selling drugs to generate the funds. This might require
approval from various government agencies which I will pursue. (words=119)
(b) (i) will be either successful or not successful for some reason. The pros will be the solution of the problem, the
cons will entail moving on to the next step.
(ii) will be either successful or not successful. The pros will be solution of the problem, the cons will be further
exploration of the solution.
(iii) The pros of this step will be generation of funds from the company’s efforts and funds and hence a solution. The
cons will be criticism in the market for raising the price. However, the media and the PR agencies of the company will
explain the temporary need for this step. This will probably minimize the damage. (word = 141; total words = 260)

12 I will coordinate with the army officials and with the help and with the help of the volunteers make safety
trenches in each household. Suitable arrangements would be made for the shelter of cattle who often remain in open
areas.
I will also have meetings with army officials and engineers to locate the most vulnerable points of shelling. These
identified sectors will be evacuated. It is expected that the evacuation will be temporary only till this problem exists.
Temporary camping centres will be created for the people who have to be evacuated. Provisions of education will
be made in these camping centres. The schools and institutions most likely to be vulnerable to shelling will also be
relocated.
All these activities will require resources. If the district administration has inadequate resources, I will negotiate with
the state and central agencies for resources.
I will focus on evacuation and relocation along with structural changes in the safety requirements. The next step will
involve smooth functioning of the day to day activities including the schools and colleges.
This can be possibly done through temporary arrangements of school/college wherever required. Through these
efforts it is expected that the day to day activities are brought back to normal.
It is also to be understood that this is not the full proof solution that will lead to no further civilian casualties. To an
extent, we will have to live with this kind of situation while efforts can be made to minimize the damage.  (words =
247)

13 (a) I will tell Gopal that the task ahead of him is not easy. He should not feel disappointed. Also, he must not
give up. Since the corruption is entrenched, it is going to be a difficult lone battle.
I would also advice Gopal to get the support of some of the likeminded workers. I would ask him to speak to the CEO of
the company. The chances are he is not fully aware of the situations even as he has some hints about it.
Since the corruption is deeply entrenched in the department, it would be impractical to expect to root it out immediately
without resistance. So I would advice Gopal to take several steps gradually for long-term and short term results. I
36

would also encourage Gopal by telling him that this was the first attempt on his part and he should continue rather
than giving up his fight.  (words = 150)
(b) Here are some of the options available to me that I will recommend for Gopal.
(i) Issue a new guideline for procurement of contracts and get the same officially approved by the CEO. This has
to be transparent, online with a clear instruction for bidding. The pros of the above will be that the corruption will
be rooted out. The cons will be that it would not only be opposed but some corrupt officials might even inform their
favourite contractors the information on the lowest bid.
(ii) Introduce the no gift policy within department with the approval of the CEO. Any staff found violating the
guideline should be immediately suspended. In addition, the contractor found violating this guideline should be black
listed. The pros of this will be a strong form of deterrence against corruption. The cons will be continuation of corrupt
form of gift giving and taking secretly.
The best option is the combination of both the guidelines simultaneously. The chances are a drastic reduction in
corruption, if not its complete elimination. However, with time and strict implementation of the guideline as there are
increasingly more blacklistings and suspensions, the corruption will be rooted out.  (words = 150)

14 (a) I will continue with the option of online education. In addition, the lectures will also have video copies
that can be viewed at the convenience of the students. However, online classes will have the advantage of raising
questions and answers.
I will make the learning flexible with the option of completing or not completing the projects. However, the projects
not completed will have to be completed later when the institute opens.
There will be demonstration videos of how the project work of students is to be completed.
While liberalizing the examination system, I will focus on module completion with online unit tests to ensure the
syllabus is completed within the time frame. The students will have to score a minimum marks in each of these tests
to pass the semester with the option to retake the tests anytime during the course of study.  (words = 143)
(b) It is important to run the institution. Therefore, there will be no discount on fees. However, the students will have
the flexibility to pay the fees later. A time frame will be stipulated.
There will be a limited waiver on fees that will include the library fee, the project fee etc. for the semesters which are
conducted online.
There will be a temporary decrease in the salaries of the staff which will be repayable once the conditions improve.
The students who are not able to pay the fee will be made loans available by the institute with the help of a bank at
subsidised rate of interest. 
 (words = 107)
 Mock Test
(GS Mains Paper 1-4)

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