CHAPTER ELEVEN

WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT DESIGN

(SECONDARY TREATMENT DESIGN)

11.1 INTRODUCTION TO SECONDARY TREATMENT DESIGNS

The secondary treatment of wastewater deals with biological oxidation of the sewage.
The objective of this treatment is to decompose organic content of the wastewater by
means of microorganisms which feed on dissolved organic matter. The microorganisms
responsible for the decomposition process are aerobic bacteria, which means that the
bacteria operates in the presence of free oxygen. Oxygen is then one of the essential
requirements of the biological oxidation process. An adequate supply of oxygen should
be maintained always to ensure that the microorganisms are performing at their peak.

The favourable conditions that would increase the numbers of the bacteria include the
oxygen supply, the amount of food available, temperature, time available for the process
to take place (detention time) etc. if these conditions are maintained, the required degree
of oxidation can be achieved in a very short period of time, and it may then be necessary
to pass the wastewater through the process once without recirculation.

Essential requirements for an effective oxidation (also referred as aeration) process can
thus be summarized as following:

(a) There must be a sufficient population of suitable microorganisms.

(b) There must be enough food “organic” for the bacterial to feed in order to
increase in numbers.

(c) There must be enough free oxygen for the bacteria to perform at their peak
resulting in a process being quick.

(d) There must be a suitable detention time for the bacteria to perform its duties.

(e) The temperature must be controlled as the bacteria performs best and faster
in warm temperature than cold.

The biological oxidation process can be achieved using one of the following systems:

(a) Activated Sludge process - medium and large sized treatment works.

(b) Biological Filtration (Bio-filters) - medium and large sized treatment works.

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 (c) Rotating Biological Contactors (RBC) usually used in small sized treatment
works.

(d) Oxidation ditches – also used in small sizes treatment works.

11.2 DESIGN OF AN ACTIVATED SLUDGE

The two basic types of activated sludge process are Conventional Activated Sludge
where the process comprises treatment of settled sewage, and Extended Aeration
where the feed is raw or unsettled sewage. Conventional activated sludge is normally
used for larger plants, usually 10 ML/d and larger. This is because primary settlement of
sewage necessitates the provision of primary sedimentation tanks and separate sludge
treatment and disposal, and this only becomes economically justifiable on larger plants.

Extended aeration tends to be used on smaller plants usually less than 10 ML/d. The
extended aeration process consists of an aeration tank and a settling tank (clarifier) for
the liquid treatment and on a sequencing batch reactor (SBR) plant only an aeration tank
is required. All activated sludge plants generate waste activated sludge. There are
several variants on the basic process, among which are plug flow and completely mixed
aeration tanks, oxidation ditches, biological nutrient removal processes, membrane
reactors, and sequencing batch reactor (SBR) systems which operate in a partially batch
mode. There are also variants based on the mode of aeration such as coarse or fine
bubble diffused air plants, high or low speed turbine aerators, horizontal shaft aeration
paddles and discs, or submerged turbine aerators.

The plants can also be distinguished by the loading regime applied where they may
operate as highly loaded low sludge age plants without nitrification all the way to lightly
loaded plants (usually of the extended aeration type) with very long sludge ages (over
60 days) where there is little waste sludge production.

The organic component of sewage measured as COD may be divided into three parts:

(i) the biodegradable (decomposable fraction), which can be utilised by the bacteria in
the activated sludge process.

(ii) the non-biodegradable (non-decomposable) particulate fraction, which will form part
of the sludge mass within the reactor being settled and returned from the clarifier and
discharged with the waste activated sludge.

(iii) the non-biodegradable soluble fraction which will be passed through the process
unchanged.

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Figure 11.1: A schematic diagram of the activated sludge treatment.

11.2.1 Activated Sludge Mass

The mass of activated sludge in the reactor comprises four components:

(i) the mass of live biomass (organisms), which constitutes the reactive fraction of the
sludge.

(ii) the endogenous residue resulting from the decay of live biomass. This residue
represents approximately 20% of the original live biomass.

(iii) the non-biodegradable organic mass fraction.

(iv) the non-volatile or mineral mass.

(i), (ii) and (iii) together provide the total volatile mass in the reactor which is referred to
as the mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS). The addition of (d) provides the
total mass of mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS). Both the MLVSS and the MLSS

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are expressed as kg/m3 or, in terms of concentration, as mg/L. Normally the MLSS is
only slightly greater than the MLVSS and they are often used interchangeably. The
sludge mass in the system will then be equal to the product of the sludge age, the yield
factor and loading in kg COD per day.

11.2.2 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

As indicated above, a minimum dissolved oxygen concentration of 1 mg/L is required for

nitrification. For efficient oxygen transfer, a lower value is desirable but for good settling
sludges, somewhat higher values are preferable. In practice plants are generally
operated with a DO concentration of between 0.5 and 2 mg/L.

11.2.3 Primary Settlement

The provision of primary sedimentation tanks is not essential for the operation of
activated sludge plants. As mentioned previously this decision is normally based on the
size of the works. The lower power requirement and reactor volume of a plant
incorporating primary sedimentation should be compared with the additional cost of
providing sedimentation tanks and digesters. Primary sedimentation is generally not
justifiable for smaller works.

11.3 DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR ACTIVATED SLUDGE

Typical wastewater parameters that are used to characterize influent loadings are flow,
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended solids (TSS), ammonia, total
Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), and phosphorus. If the influent solids’ loading exceeds the
plant’s design capacity, the amount of microorganisms may need to be adjusted.
Remember, the microorganisms are measured by the mixed liquor volatile suspended
solids (MLVSS) concentration. The plant’s design capacity can be determined from the
plant’s design engineer.

Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids (MLVSS) is the organic or volatile

suspended solids in the mixed liquor of an aeration tank. This volatile portion s used
as a measure or indication of the microorganisms present (bacteria). If the influent
solids are primarily organic and result in increased Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD) loading, then you may need to increase the amount of microorganisms
(MLVSS) in the aeration tank. This is commonly accomplished by reducing the sludge
wasting rate.

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Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the rate at which organisms use the oxygen
in water or wastewater while stabilizing decomposable organic matter under aerobic
conditions. In decomposition, organic matter serves as food for the bacteria and
energy results from its oxidation. BOD measurements are used as a measure of
the food available for microorganisms, or organic strength of wastes in water. A
shock load of influent solids that are primarily inert (inorganic substances not
subject to decay) may result in an increase in suspended solids but not an increase
in the volatile solids (mostly microorganisms and organic matter). This may result
in a decreased MLVSS-to-MLSS (VSS-to-TSS) ratio. The typical optimum VSS-to-TSS
ratio in activated sludge plants is between 0.7 and 0.8.

Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS) is the total suspended solids in the mixed
liquor of an aeration tank.

11.3.1 Sludge Age and Solids Loading Rate

This is the primary parameter in determining plant design as it affects all other variables.
Activated sludge plants in South Africa generally operate at long sludge ages
(approximately 15 days or greater), at which nitrification is generally assured and a
relatively stable sludge generated. For minimal sludge production on small plants, sludge
ages of 30 days or even longer may be employed. Loading rates are inversely related to
sludge age, i.e. a high sludge loading rate is associated with a low sludge age and vice
versa.

Permissible loading may thus be assessed in terms of Sludge Loading Rate (kg
COD/day.kg MLSS), according to the values given in Table 11.1 below.

Table11.1: Approximate relationship between sludge age yield factor for new biomass
produced per unit of COD loading and loading rate.

Sludge Age Sludge Loading Sludge Growth Index Recommended

(Days) Rate (kg MLSS / kg COD) Sludge Density
(Kg COD/kg = MLSS
Settled Raw
MLSS.d) concentration
Sewage Sewage
(kg MLSS/m3)
30 0.154 0.22 0.23 5.0

25 0.174 0.23 0.25 4.4

20 0.200 0.25 0.27 3.9

15 0.242 0.28 0.31 3.5

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 10 0.312 0.32 0.36 3.3

5 0.506 0.40 0.45 3.2

11.3.2 Aeration tank Volume (V)

Most models and the empirical procedure presented in this manual assume that the
aeration tank volume is a purely a function of the sludge mass (as determined from the
COD load and the sludge loading rate which is in turn related to the sludge age) and the
selected mixed liquor suspended solids concentration (sludge density). There are
practical constraints which need to be borne in mind.

Firstly, there is a limit on the achievable MLSS concentration. When using a clarifier, this
is often in the range of 5000 to 6000 mg/L (5 to 6 kg/m3). In practice some plants can
operate at higher MLSS concentration values if the sludge settles particularly well but
often there will be settling problems in the clarifier due to high solids flux loadings. It is
therefore not advisable to design on high MLSS values for the aeration tank.

Secondly, although most design models assume homogeneity of the substrate this is not
the case for most wastewaters. Wastewater is a complex mixture of compounds which
have a varying degree of biodegradability ranging from highly and rapidly biodegradable
to compounds which are almost intractable and degrade very slowly. The models work
for domestic sewage in the range of loadings normally applied but care is needed when
extrapolating to industrial wastes in particular. It is not possible to fully treat some
wastewaters in tanks with short aeration times. Many older design criteria therefore
selected aeration tanks based on retention time, typically 12 to 18 hours for conventional
activated sludge, and 18 to 24 hours for extended aeration.

In similar vein, some older criteria set limits on volumetric loading (kg COD or BOD/m 3
of tank volume per day). These were typically 1.1 kg COD/m3.d for conventional and 0.65
kg COD/m3.d for extended aeration. These also have the effect of limiting the loading on
the tank and ensuring adequate retention. There have been problems on some activated
sludge plants with industrial effluents in the feed where the retention time has been
designed as low as 6 hours.

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11.3.3 Oxygen Requirements

The carbonaceous oxygenation requirement is a function of the strength of the sewage,

measured as either COD or BOD and sludge age (or sludge loading rate). Empirical
values which may be used as an alternative to other more mathematical approaches in
use are given in Table 11.2 below:

Table 11.2: Empirical values to determine carbonaceous oxygen requirement.

Sludge Age Sludge Loading Dissolved Oxygen Ratio of Ratio of minimum to

Rate (kg COD
required for maximum to
(days) applied per day/ kg Mean Oxygenation
MLSS) carbonaceous mean
Rate
oxidation (kg O2/kg oxygenation rate
COD removed)

30 0.154 0.84 1.45 0.5

25 0.174 0.82 1.47 0.5

20 0.200 0.79 1.50 0.5

15 0.242 0.73 1.55 0.5

10 0.312 0.65 1.67 0.5

5 0.506 0.53 1.80 0.5

The oxygen demand for nitrification is directly proportional to the mass of

nitrogeneous compounds which are to be nitrified, the relationship being approximately
4.5 g O2 per 1 g TKN (Total Kjeldahl nitrogen) or ammonia as N converted.

11.3.4 Hydraulic Detention Time (Aeration period)

The detention time in the aeration tank (typically in units of hours) is determined by
dividing the volume of the aeration tank by the flow to the aeration tank. (Return sludge
flow is usually not included in the calculation.) Aeration tank detention time is not
generally a critical design or operating parameter. Equation 11.4 shows how to calculate
the hydraulic detention time, also known as aeration period.

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11.4 DESIGN FORMULAS

Design Consideration

• The quality or characteristics of raw wastewater to be treated.

• The desired quality or characteristics of effluent or treated wastewater.
• The type of aeration tank (reactor) that will be used.
• Volumetric and organic loading that will be applied to the reactor.
• Amount of O2 required and the aeration system will provide to supply O2 and to
support mixing.
• The quantity of sludge that will be generated and wasted for its further
management.
• Besides these nutrient requirements of microbes, environmental conditions under
which plant operated.

DESIGN STEPS

The design computations require the determination of:

• Volume or dimensions of the aeration tank

• Amount of O2 required and power needed for aeration.
• Quantity of sludge that will produced for particular waste and treatment conditions.
• Volume and dimensions of secondary settling tank (clarifier).
• No of aeration tanks, N = min. 2 (small plants) and 4 or more (large plants).

11.4.1 Nitrification

The relationship between the sludge age required for nitrification and the temperature is
given by:
Rs = 3.05 x (1.127)20 – T ……………………………………….……………... (11.1)
Where:
Rs = the minimum sludge age required for nitrification
T = temperature (ºC) of the mixed liquor in the reactor.

11.4.2 Return activated sludge (RAS) flow, m3/d (MGD) and return flow ratio.

The purpose of Return Activated Sludge (RAS) is to prevent loss of microorganisms from
the aeration tank and maintain an adequate population for treatment of the wastewater.
As microbes metabolize their substrate, they grow and multiply in number. The following
equations are relevant for RAS calculations:
𝑋 𝑋𝑡
𝑄𝑟 = 𝑋𝑟 −𝑋
𝑄 𝑄𝑟 = 𝑇𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑠 −𝑋𝑡
𝑄 (11.2)

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 𝑄𝑟 𝑋 𝑄𝑟 𝑋𝑡
𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑠 = = 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑠 = = (11.3)
𝑄 𝑋𝑟 −𝑋 𝑄 𝑇𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑠 −𝑋𝑡

𝑉 24ℎ
𝑡= × (11.4)
𝑄 𝑑𝑎𝑦

Where:

Qr = return activated sludge (RAS) flow, m3/d (MGD)

Q = aeration basin influent flow, m3/d (MGD)
X = Concentration of MLVSS (or biomass) in the aeration basin, mg/L
Xr = Concentration of VSS in the RAS, mg/L
Rras = RAS ratio (or recycle ratio), dimensionless
t = aeration period or hydraulic detention time (HRT), h
V = aeration tank volume, m3 (MG)
TSSras =TSS concentration in return sludge, mg/L
Xt = MLSS concentration, mg/L

11.4.3 Mass organic loading to the biomass or food-to-microorganism (F/M) ratio.

The food-to-microorganism ratio or F/M is a measurement of the food entering the

activated sludge process and the microorganisms (bacteria) in the aeration tanks. Each
activated sludge process has a range of F/M values at which it operates best. The F/M
may fluctuate throughout the year according to changes in operational conditions
including industrial discharge, permit requirements, or seasonal wastewater
temperature. The range of F/M may change on a seasonal basis, for example, higher
F/M during the summer and lower F/M during the winter.

The mass organic loading (food) to the biomass (bacteria) or food to microorganism (F/M
ratio) is derived as the mass of BOD5 per day divided by the mass of MLVSS in the
aerator tank.

𝐹 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 (𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑂𝐷) 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = (11.5)
𝑀 𝑀𝑣

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 𝐶𝑖𝑛 × 𝑄

Where 𝐶𝑖𝑛 is the influent BOD5 concentration, (mg/L)

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11.4.4 Relationship between MLSS, MLVSS and aeration tank volume

In calculating the loading on an aeration tank, either of these two general equations can
be adopted:

Load equation (kg) = conc. (mg/L) x volume (m3) (a)

Load equation (kg/day) = conc. (mg/L) x flow rate (m3 /day) (b)

(Flow rate is the volume of water moving down a stream or river per unit of time)
Using equation (a), for any concentration of a substance in a set volume (like a tank),
you can find the kg of that substance. For example, this equation is used to find solids
in a tank (aeration tank, clarifier tank, etc.) for most of the activated sludge equations.
Using equation (b), for a given concentration of a substance and a flow rate (not volume)
associated with that concentration; you can find the kg/day loading of that substance.
Notice that now we have a time associated with the load. This is because influent flows
are constantly coming into the plant, so how many kilograms of a substance comes in
depends on what time frame you are looking at. Intuitively, the kilogram of solids in 4
hours of influent flow would be less than the kilogram of solids in 8 hours of influent flow.
The preferred time unit for activated sludge calculations is ‘day’.

The aeration tank volume is determined by the required sludge mass divided by the
concentration of the MLSS. The reactor volume (V) may be expressed as:
𝑀𝑡 𝑀𝑡
𝑉 = (m3) 𝑀𝑡 = 𝑉 × 𝑋𝑡 ……𝑋𝑡 = ………… ……..…(11.6)
𝑋𝑡 𝑉

Equally the aeration tank volume may be expressed in terms of volatile solids - i.e.

𝑀𝑣
𝑉 = (m3) ……𝑀𝑣 = 𝑉 × 𝑋……………………………..….……………(11.7)
𝑋

To determine the concentration of MLVSS (or biomass) in the aeration basin (X), mg/L:
𝑉𝑆𝑆
𝑋= 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 × 𝑋𝑡 (11.8)
𝑇𝑆𝑆

Where:

Mt = Mass of TSS in the aeration tank (MLSS mass), kg.

Xt = Concentration of MLSS in the aeration tank, mg/L
Mv = Mass of VSS in the aerator tank, kg
X = Concentration of MLVSS (or biomass) in the aeration tank, mg/L

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11.4.5 Example 1:

Calculate the F/M ratio given the following:

Influent flow rate = 37,500 m3/day.

Primary clarifier effluent BOD (same as influent to the aeration tank) (Ce) = 200
mg/L = 200 g/m3
MLVSS (X) = 1,550 mg/L = 1550 g/m3
No of aeration tanks in parallel = 4
Aeration tank dimensions: Depth of water = 6m, Length = 37m, Width = 7m.

Solution:
F: Influent COD (kg/day) = 200 g/m3 x 37,500 m3/day = 7,500 kg/day COD
M: Volume of aeration tanks = 4 x (6m x 37m x 7m) = 6,216 m3
Mv, (VSS loading), kg = (6,216 m3) x (1,550 g/m3 ) = 9,635 kg VSS
F/M = 7,500 kg/day COD / 9,635 kg VSS / day
F/M = 0.77

11.4.6 Example 2:

Calculate the mass of solids under aeration for a plant with the following information:
Plant Flow: 1500 m3 per day
MLSS concentration (Xt): 2,000 mg/L = 2000 g/m3
Mass of solids under aeration = (Xt, mg/L) x (aeration tank volume, m3)
Mass of solids under aeration = 2000 g/m3 X 1500 m3 = 3000 kg

11.4.7 Volumetric organic (BOD5) loading (VOL) in the aeration basin.

The amount of organic material entering the aeration tank (in units of kg of BOD5 per
day) divided by the volume of the aeration tank. The volumetric organic loading rate is
used to evaluate process operations.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑉𝑂𝐿 = (11.9)
𝑉

11.4.8 Waste Activated Sludge (WAS)

The excess sludge removed from an activated sludge process, typically expresses in
terms of m3 per day. Excess sludge is removed or "wasted" from activated sludge
systems to maintain a constant solid retention time or a target MLSS. The WAS required

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to maintain process conditions can be determined by using the SRT equation or
calculating the difference between the actual MLSS and the target MLSS.

The volume of sludge to be wasted each day, Qwr (m3/d) is calculated as follows:

(a) when wasting directly from the aeration tank:

𝑚3 𝑉
𝑄𝑤𝑟 ( d ) = (11.10)
𝑆𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑔𝑒

(b) when wasting from the returned activated sludge stream:

𝑚3 𝑉
𝑄𝑤𝑟 ( )= (11.11)
d 𝑆𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝑋𝑡𝑊𝐴𝑆

To determine the concentration of the VSS (biomass) in the WAS from the clarifier, 𝑋𝑤𝑟
𝑚3 𝑉𝑆𝑆
𝑋𝑤𝑟 ( d ) = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 × 𝑋𝑡𝑊𝐴𝑆 (11.12)
𝑇𝑆𝑆

To determine the mass of VSS wasted or removed in the WAS from the clarifier,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝐴𝑆 = 𝑋𝑤𝑟 × 𝑄𝑤𝑟 (11.13)
To determine the concentration of VSS (biomass) in the effluent from the clarifier, 𝑋𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑚3 𝑉𝑆𝑆
𝑋𝑒𝑓𝑓 = ( )= 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 × 𝑇𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑓𝑓 (11.14)
d 𝑇𝑆𝑆

To determine the mass of the VSS lost in the effluent from the clarifier,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑋𝑒𝑓𝑓 × (𝑄 − 𝑄𝑤𝑟 ) (11.15)

Where:

𝑋𝑤𝑟 = Concentration of the VSS (biomass) in the WAS

𝑄𝑤𝑟 = Volume of waste activated sludge per day, m3 /day
𝑋𝑒𝑓𝑓 = Concentration of VSS (biomass) in the effluent
XtWAS = TSS concentration in the waste activated sludge (Clarifier underflow),mg/L
𝑇𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑓𝑓 = TSS concentration of the effluent lost from the clarifier, mg/L

11.4.9 Solids Retention Time (SRT) or Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT)

Solid Retention Time (SRT) or MCRT is the average time sludge remains in the activated
sludge process before being wasted. It is the average measure of how long the
microorganisms remain in contact with the substrate (food source). SRT is calculated by
dividing the total solids in the system (in kg) by the solids removed from the system over
a one-day period (kg per day of TSS). The solids in the aeration tank (MLSS) and final
clarifier (TSS) are included. (The solids in the activated sludge piping systems are

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typically not included in the calculation since they generally represent a small percentage
of the total solids.)

NOTE: A longer MCRT yields less sludge production than a younger MCRT. This is
because BOD (food) is used for both maintenance energy (staying alive) and growth
(using excess food beyond that needed for maintenance requirements).

The solids removed from the process includes the waste activated sludge and the solids
in the effluent. SRT is a key parameter used to design activated sludge systems. The
units of SRT are days. The equation for SRT is:

𝑀𝐿𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 (𝑘𝑔) + 𝑇𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 (𝑘𝑔)

𝑆𝑅𝑇 = 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑇𝑆𝑆 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝐴𝑆 ( )+ 𝑇𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 ( )
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦

Or

𝑀𝑣 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑆𝑅𝑇 (𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠) =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑆𝑆 (𝑏𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠) 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝑘𝑔 𝑉𝑆𝑆/𝑑𝑎𝑦)

But Total Mass of VSS (biomass) lost = Mass of VSS (biomass) lost in WAS (kg/day) + Mass of
VSS in effluent (kg/day).
Therefore,

𝑀𝑣 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑆𝑅𝑇 (𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠) = 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 (11.16)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑆𝑆 (𝑏𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠) 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝐴𝑆 ( )+ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 ( )
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦

Where Mv = Mass of VSS in the aerator tank, kg

11.4.10 Example 3:

Calculate the MCRT given the following information: • MLSS (Xt) = 2,500 mg/L, Aeration
tank volume = 5000 m3 • Effluent total suspended solids (Xteff) = 12 mg/L, Flow (Q) =
12,500 m3/day • Waste activated sludge total suspended solids (XtWAS) = 5200 mg/L •
WAS flow (QWAS) = 1,500 m3/day • Optimal MCRT = 4 days.

Solution:

Since you are not given information regarding the clarifier, you can use the aeration tank
only to find solids in the aeration system. Substituting into the above equation: MCRT =
2,500 𝑔/𝑚3 × 5000 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
12𝑔⁄𝑚3 × 12500 𝑚3 ⁄day + 5,200𝑔⁄𝑚3 × 1500 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

12,500 𝑘𝑔
MCRT = 150 kg/day + 7,800 kg/day

MCRT = 12,500 / 7,950 = 1.57 days

Walter Sisulu University Wastewater Treatment Technology IV Page 11.13

11.4.11 Sludge Age

Sludge age calculates the average time solids remain in the system. Sludge age is
calculated by dividing the mass of total solids in the mixed liquor (kg of MLSS) by the
mass of the total solids entering the aeration tank (kg per day of TSS). (Sludge age
differs from SRT and MCRT because the solids entering the aeration tank are used
instead of the solids leaving the system and the solids in the clarifier are not considered.)
The equation for Sludge Age is:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝐿𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘, 𝑀𝑡 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑆𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝐴𝑔𝑒 (𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠) = (11.17)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑆𝑆 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 (𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑆𝑆), 𝑘𝑔 𝑇𝑆𝑆 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦

11.4.12 Sludge Volume Index (SVI)

An index that measures the relative settling characteristics of activated sludge. SVI is
the volume in millimeters of one gram of activated sludge after settling for 30 minutes.
Generally, an SVI of 100 or less indicates good settling mixed liquor. SVI (in units of
milliliters per gram) is determined by:
• Measuring the volume of sludge that settles in a graduated cylinder of mixed liquor
in a 30 minute period (SSV30 - in units of milliliters per liter),
• Determining the suspended solids concentration of the mixed liquor (MLSS - in
units of mg/L)
• Dividing the volume measured in (1) by the suspended solids concentration
determined in (2) and converting the result to units of milliliters per gram (mL/g).

The equation for SVI is:

𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 30 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 ( )
𝑙
𝑆𝑉𝐼 ( )= 𝑚𝑔 (11.18)
𝑔 𝑋𝑡 ( 𝐿 )

11.4.13 Biomass Yield

The yield of biomass from the activated sludge process is generally stated as a ratio of
the biological solids produced to the mass of the influent organic substrate measured as
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). The biological solids are usually quoted as the
mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS). Therefore, the biomass yield is
calculated as:
𝑉𝑆𝑆
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝐿𝑉𝑆𝑆 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑, 𝑘𝑔
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 (11.19)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑, 𝑘𝑔
𝑑𝑎𝑦

Walter Sisulu University Wastewater Treatment Technology IV Page 11.14

11.5 Design Examples

11.5.1 Example 4:

An activated sludge plant receives a flow of 28,000m3/d. The MLVSS concentration (X)
in the aeration basin is 2100 mg/L and the volatile suspended solids concentration (Xr)
in the return sludge is 7000 mg/L.
Calculate:
(a) The return flow and;
(b) The return flow ratio.
Solution
𝑋
(a) Calculate the return flow (Qr) from Equation 11.2 𝑄𝑟 = 𝑄
𝑋𝑟 −𝑋

at X = 2100 mg/L, Xr = 7000 mg/L, and Q = 28,000m3/d.

2100
𝑄𝑟 = × 28,000
7000 −2100

Qr = 12,000m3/d

(b) Calculate the required RAS flow ratio, Rras from Equation 11.3.
𝑄𝑟 𝑋
𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑠 = =
𝑄 𝑋𝑟 −𝑋

𝑄𝑟 12,000
𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑠 = = = 0.43 or;
𝑄 28,000

𝑋 2100
𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑠 = = = 0.43
𝑋𝑟 −𝑋 7000 −2100

The required RAS flow is 43% of the flow received by the aeration basin.

11.5.2 Example 5:

An aeration basin receives 25,000m3/d flow, and influent BOD5 concentration is 150
mg/L. The volume of aeration basin is 6250m3 and MLSS concentration is 2800mg/L.
The effluent soluble BOD5 and TSS concentrations are 4 and 10 mg/L, respectively.
The suspended solids concentration in the underflow (TSSuf) is 10,000 mg/L, and volume
of waste activated sludge (WAS) QWAS = 150m3/d. The VSS portion is 78% of TSS in the
biosolids.
Calculate the following: (a) aeration period, (b) return flow and ratio, (c) mass organic
loading, (d) volumetric organic loading, (e) mean cell residence time, and (f) observed
biomass yield.
Solution
Given:
V = 6250m3 | Q = 25,000m3/d | Cin = 150mg/L | Xt = 2800 mg/L | Ce = 4 mg/L |

Walter Sisulu University Wastewater Treatment Technology IV Page 11.15

TSSeff = 10 mg/L |

(a) Calculate the aeration period.

The aeration period is expressed in Equation 11.4
𝑉 24ℎ
𝑡= ×
𝑄 𝑑𝑎𝑦
6250m3 24ℎ
𝑡= × = 6 hours.
25,000𝑚3 𝑑𝑎𝑦

(b) Return flow and ratio

𝑋𝑡
Calculate the return flow (Qr) from Equation 11.2 𝑄𝑟 = 𝑄
𝑇𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑠 −𝑋𝑡

Given: Xt = 2800 mg/L, TSSras = TSSuf = 10,000mg/L, and Q = 25,000m3/d.

2800
𝑄𝑟 = × 25,000
10,000 −2800

Qr = 9,722 m3/d

Calculate the required RAS flow ratio, Rras from Equation 11.3.
𝑄𝑟 𝑋𝑡
𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑠 = = =
𝑄 𝑇𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑠 −𝑋𝑡

2800
𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑠 = = 0.39 or;
10,000 −2800

𝑄𝑟 9,722
𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑠 = = 25,000 = 0.39
𝑄

The required RAS flow is 39% of the flow received by the aeration basin.

(c) Calculate the mass organic loading

The mass organic loading or food to microorganism ratio is calculated from equation
11.5;
𝐹 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑀 𝑀𝑣

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 𝐶𝑖𝑛 × 𝑄 Where 𝐶𝑖𝑛 is the influent BOD5 concentration,
(mg/L).
𝐶𝑖𝑛 = 150 mg/L = 150 g/m3 (mg/L = g/m3 = kg/ML)
𝑔
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 150 × 25,000𝑚3 = 3,750 kg 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚3
𝑉𝑆𝑆
But Mv = XV (equation 11.7), and 𝑋 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 × 𝑋𝑡 (equation 11.8).
𝑇𝑆𝑆
𝑚𝑔
Therefore, 𝑋 = 0.78 × 2800 = 2184 𝐿

Mv = 2184 g/m3 X 6250 m3 (mg/L = g/m3 = kg/ML)

Mv = 13,650 kg VSS per day
Finally, the organic loading is:

Walter Sisulu University Wastewater Treatment Technology IV Page 11.16

𝐹 3,750 kg 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = 0.27 kg BOD5 / kg VSS.day
𝑀 13,650 𝑘𝑔 𝑉𝑆𝑆

(d) volumetric organic loading

The volumetric organic loading (VOL) is calculated by equation 11.9:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑉𝑂𝐿 =
𝑉
From question C above, mass of BOD5 per day is 3,750 kg BOD5 per day.
3,750 kg 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
Therefore, VOL = = 0.6 kg BOD5 / m3.day
6250 𝑚3

(e) mean cell residence time (SRT)

The mean cell residence time is the same as solid retention time and calculated using
equation 11.16 as follows:
𝑀𝑣 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑆𝑅𝑇 (𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠) =
𝑉𝑆𝑆
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑆𝑆 (𝑏𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠) 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝑘𝑔 )
𝑑𝑎𝑦

But Total Mass of VSS (biomass) lost= Mass of VSS (biomass) lost in WAS (kg/day)+
Mass of VSS in effluent (kg/day)
𝑀𝑣 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑆𝑅𝑇 (𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠) =
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑆𝑆 (𝑏𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠) 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝐴𝑆 ( ) + 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 ( )
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦

But to calculate the mass of VSS (Biomass) lost in WAS, first calculate the
concentration of the VSS in the WAS by using equations 11.12 and 11.13.

To determine the concentration of the VSS (biomass) in the WAS from the clarifier, 𝑋𝑤𝑟
𝑚3 𝑉𝑆𝑆
𝑋𝑤𝑟 ( d ) = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 × 𝑇𝑆𝑆𝑊𝐴𝑆 (11.12)
𝑇𝑆𝑆

𝑋𝑤𝑟 = 0.78 X 10,000mg/L = 7800 mg/L = 7800 g/m3

To determine the mass of VSS wasted or removed in the WAS from the clarifier,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝐴𝑆 = 𝑋𝑤𝑟 × 𝑄𝑤𝑟 (11.13)
Mass of the VSS in the WAS = 7800 g/m3 X 150m3 /day = 1170kg VSS / day

Also, to calculate the mass of VSS in the effluent, calculate the VSS concentration in
the effluent from the clarifier using equations 11.14 and 11.15.
To determine the concentration of VSS (biomass) in the effluent from the clarifier, 𝑋𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑚3 𝑉𝑆𝑆
𝑋𝑒𝑓𝑓 = ( )= 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 × 𝑇𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑓𝑓 (11.14)
d 𝑇𝑆𝑆

= 0.78 X 10 mg/L = 7.8 mg/L = 7.8 g/m3

To determine the mass of the VSS lost in the effluent from the clarifier,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑋𝑒𝑓𝑓 × (𝑄 − 𝑄𝑤𝑟 ) (11.15)

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𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 7.8 g/m3 X (25,000 – 150) m3 / day
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 194 kg VSS / day

Total Mass of VSS (biomass) lost (kg VSS/day) = Mass of VSS in the WAS + Mass of
VSS in the effluent.
= (1170 + 194) = 1364 kg VSS /day

13,650 𝑘𝑔 𝑉𝑆𝑆
Therefore, 𝑆𝑅𝑇 = = 10 days
1364 𝑘𝑔 𝑉𝑆𝑆/𝑑𝑎𝑦

(f) observed biomass yield.

Using equation 11.19,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑆𝑆 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑, 𝑘𝑔 𝑉𝑆𝑆/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = (11.19)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑, 𝑘𝑔 〖𝐵𝑂𝐷〗_5/𝑑𝑎𝑦

In a biological system, the mass of VSS (biomass) produced is equal to the total mass
of VSS (biomass) lost from the system.
Therefore, VSS produced = total VSS lost = 1364 kg VSS /day (from question e
above).
However, to calculate the mass of BOD5 consumed, multiply the change in
concentration of BOD5 with the influent flowrate.
mass of BOD5 consumed = 𝑄 × (𝐶𝑖𝑛 − 𝐶𝑒 )
= 25,000 m3 /day X (150 – 4) g/m3 = 3650 kg BOD5 /day
1364 𝑘𝑔 𝑉𝑆𝑆/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = = 0.37 kg VSS/day
3650 𝑘𝑔 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

11.5.3 Package Activated Sludge Plant

Commercially available prefabricated treatment plants, known as package plants, are

often used for the treatment of wastewater for individual properties and small
communities, especially for resort units, hotels, motels, etc. Although package plants are
available in capacities up to 3,800 m3/day, they are used most commonly for wastewater
flows in the range from 20 to 2,000 m3/day. Properly sized, operated, and maintained,
these plants can usually provide satisfactory treatment for small wastewater flows.

Below are the design criteria for the package activated sludge plant.

Walter Sisulu University Wastewater Treatment Technology IV Page 11.18

Table 11.3: Design Criteria for Package Treatment Plants

Item Design Parameters Unit Range

1 BOD5 kg/capita/day 0.06 -0.11
2 Suspended solids kg/capita/day 0.06 – 0.12
3 TKN – N mg/L 15 - 50
4 NH3 mg/L 5 - 25
5 Retention Time hours 18 - 36
6 BOD5 loading kg/kg.day 0.05 – 0.15
7 MLSS mg/L 2,500 – 6,500
8 Oxygen required kg/kg BOD5 2–6
9 Excess sludge kg/kg BOD5 0.3 – 0.8
10 Vsettling tank m3/m2.day 24 - 32
11 Chlorine dosage mg/L 15 – 40
Depth of wastewater in m 3 – 4.5
tank
Freeboard m 0.3 - 6 (diffuse
aeration),
1 - 1.5m (surface
aeration)
Rectangular aeration none
tank:
L:W ratio 3:1 to 5:1
W:D ratio 3:1 to 4:1
Air requirement: m3 (a) 20 - 55 m3 of
air/kg of BOD
removed for
diffuse aeration
when F/M => 0.3

(b) 70 - 115 m3
air/Kg of BOD
removed for
diffuse aeration
when F/M <= 0.3

Power required for kW 10 – 14 kW/1000

complete mixing: m3 of tank volume
for surface
aeration system.

Walter Sisulu University Wastewater Treatment Technology IV Page 11.19

11.5.4 Package Plant Design Example 6:

A prefabricated package plant is to be used to treat the wastewater from a resort area
consisting of 550 individual family residences. The average occupancy has been
estimated to be 3 persons per residence. Use a flow of 230 L/person.day and a daily
peaking factor of 2.5 for flow, BOD5 and SS. Use an hourly peaking factor of 4 for sizing
the sedimentation facilities. Select the type of package plant and size the principal
components of the plant. Effluent BOD5 concentration of the process must be or lower
than 30 mg/L.

Solution:

An extended aeration activated sludge process package plant is selected for small
wastewater treatment plants.

Step 1: Calculate the design flows:

1. The total number of persons: (550 home) X (3 person/home) = 1,650 persons

2. The corresponding average flowrate: (1,650 person) X (230 L/person.day)

= 379,500 L/day = 379.5 m3/day

3. The corresponding peak daily flowrate: (379.5 m3/day) X (2.5) = 948.75 m3/day

Step 2: Calculate the organic loads:

4. The average BOD5 load: From Table 11.3, item 1, assume 0.08 kg
BOD5/capita/day.

= (1,650 persons) X (0.08 kg BOD5/person.day) = 132 kg BOD5/day

5. The peak daily BOD5 load: (132 kg BOD5/day) X (2.5) = 330 kg BOD5/day

6. The corresponding average influent BOD5 concentration: average BOD5 Load/

average Q

= (132 kg/day) / (379.5 m3/day) = (132,000 g/day) / (379.5 m3/day) = 347 g/m3 (mg/L)

7. The corresponding peak influent BOD5 concentration = 347 g/m3 (mg/L) X (2.5)

= 867.5 g/m3 (mg/L)

8. The average daily TSS load: From Table 11.3, item 2, assume 0.09 kg
SS/capita/day.

Walter Sisulu University Wastewater Treatment Technology IV Page 11.20

 = (1,650 persons) X (0.09 kg SS/person.day) = 148.5 kg SS/day

9. The peak daily TSS load: (148.5 kg SS/day) X (2.5) = 371.25 kg SS/day

10. The peak TSS concentration: peak daily SS Load/ peak Q

= 371.25 kg SS/day / 948.75 m3/day = (371,250 g/day) / (948.75 m3/day) = 391 g/m3 (mg/L)

Step 3: Calculate the volume and dimensions of the aeration tanks:

11. The aeration tank volume: From equation 11.6,

𝑀𝑡 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑆𝑆 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑉 = (m3) =
𝑋𝑡 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑆𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

= (371,250 g/day) / (391 g/m3) = 950 m3

For small plants, minimum of two aeration tanks are recommended.

Volume per aeration tank (reactor) = 950 m3/2 = 475 m3

Select tank depth of 3.0 m.

Area of each tank = (Volume/depth) = 475 m3 /3 = 158.3 m2 per tank

Use width to length ratio of 3:1

3W X W = 3W2 = 158.3 m2

W = 7.26 (say) 7.5 m

L = 3W = 3 x 7.5 m = 22.5 m

Provide additional 1m for freeboard, total depth now becomes 4m.

Therefore, the aeration tanks dimensions = 22.5 x 7.5 x 4.0 m (two tanks each
with three aeration compartments).

Walter Sisulu University Wastewater Treatment Technology IV Page 11.21