GRAMMAR REFERENCE

Would and used to

1. We use the expression used to + verb to talk about habits and customs in the
past that are no longer true.
My dad used to play football. (=My dad played football in the past but he
doesn’t any more.)
When I was a kid, I used to listen to pop music. (=That was my habit but I
don’t do this any more.)

2. It is also possible to use would + verb to talk about habits and customs in the
past.
My mum would cook chicken every Sunday. (=This was a custom of my
mum’s.)
At school, I would always ask the teacher questions. (=This was a habit of
mine when I was a schoolchild.)

3. The difference between used to and would is that we can only use would for
repeated actions - cannot use it for a permanent state or situation.
He used to be a police officer. (A permanent state)
When I was little, I used to (would) play in the garden a lot. (A repeated
action)

(don’t) Have to/ ought to/ should(n’t)/ must

1. We use have to to say “this is important or necessary”. We use must to say that
we, or other people, have an obligation to do something.
Our train leaves at 7 o’clock, so I have to get up early.
I must save some money for mum’s birthday present.
You must try to work harder, Jack.

2. We use don’t have to to say this is NOT important or necessary.

You don’t have to come with us if you don’t want to.

3. We use should or ought to to tell someone that something is a good idea.

At the beach you should put some sun cream on.
(X At the beach you should to put some…)
That wasn’t a nice thing to say - you ought to say sorry,
(X You ought say sorry.)

4. We use shouldn’t to tell someone that something is not a good idea.

You shouldn’t spend so much on clothes.

Had (‘d) better (not)

We use had/’d better (not) to advise or warn people in strong terms. It is used to tell
people about negative results in the future if they do/don’t do something often.
The form is always past (had) and it is often shortened to ‘d.

You’d better hurry up (or you’ll miss the train).

He’d better not say that again (or I will be very angry).

Can’t/ must (n’t)

1. When we want to talk or ask about permission, we often use the modal verb
can/can’t.
You can go to the party but you can’t stay late.
Can I borrow your phone to make a call?
(X Do I can borrow your phone…)

2. To say what isn’t allowed, we use can’t or mustn’t.

You can’t park here. (This is a fact/rule)
You mustn’t leave your things on the floor! (The speaker isn’t allowing
something)
(X You musn’t leave your things…)
First, second and third conditional

1. We use the first conditional to talk about real situations and their
consequences. It consists of two clauses. The if + present simple clause
introduces the possible situation or condition. The will/won’t clause gives the
result or consequence.
If you leave that door open, the cat will get out.
If we don’t leave now, we won’t get to school on time.

2. We use the second conditional to talk about hypothetical or very unlikely

situations and their (imaginary) consequences. It consists of two clauses. The
if + past simple clause introduced the imagined result or consequence.
If I had a cat, I’d call it Max.
If we didn’t have a cat, we wouldn’t have to spend money on cat food.

3. We use the third conditional to talk about how things might have been
different in the past. The third conditional is formed with if + past perfect +
 would (not) have + past participle. The third conditional talks about
impossible conditions (because the past cannot be changed).
If I’d been careful, I wouldn’t have dropped the camera.
(X If I would have been careful, I wouldn’t have dropped…)
(I wasn’t careful, so I dropped the camera.)
If you hadn’t woken me up, I would have slept for hours.
(You woke me up so I didn’t sleep for hours.)

Time conjunctions
We can join ideas about future actions or situations using words like: if, unless,
until,when, as soon as.

When we use these words, we use them with the present simple tense (not
will/won’t) even though the clause refers to the future.

She won’t be happy if you forget her birthday.

We’ll be late unless we leave now.
I won’t stop asking you until you tell me.
They’ll be hungry when they get here.
I’ll call you as soon as I finish this work.

Wish and if only

1. We use wish or if only + past simple to say that we would like a present
situation to be different from what it actually is.
I wish I had more friends.
My friends wish they were rich.

2. We use wish/if only + could take about wanting to have the ability or
permission to do something.
I wish I could speak Italian.
If only you could come with me.

3. If there is a situation we don't like (for example, someone is doing or always

does something that annoy us) we can use wish/if only + would(n’t).
I wish you would knock before coming into my room.
If only he wouldn’t talk about football all the time!

Relative pronouns
We use relative pronouns to start a relative clause.
1. To refer to people, we use who or that.
He’s a writer. He wrote that fantastic story.
🠮 He’s the writer who/that wrote that fantastic story.
(X He’s a writer which wrote…)

2. To refer to things, we use who or that.

It’s a great story. It was made into a film.
🠮 It’s a great story that/which was made into a film.
 3. To refer to possessions, we use whose.
I know a boy. His sister is on TV.
🠮 I know a boy whose sister is on TV.

4. To refer to places, we use where.

This is the town. I was born here.
🠮 This is the town where I was born.

Defining and non-defining relative clauses

There are two kinds of relative clauses: defining and non-defining.
1. A defining relative clause identifies an object, a person, a place or a
possession. We need this information to know who or what is being talked
about. When we write these sentences, we don’t use any commas.
The woman was a genius. She wrote this book.
🠮 The woman who wrote this book
(X The woman which wrote this book…)
I saw a film last night. The film was terrible.
🠮The film that I saw last night was a genius.

2. We use non-defining relative clauses to add extra information, which is not

needed to understand the sentences. We put commas around these clauses
when we write them. They are rarely used in conversational language.
My uncle lives in Sydney. He’s a very successful writer.
🠮 My uncle, who lives in Sydney, is a very successful writer.
(X My uncle, that lives in Sydney…)

Relative clauses with which

1. When we want to refer back to a whole idea or clause, we use the relative
pronoun which.
We went into the desert alone. It was a dangerous thing to do.
🠮 He went into the desert alone, which was a dangerous thing to do.

2. We cannot use that or what in this way - only which.

Stephen King has sold millions of books, which has made him very rich.
(X Stephen King has sold millions of books that/what has made him…)

Present and past passive

1. We use the passive (present or past) to say what happens or happened to the
subject of the sentence.
Often the cause of the action is unknown or unimportant!

3. We form the passive with a form of the verb be and the past participle of the
verb.
English and French are spoken in Canada.
(X English and French they're spoken...)
The roof of the house was destroyed in the storm.
 4. We use the preposition by to say who or what does the action, but only if this
is important.
My bike was stolen. (We don't know, or it isn't important, who stole it.)
The magic show was watched by over five hundred people. (It's important to
say who watched the show.)

Have something done

1. We use the structure have something done when we talk about someone else
doing a function or service for us.
My granny's very old so she has her meals cooked for her. (Another
person cooks her meals for her.)
They had their car repaired. (They paid a mechanic to repair their car.)

2. It is formed with have + noun + past participle.

I had my phone repaired last week.

5. In less formal contexts, get often replaces have.

I'm going to get my hair done for the party tonight.

Future and present perfect passive

6. The future passive is formed with will be/won't be + past participle.
The new supermarket will be opened next week by a famous TV actor.

7. The present perfect passive is formed with have/has(not) been + past

participle.
The streets of our town look awful - they haven't been cleaned for two
weeks.

Make/let and be allowed to

1. We use make (someone to) to talk about forcing someone to do something
that perhaps they don’t want to do.
Our school makes us wear a uniform. (=We cannot choose, it’s an
obligation that our school gives us.)
My sister made me clean her bike. (=I could not choose, my sister forced
me.)

2. We use let (someone do) to talk about permission to do things we want to do.
Our parents let us sleep late on Sundays. (=Our parents give us permission
to sleep late.)
I let my brother use my laptop at the weekend. (=I gave my brother
permission to use my laptop.) (X I leave my brother use my laptop…)

3. We use (not) be allowed to (do something) to say that someone has (or has
not) got permission.
Are we allowed to use our mobile phones in here?
When my parents were children, they weren’t allowed to go out at night.
Be/get used to
1. To say that we are (not) accustomed to or (not) comfortable with doing certain
things, we can use the expression be used to and get used to.

2. Be used to refers to a state.

She’s not used to eating dinner so late.

3. Get used to refers to change from something we weren’t used to, to a situation
that we are used to now.
It took her a long time to get used to wearing glasses.

4. These expressions are followed by a noun or noun phrase, or the gerund (-ing)
form of a verb.
The animals are not used to people touching them.
I’m getting used to speaking in public now.

Reported speech
We use reported speech to report someone said in the past. In reported speech, er
often change the verb that was used in direct speech.
“It’s 10 o’clock,” she said. 🠮 She said it was 10 o’clock.
“It’s raining,” my mum said. 🠮 My mum said it was raining.
“I’ve had a really bad day,”he said. 🠮 He said he’d had a really bad day.
“He didn’t remember to phone me,” I said. 🠮 I said he hadn’t remembered to
phone me.
“I can’t do this exercise,” my friend said. 🠮 My friend said she couldn’t do the
exercise.
“I’ll pick you up at eight,” she said. 🠮 she said she would pick me up at eight.
“We’re going to tell the police,'' she said. 🠮 She said they were going to tell the
police. (X She said me they were going to…)

But sometimes the tenses doesn’t change.

“They’d stolen my car,” she said. 🠮 she said they’d stolen her car.
“No one would want it to happen,” he said. 🠮 He said that no one would want it
to happen.

Reported questions, request and imperatives

1. With reported questions, we use statement word order and NOT question
word order. We also do not use a question mark.
She asked me who my friends were.
(X They asked me who were my friends.)
I asked her what she did.
(X I asked her what did she do.)
They asked me why I wanted the job.
(X They asked me why did I want the job.)
 2. When we report yes/no questions, we use if (for whether) and statement word
other.
“Is that book good?”
🠮 She asked me if the book was good.
“Do you eat fish?”
🠮 He asked me whether I eat fish.

3. When we report wh- questions (with who/where/what/how/when etc.), we

use the same question word and statement word order.
“What are you looking at?”
🠮 He asked me what I was looking at.
“Why did you leave the door open?”
🠮 They asked me why I left the door open.
“How much money did they steal?”
🠮 They asked me how much money they’d stolen.

4. With request, we use asked + person + to (do).

“Please help with this, Mum.”
🠮 He asked his mum to help him.
(X He asked to his mum to help him.)
“Can you close the door, please?”
🠮 She asked me to close the door.

5. With imperatives, we use told + person + (not) to (do).

“Go away!”
🠮 He told me to go away.
“Don’t phone the police!”
🠮 They told me not to phone the police.

Modals of deduction (present)

Sometimes we express an opinion about whether something is true or not now, based
on what we know or can see. We use the modals verbs must/can’t/might/could.
1. When we’re sure that something is true, we often use must + verb.
They live in a really big house - they must have a lot of money.

2. When we’re sure that something isn’t true, we often use can’t + verb.
That cheese is two weeks old, so it can’t be good anymore.
(X That cheese is two weeks old, so it mustn’t be good…)

3. When we aren’t sure, we often use might or could + verb, to show our
uncertainty.
They’re speaking Portuguese, so they might be Brazilian.
Perhaps we shouldn’t go in there - it could be dangerous.
Modals of deduction (past)
Sometimes we express an opinion about a past situation or event, based on what we
know or can see now. We use the modal verbs must/can’t/might/could + have + past
participle.
The wind blew this tree down. It must have been really strong.
The door lock isn’t broken, so the thieves can’t have got in that way.
I’m not sure when my bike was stolen but it might have been yesterday
afternoon.
Police think that the criminals could have taken more than a million dollars.

Should(n’t) have
We use should/shouldn’t have (done) to criticise things that we, or other people, did
in the past.
You should have come to the party. (=You didn’t come to the party, and I think
that was a mistake.)
They should have won. (=They didn’t win, and I think that was bad/wrong.)
You shouldn’t have taken it without asking me. (=You did take it without asking
me, and that was wrong.)
I shouldn’t have said that. (=I did say it, and I think that I was wrong to do so.)

Verbs followed by gerund or infinitive

Some verbs in English are followed by to + infinitive, sme are followed by a gerund
(the -ing form of a verb).
1. Some common verbs followed by to + infinitive are: afford, choose, decide,
expect, hope, learn, offer, promise, want.
The show’s too expensive - I can’t afford to go.
The other player’s really good,so I don’t expect to win the match.
You need to learn to control yourself and not get so angry.
I promise to be there on time.

2. Some common verbs followed by a gerund are: avoid, enjoy, feel like, finish,
imagine, (don’t) mind, miss, practise, suggest.
That park’s a bit dangerous, so we avoid going there.
(X That park’s a bit dangerous so we avoid to go there.)
I don’t want to work any more - I feel like doing something to enjoy
myself.
I can’t imagine living in a foreign country.
Do you ever miss seeing your friends when you travel?

To/in order to/so as to

1. When we want to give the reason why someone did something (the purpose),
we can use to + infinitive. we can also use in order to or so as to - these are
more formal.
I phoned her to ask about her about her holiday.
(X I phoned him for ask about…)
 It is important to arrive early in order to save time.
(X It is important to arrive early that we save time.)
Please fill in this form so as to help us to provide the best service for you.

2. When we want to make in order to or so as to negative, we put not before to.

Please speak quietly in order not to disturb other users of the library.
Please switch off your mobile phones so as not to spoil the film for other
people.

So and such (1)

1. We can use so or such to emphasise adjectives, adverbs, nouns and noun
phrases.
That’s so expensive!
You walk so quickly!
He’s such a fool!
It’s such an interesting place to visit.

2. We also use so/such to show now one thing is the result of another. We use so
with adjectives and adverbs, and such(a) with nouns.
It was so expensive that I couldn’t afford to buy it.
You walk so quickly that I can’t keep up with you.
He’s such a fool that I never talk to him.

3. We connect the ideas with the word that, but it can be left out.
The book was so boring (that) I didn’t finish it.

Phrasal verbs
A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb with a preposition or an adverb - this
creates a new verb which often has a meaning that is completely different from the
verb alone. For example, the verb “look” means “use your eyes in order to see
something”, but the phrasal verb ”look after” means “to take care of someone or
something”. Phrasal verbs are very frequent in both spoken and written English.
1. Most phrasal verbs have two parts.
I can’t work out the answer. (find by thinking)
I always look after other people’s things. (take care of)

2. With some phrasal verbs, the two parts can be separated by the object of the
verb.
I worked out the answer. OR I worked the answer out.

However, when the object is a pronoun, it must come between the two parts.
I worked it out. (X I worked out it.)

3. In other phrasal verbs, these parts can never be separated.

I look after my clothes. (X I look my clothes after.)

4. To find out if a phrasal verb can be split or not, look in a dictionary.

 If it can be split, it will be listed, work st out.
If it can’t be split, it will be listed: lookafter sb.

5. Some phrasal verbs have more than one meaning.

My car’s broken down. (stopped working)
When she heard the news, she broke down. (started crying)

I wish/If only + past perfect

We use I wish or If only + past perfect to express regret about past actions or events.
I wish I’d been nice to her. (=I wasn’t nice to her, and I am sorry about it.)
I wish you hadn’t opened it. (=You opened it, and I am sorry about it.)
If only I’d listened to my parents. (=I didn’t listen to them, and I regret it.)
If only we hadn’t missed the bus. (=We missed the bus, and I regret it.)

Verbs patterns to + infinitive or gerund

1. When a verb is followed by another verb, the second verb is either the gerund
form (-ing) or it is an infinitive with to.

2. These verbs are followed by a gerund: imagine, feel like, suggest, practise,
miss, can’t stand, enjoy, detest, and don’t mind.
I enjoy cooking but I can’t stand washing the dishes.
(X I enjoy cooking but I can’t stand to wash the dishes.)

3. These verbs are followed by an infinitive with to: decide, refuse, hope,
promise, ask, except, afford, offer and choose.
I can’t afford to buy a new smart phone.

4. These verbs can be followed by either form with no difference in meaning:

begin, start, continue.
We started walking/to walk towards the town.
It continued raining/to rain until late afternoon.

Verbs + gerund and to + infinitive with different meaning

The verbs remember, try, stop, forget can be followed by either form (gerund or
infinitive) but with a difference in meaning. The difference relates to times which
actions came first (1) and which came second (2). In general, verb + gerund looks
back, and verb + infinitive looks forward.

Remember
I remember going there last year. (= I went last year (1) and some time later, I
remembered (2))
I remembered to go to the supermarket. (=First I remembered (1) and then I
went (2))

Forget
I’ll never forget meeting you. (=First I met you (1) and now I won’t forget (2))
Don’t forget to meet me at the cinema. (=First don’t forget (1) and then meet me
at the cinema (2))

Stop
We stopped eating and left the café. (=First we ate (1) and then we stopped (2))
We stopped to eat our sandwiches. (=First we stopped (1) and then we ate (2))

Try
I tried the medicine but I still felt ill. (=I felt ill. I took the medicine. After the
medicine, I didn’t feel better.)
I tried to take the medicine but I couldn’t swallow it. (=I wanted to take the
medicine, and tried, but I was unsuccessful)

Regret
I really regret telling him what happened. (=First I told him what happened (1) I
am sorry that I told him (2))
I regret to tell you that you failed the exam. (=You failed (1) and I’m sorry to have
to tell you this (2))

Relative clauses
1. A defining relative clause identifies the thighs, person, place or possession
that we are talking about. We do not use a comma in these clauses.
The woman who gives the lectures is very intelligent. (=There is only one
woman who gives the lectures.)
The city where I grew up is a great place. (=I am talking about the only city
where I grew up.)

2. A non-defining relative clause gives additional information about the thing,

person, place or possession we are talking about. This information is between
commas.
The woman, who gives the lectures, is very intelligent. (=I am talking about
an intelligent woman and adding the non-essential information that she
gives lectures.)
The city, where I grew up, is a great place. (=I am talking about a city that’s
a great place, and adding that it is where I grew up.)

Which, to refer to a whole clause

When we want to refer back to a clause or an idea, we use the relative pronoun which
(not that or what)
He had to go out to find a job, which wasn’t easy.
(X He had to go out and find a job, that wasn’t easy.)
This phone is very good, which is why it’s so popular.
(X This phone is very good, what is why it’s so popular.)
Omitting relative pronouns and reduced relative clauses
1. When the relative pronouns that/which/who are the object of the following
clauses, they can be omitted. They can’t be omitted when they are the subject
of the following clause.
He’s the man (that) I told you about.
He’s the boy who sold me this watch.

2. When the relative pronoun is followed by the verb be, the relative clause is
passive and we can leave out both the relative pronoun and the verb be. This is
called a “reduced relative clause”.
Their house, (which was) built only last year, was completely destroyed by
the tornado.
The people (who are) running the company are not doing their job
properly.
The shopping centre, (that was) opened by the Queen, is the biggest in the
country.

Quantifiers
1. Quantifiers are words that we use to say how many or how much of a noun.
Frequent quantifiers are:
none, hardly any, a fer/a little, (not) many/much, some, several, most, a
lot/lots, loads, all

2. The quantifiers a fer/(not) many/ several are only used with countable
nouns. The quantifiers a little/(not) much are only used with uncountable
nouns.
I’ve been to a few/many/several rock concerts.
They took a little food on the trip.
They didn’t take much food on the trip.

3. Some quantifiers always need the word of before the noun or pronoun they
refer to:
None of the books were cheap.
A lot of people think that way.

4. All the quantifiers need the word of when they are followed by a pronoun:
Hardly any films are made here, and hardly any of them are good.
There is some food in the fridge, but some of it is quite old.

5. The word none (of) is grammatically singular but many people use a plural
verb after it.
I’ve got lots of friends, but none of them are musicians.

So and such (2)

1. We use the words so and such to emphasise wi¡hat we are saying:
This food is so delicious!
 She’s such a good writer.

2. We use so + adjective. We use such (+ adjective) + noun (or pronoun).

The weather’s so good.
It’s such a wonderful day.

3. We can follow these phrases with a that clause, to show consequences.

The weather was so good that we went for a walk.
It was such good weather that we went for a walk.

Do and did for emphasis

We can use the auxiliary verb do/does (or did in the past) to emphasise the verb.
I did like the food! I just wasn’t very hungry.
We didn’t have time to go to the museum, but we did go to the park.

Be/get used to (doing) vs. used to (do)

1. When we want to talk about something being normal or familiar, we can use
the expression be used to.
It’s cold where I live, so I’m used to wearing a lot of warm clothes.

2. We use get used to to refer to the process of something becoming normal or familiar.
It took him a while to get used to eating dinner early.
(X It took him a while to get used to eat dinner early.)

3. These expressions are followed by a noun or the gerund (-ing) form of a verb.
I’m not really used to spicy food.
They’ve got used to living in a small apartment.
(X They’ve got used to live in a small apartment.)

4. These expressions are not the same as used to, which refers to past habits or states
which are no longer true and is followed by an infinitive without to.
I used to love their music, but now I never listen to it,
I didn’t use to eat vegetables.
(X I didn’t used to eat vegetables.)

Adverbs and adverbial phrases

Adverbs qualify verbs. They can qualify verbs in different ways, for example:
Adverbs of manners (how) He walked quickly.
Adverbs of time (when) We got there late.
Adverbs of place (where) Sign here, please.
Adverbs of probability You probably think I’m crazy!
Adverbs of opinion It’s surprisingly quiet in here.

We can also use adverbial phrases to describe a verb and to say how an action is/was
performed.
They played well. (X They played good.)
Drive slowly!
One structure for adverbial phrases is with + noun.
When I told her, she reacted with surprise.

Another structure for adverbial phrases is in a(n) + adjective + way.

Our teacher explains things in a fun way.

Adverbial phrases are often used when an adjective (e.g. friendly, difficult,
interesting, fun) has no adverb form.

Obligation, permission and prohibition

1. We can talk about obligation and necessity by using must, have to and (be)
supposed to.
You must get there before eight o’clock. (=This is an obligation imposed by
the speaker.)
We have to finish our project by Friday. (=This is an obligation imposed by
someone else.)
We’re supposed to switch off our phones in lessons. (=This is the rule, but
we don’t always follow it.)

2. We can talk about no obligation or no necessity by using don’t have to and

don’t need to.
You don’t have to eat this if you don’t want to.
We didn’t need to buy tickets - my dad gave us some.

3. We can say something is (or isn’t) a good idea by using should(n’t).

You should leave now if you don’t want to miss your bus.
I shouldn’t eat any more or I’ll feel sick.

4. We can talk about permission using let or be allowed to. Let is active voice,
while be allowed to is passive voice.
The school lets us, use the tennis courts at the weekend. (=The school gives
us permission to use the tennis courts at the weekend.)
We’re allowed to use the tennis courts at the weekend.

5. We can talk about prohibition using (not) be allowed to or don’t/doesn’t let.

When we don’t know, or don’t want to say who it is that prohibits something,
we use “they”.
Cyclists are not allowed to leave their bikes here.
They don’t let cyclists leave their bikes here.

Necessity: (didn’t) need to/ needn’t have

We use didn’t need to and needn't have to talk about the necessity of past actions.
There is a small but important difference between the two structures.
1. Didn’t need to usually suggests that we didn’t do something because it wasn’t
necessary.
I didn’t need to go to the doctor. (=I didn’t go.)
 2. Needn’t have means that we did something but actually it wasn’t necessary.
We needn’t have cooked all this food - only four people turned up at the
party. (=We cooked a lot of food but it wasn’t necessary.)

Ability in the past: could, was/were able to, managed to,

succeeded in doing