ENG434: INTRODUCTION TO DISCOURSE

ANALYSIS

GROUP ASSIGNMENT
COURSE CODE: ENG 434

COURSE TITLE: DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

GROUP: GROUP 1

GROUP MEMBERS:

Omotosho, Omolola Victoria 170109001

Ajukwu, Oghenetega David 170109004

Omeri, Chinwendu Precious 180102002

Sunday, Victory Amarachi 180102003

Adebayo, Promise Fiyinfoluwa 180102004

Adeleke, Mozeedat Adenike 180102005

QUESTION:

“WHAT DISCOURSE IS AND IS NOT”

The terms Discourse and Discourse analysis are different in terms of meaning. Discourse has
generally been defined as anything beyond sentence. For some critical theorists, Discourse is not
just a count noun but further refers to a broad collection of linguistic and non-linguistic social
practices and ideological assumptions. In this essay, we shall discuss the term ‘Discourse’,
express its meaning and complexities.

Originally, the word 'discourse' comes from Latin 'discursus’ which denotes 'conversation’.
Speech Discourse is generally seen as "language in use." Johnstone (2002: 2) defines discourse
as "actual instances of communication in the medium of language”. Discourse can also be seen
as a continuous stretch of spoken or written language larger than a sentence, often constituting a
coherent unit (Pustejovsky 2006). It is also commonly referred to as connected speech or writing.
The term discourse has several definitions. In the study of language, discourse often refers to the
speech patterns and usage of language, dialects, and acceptable statements. Within a cultural
community, it is a subject of study in people who live in secluded areas and share similar speech
conventions.

Johnstone defines discourse as an institutionalized way of speaking that determines

not only what we say and how we say it, but also what we do not say which can be inferred from
what we say. Initially the term referred to speech alone, but later, its meaning extended beyond
speech to include every instance of language use.

To its core understanding, discourse goes beyond the exchange of words in an interactive setting.
It captures the relationship between language and its context. It is an inclusive investigation of
language in use that goes beyond words uttered in isolation. The study of discourse can include
context or background information or knowledge communicated between a speaker and a
listener. A discourse is a kind of identity, it’s a costume or set of instructions that makes us
recognizable to people and that gives what we do meaning in specific social context. For
example, at a sport center, we hear words like, pass the ball, shoot, you stink! These things have
meaning within the specific context of a game, they make sense to us. But what happens when
you visit a zoo and you shout, hey, beer over here! Or in a class room- pump my tires, I need to
move! These examples show the general idea of the relationship between discourse and literacy.

Discourse is gained primarily in the background of a speaker. It is achieved through interactions

between family members, friends, community members and so on. It is in the space of the home
or the immediate community that a speaker begins to require primary discourse. When a
speaker leaves his or her immediate area, into the social circle like the school, thy begin to
acquire and learn secondary discourses. One of these discourses learn at school is
Academic discourse, it entails reading and writing.

Contrary to common opinion, discourse is not a one-off event, it is ongoing. It is the collection of
related statements. A discourse is only purposeful if there is an element of coherence in it.
Discourse is said to serve purpose, either informative, persuasive or expressive. This expresses
that discourse is not an aimless communication. “Discourse has a purpose and direction in
communicating ideas and perspective” (Johnstone 85). Interactions that do not express meaning
or any contextual framing to interpret them is not discourse. Therefore, Discourse is completely
contextual in nature. It gains meaning from interpersonal context, cultural, social, and historical
background that can shape its meaning

A text is not a collection of unrelated sentences. The existence of connectives between sentences
is an essential feature of discourse: connections give a text its texture and distinguish it from
random string of unconnected sentences. Discourse has been defined Within critical and
sociolinguistic tradition of studying discourse as language-in-use, or language use as social
practice, this posits that discourse is never just language alone, but fully power-laden modes of
communication that move back and forth between reflecting and constructing the social world
(Blommaert, 2005). Discourse is not just a sequence of linguistic units; its coherence cannot be
understood if attention is limited just to linguistic form and meaning.

According to the view in the preceding paragraph, Discourse is never neutral. It shapes our
understanding of reality, and reflects who we are, and is always caught up in social, political,
economic, racial, sexual, gendered, religious, and cultural formations.

"No discourse exists in a vacuum free from assumptions, biases, and multiple layers of
perspective provided by the communicator(s)" (Smith 292). All discourse contains subjective
viewpoints and beliefs, whether subtle or explicit. Claiming complete objectivity in discourse is
going to be very hard, if not impossible.

Discourse is not just about what is said; it is also about how it is said, the context in which it
occurs, who said what, and to whom it is addressed, and the power dynamics at play.
Understanding discourse is crucial for several reasons. It allows us to appreciate the complexities
of communication. These layers add depth to our interactions and influence how messages are
interpreted.

In conclusion, discourse is not just about individual utterances, but rather the larger context in
which they occur. Discourse is not neutral or objective, but rather influenced by social, cultural,
and historical factors. It can be written or verbal. For linguists, discourse is an extended stretch
of language such as we find in conversations, narratives, polemic statements, political speeches
and so on. By examining what discourse is and is not, we have gained insight into the intricate
nature of language and communication, and the ways in which they intersect with various
aspects of our lives.

REFERENCES:

Johnstone, Barbara. “Perspectives on Discourse.” Quarterly Journal of Speech 55.1 ,1985, pp.
82-90.

Smith, Robert. “The Elusive Objectivity of Discourse.” Modern Discourse 12.4, 1992, pp.285-
300.
 POLITICAL DISCOURSE: AN OVERVIEW

GROUP TWO

NAME MATRIC NUMBER

AJAYI, Halimat Bolanle 180102007

ADESIYAN, Vivian Funmike 180102008

AIYEOLA, Daniel Temitope 180102009

DINEHIN, Samson Akinbobola 180102010

SOSAN, Rokeebat Adesola 180102011

ANIFOWOSE, Oluwatomisin Bukola 180102012

BADRU, Sodiq Olabanji 180102013

 ORIGIN OF POLITICAL DISCOURSE

Political discourse is the exchange of ideas, opinions, and arguments related to political issues
and governance among individuals, groups and institutions in a society. It has been an essential
component of human societies since time immemorial arising from the need to confer power, set
up regions, and address collective challenges. It has its roots in ancient civilizations, when
debates over governance, leadership, and societal norms were vital for survival and unity. In
ancient Rome and Greece, political debates occurred in forums and senate meetings. Over time,
political discourse evolved alongside advancements in communication, from handwritten
pamphlets in the Renaissance to newspapers, speeches, and now digital platforms. Political
discourse, rooted in human history, has evolved through the exchange of ideas and perspectives,
shaping political evolution and societal change from ancient civilizations to the digital age.

FORMS OF POLITICAL DISCOURSE

Forms of political discourse encompass various modes of communication methods used to

engage in discussions, debates, and exchanges regarding political issues and governance. These
forms include traditional mediums such as speeches, debates, and written publications like
newspapers and pamphlets, as well as modern platforms like social media, online forums, and
televised interviews. Each form offers unique opportunities and challenges for participants to
express their opinions, disseminate information, and influence public opinion and policy
decisions. Effective engagement with various forms of political discourse is essential for
fostering informed citizenship, promoting democratic participation, and shaping the direction of
society.

THEORIES OF POLITICAL DISCOURSE

Political discourse is shaped and influenced by various theories that seek to explain and
understand the dynamics of power, governance, and communication within societies. Some
prominent theories that back political discourse include:

Habermas' Theory of Communicative Action: Developed by Jurgen Habermas, this theory

emphasizes the importance of rational dialogue and consensus-building in democratic societies.
It highlights the role of communicative rationality in resolving conflicts and reaching mutually
beneficial outcomes through open and inclusive discourse.
Foucauldian Discourse Analysis: Inspired by Michel Foucault's work, this theory focuses on
the relationship between language, power, and knowledge in shaping political discourse. It
explores how discursive practices are used to construct and maintain power relations, social
norms, and systems of domination.

Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA): Rooted in critical theory, CDA examines how language
reflects and reproduces social inequalities, ideologies, and power structures. It aims to uncover
hidden meanings, contradictions, and power imbalances embedded within political discourse,
with a focus on promoting social justice and emancipatory change.

Rhetorical Theory: This theory examines how speakers use persuasive strategies, rhetorical
devices, and appeals to ethos, pathos, and logos to influence audiences and achieve their political
goals.

By exploring these theories, scholars and practitioners gain insights into the complexities of
political communication and its role in shaping political processes, identities, and power relations
within societies.

RELEVANCE OF POLITICAL DISCOURSE IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND

THE SOCIETY

Political discourse plays a crucial role in shaping societies and influencing decision-making
processes, making its relevance in the English language and society paramount.

Political discourse in the English language serves as a powerful tool for expressing ideas,
debating policies, and mobilizing public opinion within society. As the lingua franca of global
politics, English facilitates communication and exchange of ideas across borders, enabling
diverse voices to participate in political dialogue and decision-making processes. In modern
society, political discourse influences public perception, shapes policy agendas, and impacts
governance at local, national, and international levels. Through speeches, debates, media
coverage, and online platforms, political actors engage in discourse to articulate their visions,
advocate for their interests, and challenge prevailing narratives.
The relevance of political discourse in the English language and the society cannot be overstated.
It serves as a catalyst for social change, collaboration, and collective action to address pressing
challenges.

CONCLUSION

From ancient civilisations to modern democracies, political discourse stands as a cornerstone of

democratic societies, serving as an essential channel for communication, debate, and decision

making. By recognising its role in shaping public opinion, policy agendas, and governance

structures, we gain insight into the political dynamics and the mechanisms through which power

is exercised.

REFERENCES

Skinner, Q. (1978). The Foundations of Modern Political Thought: Volume 1, The Renaissance.
Cambridge University Press.

Fairclough, I., & Fairclough N. (2012). Political Discourse Analysis: A Method for Advanced
Student. London: Routledge.

Hoffman, M. J., & Graham, M. (2018). Introduction to Political Communication (2nd ed.)
Routledge.

Fairclough, N. (2013). Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language. New York:
Routledge.

Van Dijk, T. A. (2008). Discourse and Power. Palgrave Macmillan.

 DISCOURSE AS POLITICAL ACTION

NAMES MATRIC NUMBER

UDE, Chiedozie Orji (GROUP 180102020

LEAD)

OYETIBO, Oluwakemi Mary 180102014

OJO, Paul Oluwatimilehin 180102016

OKODUWA, Gladness Ebinehita 180102017

ADEBAYO, Mary 180102018

Oluwafunmilayo

FADIPE, Jomiloju Ebunoluwa 180102019

DOSUMU, Christianah 180102021

Oluwagbemisola
ABSTRACT
Discourse Analysis concerns itself with the analysis of language in use. What is implied
here is that raw data is analysed with a view to finding out the quirks, attitudes and mannerisms
of the speaker. In this paper, we concern ourselves with political discourse. To this effect, this
paper analyses some aspects of the speech given by Mr Peter Obi, the presidential candidate of
the Labour Party in the 2023 Nigerian General Election, after the announcement of the result.
This study was carried out using Michael Halliday’s Systemic Functional Theory.
Keywords: discourse, Discourse Analysis, political discourse.

INTRODUCTION
To define succinctly, discourse refers to a piece of language that is dynamic and
functional, that is, a one that goes beyond the sentence and clause. Brown and Yule go further to
describe discourse as “language in use or language use as social practice” (1983). We can
therefore affirm that discourse is never neutral; it mediates and constructs our understanding of
reality and is always steeped in social, political, racial, cultural, gendered and religious
formations.
Discourse Analysis thus refers to how we analyse language use. In order not to waste
much time defining what Discourse Analysis is or is not, we will adopt Opeibi’s assertion that
“Discourse Analysis is an investigative study and an interpretation of the structure, meaning and
communicative function if naturally-occurring utterances produced in a particular socio-political
context for the accomplishment of personal and/or social goals” (2004). One major thing that can
be taken out of Opeibi's definition is that this discipline deals with raw data — naturally-
occurring utterances.

POLITICAL DISCOURSE
Moving on, we will now look at political discourse. To begin, it is important to note that
political discourse is a field that examines language and communication as employed in political
contexts. It involves how language is used to convey power and ideology. Baranov captures the
essence of Political Discourse succinctly as, “the totality of all speech acts used in political
discussions, as well as rules of public policy, sanctified by tradition and proven by experience.”
Teun Van Dijk goes further to define it as “a discourse taken from a critical perspective, one that
focuses on the reproduction and contestation of political power.” Therefore, it can be said that
Political Discourse reviews how language is used to promote, protect or legitimise power. For
instance, in 1970, General Yakubu Gowon made the statement, “No victor, no vanquished,” to
make sure that the secessionists were reintegrated into Nigeria after about thirty months of civil
strife. This statement was used to show his ideological stance, that is, to keep Nigeria united. By
extension, the statement was deployed to persuade the secessionists to embrace unity.
In addition, political language differs from everyday language. Most times, it involves
rhetoric and persuasive language. For instance, to get the Germans to key into his ideology of
Aryan supremacy, Adolf Hitler was known to give fiery speeches where he vilified the Jews and
made them an “other” — an inferior race. Looking at how these political leaders have been able
to shape destinies and amass huge followings, it becomes important for us to critically scrutinise
political discourse and how it helps to legitimise power.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Michael Halliday's Systemic Functional Theory (SFT) is deployed in this research as it
has proven to be the most elaborate system for Discourse Analysis. In this theory, the focus is on
what people do with language instead of just the structure. Here, we can identify three major
functions, namely: ideational, interpersonal and textual metafunctions. Focusing on the
interpersonal metafunction, we will use the Appraisal Theory to evaluate the political speech of
Mr Peter Obi, a Nigerian politician. Language resources like graduation, attitude and
engagement will be used.

METHODOLOGY
This paper contains a qualitative analysis of the speech of Mr Peter Obi following the
declaration of the 2023 Nigerian General Election results. An evaluation was done to itemise
how the speaker instigated his supporters to action through the special use of language.

DATA PRESENTATION
The data for this research was extracted from the Daily Post newspaper. The publication
was on the 2nd of March, 2023. It was entitled “Full text of Peter Obi’s speech rejecting
presidential election result”. The full transcript of this speech can be seen here.
DATA ANALYSIS
The speech contains eleven paragraphs that are numbered accordingly; however, our
focus will be on the third, fourth and fifth paragraphs. These chosen paragraphs have eight, six
and six clauses respectively. In these paragraphs, the speaker, using careful word choices,
condemns the attacks on his supporters and the deviation from the rule guiding the conduct of the
election.

GRADUATION
This is used to make the message more or less intense, or sharper or blurred through force
and focus. One element of force is repetition. In the paragraphs, the following words were
repeated more than once: “We” (four times) and “attack(ed)” (four times). Through the repetition
of “we", the speaker intensifies his belief that he is not alone in his struggles. The repetition of
“attack(ed)” points to what he believes was the deliberate hostility of the powers that be towards
his supporters. By making reference to these attacks, he convinces his followers that he is
empathetic towards their plight.

ATTITUDE
The speaker adopts a condemnatory attitude towards the entire electoral process and the
violence that marred it by using words that express judgement. The repetition of words like
“attack(ed)” alludes to the electoral violence, and the speaker condemns this by using words with
negative force words such as “violently", “barbaric" and “unwarranted” to modify or describe
these attacks, and by so doing the speaker is able to apply negative force, which in turn shows his
aversion to the state of affairs.

ENGAGEMENT
Under this, we see the speaker's stance. He stands by his claim that due process was not
observed during the election and this is evinced through his proclamation that the electoral
process is “a clear deviation from the electoral rules and guidelines.”

GENERAL COMMENT
Taking cognisance of the interplay between the three resources, we can reach a
conclusion that the speaker feels cheated about the entire electoral process. He thus uses this
avenue to assure his supporters that they should continue to have faith in his ability to turn things
around. Through this speech, we have been able to demonstrate how a politician uses language to
reassure his followers and delegitimise the entire electoral process.
 ENG434: INTRODUCTION TO DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Group 4

Omotayo, Ireoluwatomiwa Moyo 180102022

Olorunyomi, Blessing Aanuoluwapo 180102023
Adebisi, Joel Abiodun 180102024
Oguntimehin, Adediwura Yetunde 180102025
Okerinde, Kemi Suliat 180102026
Opeyemi, Kehinde Mercy 180102027
Toriola, Temitope Alice 180102028
 POLITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

The very notion of Political Discourse Analysis (henceforth PDA), is ambiguous. Its most
common interpretation is that PDA focuses on the analysis of 'political discourse', although we
then need to determine which discourse is political and which is not. PDA is both about political
discourse and is also a critical enterprise. This would mean that critical-political discourse
analysis deals especially with the reproduction of political power, power abuse, or domination
through political discourse, including the various forms of resistance or counter-power against
such forms of discursive dominance. In particular, such an analysis deals with the discursive
conditions and consequences of social and political inequality that results from such domination
(Fairclough 1995; van Dijk 1993b). Having localized political discourse analysis in the broader
critical approach to discourse, the main aim of this paper is to analyze what we mean by political
discourse and how it influences public opinion and policy-making critically.

Some scholarly contributions of political discourse analysts to the field of PDA are Paul
Chilton's work on PDA which is an original treatment of political discourse analysis that is
strongly anchored in cognitive science and cognitive linguistics, and, thus offers interesting
insights into the relationship between language and politics from a cognitive and evolutionary
perspective. Chilton's approach to PDA focuses on the processes of our minds to enhance our
understanding of human nature, including our political nature. He concludes that if people are
indeed political animals, then they are, in principle, capable of doing their political critique.
(Chilton, 2004) Ruth Wodak is also another political discourse analyst with a highly influential
contribution to political discourse analysis. Wodak's taxonomic approach to PDA identifies
various dimensions of politics which include the everyday life of politics and politicians, the
impact of politicians' personality on performance, the contextualization of politics in the media.

Discourse analysis is highly relevant to politics as it allows for an in-depth examination

of the language used in political communication, including speeches, debates, policy documents,
and media coverage. By analyzing the way language is used and the underlying meanings and
implications, discourse analysis can provide valuable insights into power dynamics, ideologies,
and social constructions within political discourse. One of the key contributions of discourse
analysis to politics is its ability to uncover how language is used to shape and manipulate public
opinion, construct political identities, and legitimize power structures. Politicians and political
actors often use specific rhetorical strategies and framing techniques to convey their messages
and influence public perception. By analyzing these discursive practices, discourse analysis can
reveal the underlying power dynamics and interests at play in political communication.

Additionally, by examining the language used to frame issues, discourse analysts can
uncover patterns of exclusion and bias that may perpetuate inequalities and injustices. Discourse
analysis can help to highlight the role of media and communication technology in shaping
political discourse. By analyzing the language used in news reporting, social media posts, and
political advertising, discourse analysis can reveal how media representations influence public
opinion, shape political agendas, and construct narratives about key social and political issues. It
is highly relevant to politics because it helps us understand how language shapes political power
and ideologies. It examines how politicians use rhetoric to persuade and manipulate public
opinion. It also uncovers hidden meanings and underlying power dynamics in political
communication. Understanding discourse is crucial for analyzing political speeches, media
coverage, and public debates. It allows us to critically evaluate political messages and better
navigate the complexities of the political landscape.

Language is a powerful tool that can be used to support and promote war just as it can be
used to support and promote peace. Similarly, political discourse plays a crucial role in the
transition of a society from the crisis of political upheavals to the realm of peace and progress.
The significance of political discourse in shaping public opinion and policymaking relates to the
fact that it can be used to persuasively influence the beliefs and actions of people, and may also
be used to legitimize, accompany, disguise, or solicit change in political activity and policy.
Political constitutions, laws, and norms reflect dominant discourses, namely, the language or
ideology of those in society who hold the reins of structural power. The societal impact of
political discourse analysis encompasses its function in critiquing the role discourse plays in
producing, maintaining, abusing, and resisting power in contemporary society. PDA has so much
to offer in impacting the course of sociopolitical life in the new millennium.

Furthermore, the language that is used in political discourse plays a pivotal role in
determining how the public reacts to information. Some of the important features that the
language used in political discourse should have are Persuasion, Messaging, Framing, Clarity
and Simplicity, and Emotional Appeal. Rhetoric in political communication often involves the
use of some literary devices such as Ethos, Pathos, Logos, Symbolism, Metaphors and
Analogies, Repetition, Irony and Satire, Hyperbole, and Antithesis. Within the realm of political
communication, the sagacious deployment of language and rhetoric assumes a pivotal role in
sculpting public opinion, swaying policy debates, and, ultimately, securing and perpetuating
political authority. Effective communication transcends mere content, extending to the nuanced
articulation of ideas, an arena in which adept politicians proficiently wield language and rhetoric
to realize their strategic objectives

Political entities employ diverse framing strategies to mold the public's perception of
issues. These methods encompass the art of presenting information in a manner that exerts
influence over the audience's comprehension and interpretation. The following delineates several
prevalent framing techniques wielded in the realm of political discourse: Emphasis on Certain
Aspects, Problem Definition, Moral or Ethical Framing, Crisis Framing, Identity Framing,
Economic Framing, Partisan Framing, Historical Framing, Consequences Framing, Human
Interest Framing, Media Framing. Acquiring a comprehension of these framing techniques
empowers individuals to engage in a discerning analysis of political communication, thereby
discerning the subtle maneuvers through which information is artfully presented to shape and
influence public opinion.

In conclusion, political discourse analysis is an essential instrument for comprehending

how power structures, the spread of ideologies, and the development of public opinion function
inside societies. We can learn more about the intricacies of governance and the creation of socio-
political reality by analyzing the language, framing techniques, and rhetorical devices used by
political actors. It is crucial to understand the stories that influence how we as a society perceive
the world, even as we continue to negotiate the complexities of contemporary politics.

References

Fairclough, Isabela, and Norman Fairclough. Political Discourse Analysis. A method for
advanced students. Routledge, 2012
 INTRODUCTION TO DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

ENG 434

THE TYPES OF POLITICAL DISCOURSE

(GROUP WORK)

Course Lecturers: Prof Ope-Davies and Dr Adepoju

Group Five:
AKINKUROLERE Shina John 180102029
OKUDAH Anita Udoka 180102030
ORIAKU Jennifer Chinecherem. 180102031
IGE Oyinkansola Esther 180102032
OYELEYE Elizabeth Ayomide 180102033
EZEKIEL Miracle Enobong 180102034
EJEKUKOR Samuel 180102035
Discourse is tailored to perform diverse functions in specific speech environments. One of such
functions is the persuasive function; a piece of discourse no matter how long or how short,
contains structures that appeal to the emotion of the target audience. Political discourse falls
under this category. According to Wodak (1996), persuasive discourses have the ability to make
people do things which they ordinarily will not do, basically to persuade the participant and
influence their decision.

Generally, political discourse is seen as a communicative act in which participants try to give
specific meanings to facts and influence / persuade others. In summary , political discourse can
be defined as a manipulative linguistic strategy which serves concrete (ideological) goals. This
explains why political discourse is one of the focuses of Critical Discourse Analysis - as CDA
studies the issue of power dynamics critically. Political discourse may involve both the formal
debates, speeches, and hearings and the informal talk on politics among family members (Liebes
& Ribak, 1991). In this paper, we will consider the different types of political discourses in terms
of the forms in which they can be presented.

Beginning with the debate, in political discourse this refers to the exchange of arguments, ideas,
and viewpoints among individuals, groups, or entities with differing perspectives on political
issues (Hann, 2024). It involves structured discussions or events where participants present their
positions, provide evidence to support their views, and engage in rebuttals or counterarguments
against opposing points of view. Debate in political discourse serves as a platform for
deliberation, and the formation of public opinion, playing a crucial role in democratic processes
and policymaking. Oftentimes, it becomes more prominent and necessary in the months leading
to elections and has grown popular as a part of an electoral process - wherein candidates are
pitched to exchange their ideas in a convincing manner that influences trust. It promotes
dialogue, negotiation, and compromise, ultimately contributing to the resolution of conflicts and
the advancement of collective goals.

Also, another type of political discourse is diplomatic discourse. The process of communication
and interaction between various international actors, is known as diplomatic discourse. A variety
of objectives are pursued by diplomatic discourse, including opinion-shaping, cooperation,
conflict resolution, and interest advancement. There are many different ways to have a
diplomatic conversation. Addressing global crises and conflicts requires diplomatic discourse
because it offers a forum for communication, and compromise. Positive outcomes can also be
fostered by diplomatic speech. Since diplomatic discourse involves the participation and
permission of multiple stakeholders, it can improve the legitimacy and effectiveness of
international initiatives. In addition to seeking to settle disagreements, this conversation helps to
create frameworks and common understandings that direct conduct on a global scale. One of the
best examples of an international body that promotes diplomatic dialogue is the United Nations,
which gives its member states a forum for fruitful dialogue. In a globalized world where choices
can have far-reaching effects, diplomatic dialogue is still an essential tool for fostering peace,
and working together to address the many issues that shape the globe at large.

Furthermore, another type of political discourse is campaigns. Campaigning is a unique form of

political discourse that is distinguished by its purposeful use of communication to shape public
opinion, rally support, and eventually win elections (Murray, 2011). Because it involves direct
interaction with voters, by the political leaders who are vying for a position and has a substantial
impact on democratic processes. The language of campaigning can be formal or informal,
depending on the context it is being delivered. The language is also persuasive in nature, which
can be done by crafting strategic messages, that often revolve around key policy proposals,
electoral promises and candidate qualities. Campaign discourse can be seen in a wide range of
materials including political speeches, advertisements, debates and social media posts.

In addition to the list of political typologies is legislative discourse. The legislative discourse
examines the relationship between language and law within legislative bodies. Identifying how
important it is in shaping the creation, modification, or repealing of laws. It is also a necessity in
evaluating deliberations and negotiations within legislative chambers. Studying the involvement
of a diverse list of actors, from legislators to constituents, engaging in dialogue and debate to
reflect societal needs and values. Through persuasive arguments and strategic language use,
lawmakers portray the speaker-hearer situation to advocate for their positions and enact legal
norms. Central to legislative discourse is the transformative power of words, where spoken
language evolves into binding laws that govern society.
Lastly, we will consider media commentary as a type of political discourse. Media commentary
plays an essential role in influencing political discourse by offering scrutiny/ examine,
interpretation, and evaluation of ongoing issues, events and policies. It serves as a bedrock for
journalists, analysts, and professionals to offer their standpoints on political issues, swaying
public opinion and policy debates. Media commentary often entails a lot of different formats,
which include opinion articles, editorial columns, and talk shows i.e. interviews, and panel
discussions on television, and radio even on social media platforms i.e. online. Through thorough
investigation and commentary, media platforms not only educate the public but also contribute
to the establishment of political narratives and ideologies.

In recent times, two notable segments have emerged within the framework of media
commentary: social media discourse and social academic discourse. Social media discourse
entails the wide collection of political discussions, debates, policies and commentary that are
seen on social media platforms i.e. Twitter, Facebook, Instagram even on our WhatsApp status
and group chats. This type of commentary has distinguished features which are immediacy,
accessibility, and diversity of opinions, giving room for people from different backgrounds,
discipline, communities etc. to engage in political conversations (discourse). Whereas, social
academic discourse is seen as discourse suggested by scholars, researchers, intellectuals, and
students within academic space, where suggestions or opinions tend to be more specific,
leveraging on theoretical frameworks and empirical evidence to examine political issues.

In conclusion, one of the core goals of political discourse analysis is to seek out the ways in
which language choice is manipulated for specific political effect and we find these different
ways at play in these varying types of political discourse highlighted above.
WAYS OF DOING POLITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
GROUP SIX

LIST OF GROUP MEMBERS

SN NAME MATRIC NUMBER
1 ORIMOLOYE, Ololade Temitope 180102036
2 OJEKA, Precious Adiya 180102037
3 GIWA, Titilayo Khadijat 180102038
4 OMEBE, Nnena Jessica 180102039
5 ADEKUNLE, Abraham Adejare 180102041
6 ABE, Taiwo Ayomide 180102042
7 ODUKOGBE, Favour Ifeoluwa 180102043
 The field of discourse analysis in linguistic studies is a unique one in that it seeks to

critical examine the use of language in different contexts. According to Stubbs (1983), it refers to

attempts to study the organization of language above the sentence or above the clause, hence, to

study larger linguistic units, such as conversational exchanges or written texts. It is also

concerned with how language is used in social contexts with particular emphasis on interaction

or dialogue between speakers. In this light, discourse analysts define “discourse” or “text” as a

body of coherent units.

Noticeably, politics is interaction between a group of people, and language is used as a

facilitator in that regard. So, we can count political discourse as a typology of discourse in the

same way that academic discourse, religious discourse, narrative discourse, etc. are. This means

that politics gives room for interaction between participants in a dialogue, which includes:

voters, politicians, the media, international bodies and observers, and even the military. Each one

of these is involved in the discourse.

However, discourse analysts are not interested in the what, that is, in the content of the

message but in how that message has been passed across. Hence, they adopt a number of

approaches to analyse this typology. They examine how language is used to convey meaning,

shape opinions, and influence the decision-making of individuals. This sub-field of discourse

analysis carries out this investigation by analysing political texts or discourse, such as speeches,

debates, media coverage, manifestoes, etc. to uncover the underlying ideologies, power

dynamics, and rhetorical strategies employed.

Some of the key aspects involved in this analysis include: language and power (how

language is used to exert power, shape public opinions, and influence political narratives);

rhetorical strategies (how rhetorical devices, such as persuasion, framing, and appeal to emotion,
are used to advance political agendas or discredit opponents); ideology and discourse (how

political ideologies and biases are shown or demonstrated and reinforced through discourse,

which involves the creation of identities, values and standards); contextual analysis (how the

broader socio-political context in which the discourse occurs shape the communication process

and practices of participants), and critical analysis (how hidden biases, contradictions and power

imbalance embedded in political discourse can be uncovered by taking a critical perspective,

with particular focus on challenging dominant narratives and promoting social justice).

Also, by “ways of doing political discourse analysis,” we refer to the approaches that

analysts adopt to conduct their analysis. Each of the approaches focuses on different aspects of

language and discourse. Some of these approaches include: Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA),

Multimodal Discourse Analysis (MDA), Conversational Analysis (CA), Corpus-Based Discourse

Analysis (CBDA), Narrative Analysis (NA), Systemic Functional Theory (SFT), Ethnographic

Discourse Analysis (EDA), Interactional Sociolinguistics (IS), etc. All these approaches can be

used to analyse political discourse in a given geographical area. Some of these can be applied to

discourse in the 2023 presidential election in Nigeria.

Considering CDA, this approach analyses how the political elite use language to

construct and maintain power structures. This could involve identifying strategies that political

leaders have used to legitimise or dominate something. For instance, in the 2023 elections, Chief

Bola Ahmed Tinubu bolded reiterated “Èmi l’ókàn. Yorùbá l’ókàn”1 (It is my turn. It is the turn

of the Yoruba). This is not only a show of dominance but also a strategy to appeal to emotion and

legitimise his presidential ambition and candidacy. First, by bolding asserting what many

Nigerians consider “backroom talks,” Chief Tinubu showed that he was unafraid of
1
Channels Television. (2022, June 3). [FULL SPEECH] 'Emilokan', Without me, Buhari wouldn’t have
become president – Tinubu. YouTube, https://youtu.be/2GAh_3H_y_A.
confrontations and prepared to do whatever was in his power to be and remain a viable

candidate. Again, this is a way of appealing to or, more appropriately, guilt-tripping everyone

(Yorùbá voters, voters from other ethnic groups, and political leaders) that he should be

considered based on the unwritten “rule of rotation” that seems to have been in operation since

the Fourth Republic started in 1999. Of course, Chief Olusegun Aremu Obasanjo was president

from 1999 to 2007, after which Umaru Musa Yar’adua took over (but unfortunately died in

2010) and then Goodluck Ebele Jonathan ruled from 2010 to 2015. In 2015, it seems that

everyone automatically knew that the mantle should return to Northern Nigeria. Whether that

was a rule or not, the power did return to the North, Retired Major-General Muhammadu Buhari

ruling from 2015 to 2023. It was at the elections held the year that Buhari was to hand over the

power that Tinubu makes this statement. The context shows that he already calculated the

rotation operation and was not afraid to capitalise on it. In doing so, many Yorùbá voters were

bought over by his argument and they willingly voted him. This shows that his appeal to emotion

rightly worked.

Additionally, when Chief Tinubu’s speech addressing Peter Obi as “Import and Export” 2

is analysed, it is also discovered that it was a strategy to paint Obi as less experienced than he

was. Of course, he has run with the narrative of having done excellently well as a governor in

Lagos from 1999 to 2007. However, by equating Peter Obi to Southeastern businessmen who

specialise in importing various goods to the country, Tinubu belittles Obi’s expertise and

experience and elevates his own. He also uses that to tell Nigerians that even though Obi may

have good intentions or may even be a little experienced, they should choose his more

sophisticated experience and approach to governance which he has demonstrated in Lagos.

2
JMZ Media Concert. (2023, January 8). “Obi, Obi!! import and export, Warehouse Economist” – Tinubu
mocks Peter Obi. YouTube, https://youtu.be/IgJr9T6UZQg.
ENG434: INTRODUCTION TO DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

TOPIC: POLITICAL TEXT AND CONTEXT

GROUP 7

GROUP MEMBERS' NAMES AND MATRIC. NUMBERS

DARAMOLA, Samuel Korede 180102045

AGUEGBODO, Esther Isioma 180102046

ADENUGA, Mobolaji Morenikeji 180102047

SOROYE, Priscilla Eniola 180102048

SAMUEL, Anjolaoluwa feyintola 180102049

AWESU, Ebunoluwa Oyindamola 180102050

ONI, Aduragbemi Samuel. 180102051

Overview/Description of Political Text and Political Context

Political discourse analysis is a field of discourse analysis that pays particular attention to

discourse in political forums, such as debates, speeches, hearings, campaigns, etc. Political

discourse is not limited to written texts but also includes spoken language, images, and other

forms of media. By analyzing these different modes of communication, discourse analysts can

uncover the ways in which messages are constructed and conveyed.

A political text can refer to any written or spoken material that addresses political

issues,policies, ideologies, or events. This can include speeches, laws, manifestos, treaties, party

platforms, news articles, opinion pieces, and more. The political context refers to the broader

circumstances, events, and power dynamics within which the text is situated. This includes

factors such as historical background, societal norms, cultural values, economic conditions,

geopolitical influences, etc.

Example of a Political Text and Context:

An example of a political text is Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address, delivered during the

American Civil War in 1863. In this iconic speech, Lincoln addressed the nation’s commitment

to the principles of equality, democracy, and freedom amid the devastating conflict. In addition,

we have a Campaign speech. One example of a Nigerian political text could be a campaign

speech delivered by a politician during an election. In this speech, the politician may address
the issues and challenges facing the country, outline their visions and plans for the future, and

appeal to the citizens for their support and votes.

It is fascinating to analyze the language, rhetoric, and persuasive techniques used in these

political texts to understand how they shape public opinion and influence political discourse.

The political context of the Gettysburg Address includes the backdrop of the Civil War, the

issue of slavery, and the struggle to preserve the Union. Lincoln’s speech aimed to inspire and

unify the nation during a time of immense turmoil and division. Let's identify some Nigerian

Political Context: Elections: Nigeria quadrennially holds national and local elections where

political parties compete for power. Governance: This involves how the country operates,

including issues relating to the legislative, executive and judiciary.Political Parties: Nigeria has

several political parties representing different manifestos and interests. Corruption: Nigeria has

faced challenges with corruption in various sectors, including politics, which has impacted

governance and development. Ethnic and Religious Dynamics: Nigeria's diverse population

brings diversity to its politics, with issues related to ethnicity and religion influencing political

dynamics. Security Issues: Nigeria has grappled with security issues such as crime, and

communal violence.

Approaches and Application of a Political Text and Non-Text:

Approaches to analyzing a political text can vary depending on the specific goals and

perspectives of the analyst. Some common approaches include textual analysis, historical

contextualization, rhetorical analysis, ideological critique, and comparative analysis. Textual

analysis involves examining the language, structure, and content of the text to uncover
underlying meanings and implications. Historical contextualization involves situating the text

within its historical, social, and political context to understand its significance and impact.

Rhetorical analysis focuses on the persuasive techniques and strategies used in the text to

influence audiences. Ideological critique examines the underlying assumptions, values, and

power dynamics embedded in the text. Comparative analysis involves comparing the text to

other texts or political phenomena to identify similarities, differences, and patterns.

In addition to analyzing political texts, it is also important to consider non-textual sources of

political information and communication. This can include visual media (such as political

cartoons, photographs, and propaganda posters), audiovisual materials (such as political

speeches, debates, and documentaries).

Conclusion:

Political texts play a crucial role in shaping public discourse, influencing policy decisions, and

mobilizing collective action. By analyzing political texts within their broader contexts and

employing various analytical approaches, scholars, activists, and policymakers can gain deeper

insights into the complexities of political communication, ideology, and power.

A CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF CAMPAIGN SPEECHES AND SLOGANS

LIST OF GROUP 8 MEMBERS

NAMES MATRIC NUMBER
OYEWALE, Abimbola Mary (GROUP LEADER) 180102052
AWEH, Melony Akpogene 180102053
ORAGUI, Christabel Ngozika 180102054
SADARE, Oluwagbemisola Mary 180102055
AKINNIRAN, Abimbola Grace 180102056
OSIFUYE, Christianah Kanyinsola 180102058
SHOWALE, Oluwatosin Victoria 180102059
A campaign speech, delivered by political aspirants, is a formal talk offering detailed
explanations of a candidate's platform and aims to persuade voters through reasoned arguments
and emotional appeals. In contrast, a slogan is a concise and catchy phrase that encapsulates a
candidate's message and sets them apart from others. While a campaign speech provides depth, a
slogan serves as a memorable shorthand for a candidate’s key ideas. Discourse analysis is crucial
for understanding political communication through speeches and slogans, revealing how
language is used to shape public opinion and achieve electoral goals. This essay aims to dissect
campaign speeches and slogans to uncover the role of language in political communication and
its societal impact.

First and foremost, Campaign speeches and slogans have long been the core of political
communication, evolving alongside technology and society. Analyzing these tools through a
discourse lens reveals how they shape public opinion (Van Dijk, p. 56). Early reliance on
oratory, exemplified by figures like Demosthenes, utilized powerful language and discourse
strategies such as metaphors and parallelism (Lakoff 89). The printing press facilitated wider
dissemination of messages through pamphlets and broadsides, employing framing techniques
and charged language. The 19th century saw rallies and conventions. Lincoln's Gettysburg
Address unified a divided nation with historical references and patriotic imagery, adapting to the
demand for concise messages with the birth of slogans. Hence, deconstructing campaign slogans
involves analysing and breaking down the various elements and layers of meaning embedded
within them. This process aims to uncover the underlying messages, rhetorical strategies, and
symbolic representations employed to convey a particular narrative or image.
It is important to note that radio and television revolutionized campaigns. Radio introduced
Roosevelt's "fireside chats," fostering unity with direct language (Stuckey, P. 121), while
television emphasized charismatic images, as seen in Kennedy's debates (Birdsell, p. 176).
Eisenhower's "I Like Ike" slogan tapped into a desire for stability, while the internet and social
media allowed direct connections with voters, favoring bite-sized messages like Obama's "Yes
We Can," which inspired hope through positive affirmations (Boynton, p. 90). Similarly, a look
at Muhammadu Buhari’s slogan,‘change’, during his presidential campaign in 2015 conveys a
simple, direct and clear message of a desire for transformation. It resonated with Nigerians who
were disillusioned with the existing system and sought meaningful change.
While the slogan itself may not contain explicit rhetorical devices, its simplicity and directness
act as persuasive tools. The repetition of ‘Change’ in campaign speeches and materials reinforces
the message and emphasizes the candidate's commitment to reform.
The slogan ‘Change’ evokes emotions of hope, optimism, and determination for a better future.
It taps into the collective desire for positive transformation and a break from the perceived
failures of previous administrations. Yet another exemplary slogan is that of Tinubu’s
“Emilokan” —it is my turn— symbolizing confident proclamation.
Furthermore, discourse analysis can provide valuable insights for political strategy by examining
language use, power dynamics, and underlying ideologies within political discourse. Through
this method, researchers can examine not only what is said but also how it is said, uncovering
implicit meanings and ideological underpinnings. Political actors use language to frame issues in
specific ways, influencing how the public perceives them. Discourse analysis reveals the framing
strategies employed in speeches and slogans to shape public opinion. Language is also
instrumental in constructing political identities. Through discourse analysis, researchers can
identify how candidates portray themselves and others, shaping political personas and
affiliations. Campaign speeches often employ various rhetorical strategies to persuade voters.
Discourse analysis dissects these strategies, such as metaphors, analogies, and persuasive
appeals, to understand their impact. By examining the discourse, researchers can gauge how
political messages resonate with the public. Understanding language's role in shaping
perceptions helps predict and analyze the impact of political communication on voter attitudes.

Moreover, Analyzing political discourse reveals dominant themes and narratives, aiding
strategists in understanding public sentiment and framing messaging effectively. It uncovers
alliances and oppositions among political actors and offers insights into audience perceptions,
allowing tailored messaging. Moreover, it exposes hidden agendas and power dynamics, aiding
strategists in anticipating moves and countering manipulation. Assessing public sentiment
through discourse analysis informs strategists of prevailing attitudes and grievances, guiding
messaging alignment or addressing discontent.

Also, ethical considerations in analyzing political discourse are crucial, requiring researchers to
maintain objectivity, respect privacy, and avoid data manipulation or misrepresentation.
Transparency in research methods and acknowledgment of biases are also vital ethical principles.
By upholding these standards, researchers contribute to informed and responsible discourse
analysis. Awareness of biases like confirmation bias, availability bias, and framing bias ensures a
more objective analysis of political communication. Interpretive challenges and subjectivity in
political discourse analysis necessitate recognition and management of biases to achieve
thorough and insightful analyses. Ambiguous language and cultural references present additional
challenges in interpreting political messages.

In conclusion, campaign speeches and slogans are pivotal in political communication,

influencing public opinion and garnering support for candidates. Discourse analysis offers a
valuable approach to dissecting these messages, evaluating their construction, symbolism, and
effectiveness. While discourse analysis presents challenges and limitations, including ethical
considerations and the subjectivity inherent in interpretation, its findings provide crucial insights
into political communication strategies. Continued research in this field is essential for
improving campaign effectiveness and public perception.

Works Cited

Awotayo, O. B. (2018). Contextualizing "Change": A critical discourse analysis of the "Change"

slogan in Nigerian political discourse (2014 to present).
Birdsell, David. John F. Kennedy and the Second American Revolution. Johns Hopkins
University Press, 2002.
Boynton, Grant R., et al. The SAGE Handbook of Political Communication. SAGE Publications,
2015.
Ekström, M. Gaze _work in political media interviews. Discourse &_ _Communication_. 2012.
Entman, Robert M. Projections of Power: Framing News, Public Opinion, and U.S. Foreign
Policy. University of Chicago Press, 2004.
Fairhurst, Sally. "Seeing Things Politically: The Discourse of the Gettysburg Address." The
American Historical Review, vol. 108, no. 5, 2003, pp. 1323-1359.
Lakoff, George. Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press, 1980.
Stuckey, Mary. The Roosevelt Recovery: How FDR Tried to Overcome the Great
Depression. Vintage Books, 2010.
Van Dijk, Teun A. Principles of Critical Discourse Analysis. Sage Publications, 1993.
NAMES AND MATRIC NUMBERS(Group 9)

1. OLOKODANA OLUWASEYI 180102064

2. IFIE, AMANDA OKEMUTE 180102066

3. ADEKALE FEYISAYO COMFORT. 180102061

4. OBISESAN, OLUWABUNMI MARGARET. 180102060

5. Okeke, Doris Oluebube 180102063

6. ALIU, Serah Oiza 180102062

7. Akinyeye, Favour Temitope 180102065.

COURSE TITLE: DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

COURSE CODE: ENG434

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH (ARTS)

LECTURERS IN CHARGE : PROF. OPE - DAVIES . DR. ADEPOJU

QUESTION: LEGISLATION AND DECISION MAKING IN DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

 Discourse analysis is an interdisciplinary methodology that analyses language use in
communication with a focus on social construction of reality, and interactional analysis
(Fairclough, 1992; Gee, 2005; Wodak & Meyer, 2001). This approach transcends linguistic
structures to uncover underlying meanings, cultural influences, and power dynamics. In the
domain of legislation and decision-making, discourse analysis plays a crucial role in exposing
how language shapes legal texts, political speeches, and media discourse, , offering valuable
insights into power negotiations, ideological influences, and the societal constructs that are
maintained or challenged within these communicative contexts (Chilton, 2004; Fairclough,
2013; Van Dijk, 2008). As a result, Discourse Analysis has become an indispensable tool for
researchers, scholars, and professionals in a variety of fields, including linguistics, sociology,
political science, media studies, and law.

In legislative proceedings, discourse is at the core of the creation, discussion, and interpretation
of laws (Phillips & Hardy, 2002). By analyzing the discourse used by lawmakers and other
stakeholders, we can uncover hidden meanings, implicit biases, and power relations that may
not be immediately apparent (Fairclough, 1992). Moreover, discourse analysis can help us
identify patterns of exclusion and marginalization in the legislative process and promote more
equitable and inclusive policies and practices (Phillips & Hardy, 2002). Therefore, discourse
analysis is an essential tool for anyone interested in understanding the complexities of
legislative proceedings and decision-making.

Discourse analysis is an invaluable tool that can be employed to gain insight into how legislators
frame issues, construct arguments, and persuade others to support or oppose specific policies
(Phillips & Hardy, 2002). By examining the language and rhetoric used by lawmakers, discourse
analysis can help uncover implicit biases, ideologies, and hidden agendas that may influence
the decision-making processes (Fairclough, 2013). This approach allows for a deep
understanding of the complex dynamics involved in the creation and implementation of policies
and can help to identify how language and discourse are used to shape public opinion and
influence political outcomes (Chilton, 2004). Through the rigorous application of discourse
analysis, scholars and policymakers can gain a more nuanced understanding of how language is
used to shape political discourse and develop strategies for more effective communication and
advocacy in the public sphere (Van Dijk, 2008). As such, discourse analysis is an essential tool
for anyone seeking to understand the complex intersection of language, politics, and policy.

Furthermore, discourse analysis is a powerful tool for examining legislative discussions and
uncovering the various ways in which different stakeholders contribute to the discourse
(Phillips & Hardy, 2002). Through analyzing the language, tone, and content of these
discussions, discourse analysis can reveal the power dynamics between individuals, interest
groups, and institutions, and highlight who has influence and whose voices may be marginalized
in the legislative discourse (Fairclough, 1992). This type of analysis is particularly useful for
understanding the complex relationships between legislators, lobbyists, and other stakeholders,
and can help to identify issues and concerns that may not be immediately apparent on the
surface (Chilton, 2004). By shedding light on the underlying power structures and relationships,
discourse analysis can provide valuable insights into the dynamics of legislative discussions and
help to inform more effective decision-making processes.

In the field of decision-making, discourse analysis has emerged as a valuable tool for
uncovering the rhetoric that decision-makers often use to justify their choices (Van Dijk, 2008).
This approach helps to identify the underlying values, assumptions, and cultural norms that
shape decision-making processes, providing important insights into the socio-political context in
which policies are formed (Fairclough, 2013). By examining the language and discourse used by
decision-makers, discourse analysis can reveal not only the explicit justifications for particular
decisions but also the implicit biases and perspectives that influence those decisions (Gee,
2005). Moreover, this method can be used to explore how power relations and social structures
shape decision-making processes, highlighting the roles that various actors play in shaping
policy outcomes (Wodak & Meyer, 2001). In this way, discourse analysis offers a powerful lens
through which to understand the complex and dynamic processes of decision-making in
contemporary society.
 In conclusion, the examination of discourse surrounding legislation is a crucial aspect of
understanding public perception and reactions. This process involves analyzing various
mediums such as the media, public speeches, and debates, which contribute to the
construction of narratives that significantly influence how people perceive and respond to
legislative decisions (Chilton, 2004; Van Dijk, 2008). The media, for instance, is a powerful tool
for shaping public opinion and can significantly impact how legislative decisions are received by
the public (Phillips & Hardy, 2002).

References:

Chilton, P. (2004). Analysing political discourse: Theory and practice. Routledge.

Fairclough, N. (1992). Discourse and social change. Polity Press.

Fairclough, N. (2013). Critical discourse analysis: The critical study of language. Routledge.

Gee, J. P. (2005). An introduction to discourse analysis: Theory and method. Routledge.

Phillips, D., & Hardy, C. (2002). Discourse analysis: Investigating processes of social
construction. Sage Publications.

Van Dijk, T. A. (2008). Discourse and power. Palgrave Macmillan.

Wodak, R., & Meyer, M. (2001). Methods of critical discourse analysis. Sage Publications.
COURSE TITLE : INTRODUCTION TO DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
COURSE CODE: ENG 434
FACULTY OF ARTS
DEPARTMENT: ENGLISH

GROUP TEN[10] - GROUP MEMBERS

Sanni,Halimah Omotunrayo - 180102069
Eneh, Cynthia Chinaza 180102067

Adegun, Oluwaferanmi Michael - 180102068

Iperepolu, Ruth Adebola - 180102072

Noutouglo, Kaffy Oluwatoyin - 180102073

Apalowo, Oluwatobiloba O.- 180102070

ABU, Enoch Olamide – 180102071

PARTIES,LOBBYISTS AND ACTORS

INTRODUCTION

Democracy thrives when political discussions take place among the people, giving them

knowledge on matters that affect their lives, chances to argue their choices, and channels to keep

elected representatives in check. Among these actors are individuals, leaders of organizations,

and institutions who all play a role in power politics and use various forms of power to influence

political decisions. Key among these actors are political parties which act as the driving force by

rallying support from the electorate through policy articulation and competition for electoral

victory.

In addition to political parties, elected officials, interest groups, and lobbyists also make

important contributions to shaping political discourse. The relationship between these actors is

crucial in order to fully grasp the dynamics of today’s politics and systems of governance.

Parties in Political Discourse:

In most democratic countries, political parties play a central role in organizing and coordinating
political competition, uniting different groups of interests, and offering options for policy
decisions. Parties, especially through their platforms, candidates, and campaigns, endeavor to
muster support from the electorate, fashion political identities, and have influence over the policy
outcomes. They carry out these tasks by framing issues of interest, setting the policy agenda, and
galvanizing grassroots support, among others. Importantly, parties have responsibilities of
securing and advancing public policy priorities and civic needs as identified by members and
supporters; teaching and educating voters about politics and how the electoral process works;
creating general political values for broader societies that can bridge divides in society;
reconciling conflicting demands and converting them into general policies; motivating citizens to
participate in the political decision-making process, as well as changing opinions into viable
policy alternatives. Political parties are said to act as middlemen between society and those who
decide and implement decisions on behalf of society. Though many essential duties and
important functions can be performed by political parties in a democratic society, the nomination
and presentation of candidates during electoral campaigns is the most visible function from the
point of view of voters.

Actors in Political Discourse:

Alongside traditional party structures, a wide array of other political actors contribute their own
influence to democratic discussion, each in its own unique way. While political parties also play
an important role in organizing and mobilizing citizens, elected officials, interest groups, and
advocacy organizations are other key actors that exert substantial influence over public debate
and policy formulation. Elected governments are into power as various levels through the
governments and their roles are representatives of the voters and administrators of the national
policies. Through their statutory mandates, they divert their energies into a spate of activities
which include initiating and influencing political discourse. The chosen policy platforms are
often articulated by elected leaders during their public addresses, putting legislative proposals
that fight key societal challenges, and participating in media appearances and debates that
overlap with critical issues.The particular interest groups and lobbying groups integrate into
organized advocacy organizations and then represent such constituencies, enterprises, or policy
areas. The groups seek to utilize their knowledge, skills, as well as the networks during the
various types of the advocacy strategies, like lobbying, PR campaigns, and direct actions.
Political actors are as important as oxygen in this world of political discourse, they set the
platform, policy formulation, and even deliberation among people. Such as representatives of
governmental bodies, interest groups, and advocacy organizations who contribute a number of
opposing thoughts and irrational experience to the topic do not come without its problems,
though.

Lobbyists in Political Discourse:

The work of lobbyists in the realm of political dialogue becomes effective through acting as
being intermediaries among the pressure groups, corporations, and the decision makers in the
sphere of policies.These might be cases where an individual or group presses the decision-
makers to accept proposals which meet their interests or are chosen from the available options
using different approaches.
Utilizing their hands-on experience of politics, high level of familiarity with the system and
numerous connections, lobbyists participate in lobbying activities. Hence, it could involve
undertaking a face-to-face dialogue with policy-makers, government departmental officials and
their staff to educate them, offer critical analysis on an issue and determine the next steps or
amendments to implement. Lobbyists use their platforms to put the interests and aspirations of
their clients into the frontline of the legislative and regulatory arenas.
Just as lobby groups whose cash contributes to elections and campaigns to support the issues
they support, so should the wealthy.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the functions of parties, actors, and lobbyists in political communication are
complex ones, which during electoral contests or policy making, gives direction to public policy
and the system of political governance. Political parties are the crucial tools for the people of
different regions to organize and make contributions while, among others, are elected officials,
interest group, and nongovernmental organizations who are able to bring different opinions and
expertise. Lobbyists, especially, can be found playing a significant part in pushing the agenda of
policies to the law makers through their network concurrently utilizing their resources to sway
the opinion of these authorities. Nevertheless, the weight their actions carry is still controversial;
with concerns by the public about transparency, accountability and the possibility of special
interests unduly influencing affairs.

REFERENCES
1.Open Oregon State. (n.d.). Chapter 4: Legislative Branch. In American Government. Open
Oregon State. Retrieved from https://open.oregonstate.education/government/chapter/chapter-4/
2. OECD. (2014). Lobbyists, Governments and Trust, Volume 3: Highlights (pp. 11-13).
Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/gov/ethics/lobbyists-governments-trust-vol-3-
highlights.pdf
3. The ACE Project. (n.d.). Participatory Civic Advocacy: A Global Overview. Retrieved from
https://aceproject.org/ace-en/topics/pc/pca/pca01/pca01a/mobile_browsing/onePag
COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

COURSE CODE: ENG434

DEPARTMENT: ENGLISH

GROUP TOPIC: POLITICAL PROCESSES

GROUP MEMBERS:
BANKOLE, Elizabeth Oluwatosin – 180102074
GABRIEL, Bolu Titilope – 180102075
IGWE, Godfrey Ejiro – 180102076
AJISEGBEDE, Blessing – 180102077
ONI, Faith Olayemi – 180102078
ADEBAYO, Omobolanle Mary – 180102079
KOLAWOLE-JACOBS, Bade – 180102080
 A society's methods, procedures, and activities through which decisions are made,
policies are developed and power is allocated are collectively referred to as political process.
Robert Dahl (1961) defines political process as "the activities through which individual and
groups try to shape the government’s policies and actions." This definition focuses on the
procedural aspects of politics and the mechanisms through which decisions are made within a
political system. In order to affect political results, a complex interplay of discussions,
debates, and contacts is undertaken by a variety of actors, including individuals, political
parties, government officials, and interest groups. Political process involves the activities,
procedures, and a series of interactions within society that determine decision-making and
action-taking in the formulation of policies and governance. Through these interactions,
groups of people, and political institutions come together to achieve common goals, including
the appointment of leaders, allocation of resources, and negotiation of power. In pursuing
these objectives, various activities may be adopted, such as campaigning, voting, lobbying,
debates, elections, and protests. For instance, in a scenario with two contestants vying for a
position, the voting process serves as an mechanism for public opinion, allowing individuals
to make their choice. In order to influence public opinion in support of a candidate, party or
particular perspective (ideology), campaigning strategies are developed to persuade the
audience (electorates). This is manifested through the presentation of manifestoes, media
advertisements, endorsements, public speeches and rallies.

Political processes can vary widely depending on the context and system of governance.
Some common types include democratic processes. In democratic processes, citizens
participate in decision-making through various mechanisms such as elections, referendums,
and direct engagement with representatives. Elections allow citizens to choose their leaders
and representatives, while referendums enable direct voting on specific issues.

Another is authoritarian processes. This involves centralized decision-making by a single

leader or a small group without meaningful participation or accountability to the broader
population. Power is often concentrated in the hands of the ruling elite, and political dissent
or opposition is typically suppressed. Authoritarian regimes may use tactics such as
censorship, propaganda, and repression to maintain control and limit citizen participation in
political processes.

Legislative processes encompass the creation, amendment, and repeal of laws through
legislative bodies such as parliaments or congresses. These bodies debate and vote on
proposed legislation, which can originate from government officials, political parties, or
individual lawmakers.

Similarly, there are judicial processes. These involve the interpretation and application
of laws by courts, including the resolution of disputes and the protection of individual rights.
Judicial processes are essential for interpreting laws, resolving disputes, and protecting
individual rights within political systems. Courts meticulously analyze legislation and
constitutional principles to ensure equitable application of the law. Ideally, they serve as
impartial arbiters in resolving disputes, fostering societal stability and upholding the rule of
law. In criminal cases, the judiciary ensures fair trials and accountability, maintaining public
trust in the legal system.

Additionally, bureaucratic processes refer to the administration and implementation of

policies and laws by government agencies and departments. Bureaucrats are responsible for
carrying out the day-to-day functions of government, including delivering public services,
enforcing regulations, and managing public resources. These processes can be likened to the
executive arm of government.

Moreover, constitutional processes involve the creation, amendment, and interpretation

of constitutions, which establish the framework for government and protect fundamental
rights and freedoms. Constitutions define the structure and powers of government
institutions, establish the rule of law, and guarantee individual liberties.

Electoral processes include everything related to organizing and conducting elections,

including voter registration, campaigning, polling, and the counting of votes. We have
elaborated a bit on this with illustrations in an earlier section of this essay, so will shall move
on to another:

Peacebuilding and conflict resolution processes; These involve efforts to prevent or

resolve conflicts through negotiation, mediation, reconciliation, and peacebuilding initiatives.
These processes aim to address the root causes of conflict, promote dialogue and
reconciliation among conflicting parties, and build sustainable peace and stability.

Political processes encounter various obstacles that impede their functioning and
jeopardize public trust. Among the most alarming challenges is voter apathy. Disillusionment
with political options, a sense of powerlessness, and the increasing complexity of issues often
result in citizens disengaging from the electoral process. This low voter turnout weakens the
legitimacy of elected officials, potentially resulting in a government that fails to authentically
represent the will of the people. Another significant hurdle is the pervasive issue of money in
politics. The escalating influence of campaign financing creates an uneven playing field,
favoring candidates with access to substantial resources. This dynamic can drown out the
voices of less-funded candidates, fostering a perception that elections are merely a
playground for the affluent. The sway of moneyed interests may also lead to policies
benefiting powerful donors rather than serving the broader public good.

Gerrymandering, the manipulation of electoral district boundaries to favor a specific

political party, further undermines the integrity of the political process. By concentrating
opposition voters within meticulously drawn districts, gerrymandering enables a party to
secure a majority of seats with a minority of the popular vote. This disenfranchises a
significant portion of the electorate, eroding faith in the fairness of elections.

Polarization within the political spectrum poses yet another challenge. Deep ideological
divides make compromise and civil discourse increasingly challenging. Social media echo
chambers exacerbate this issue, reinforcing existing biases and limiting exposure to opposing
viewpoints. The erosion of trust in traditional political institutions is an additional concern.
Perceptions that politicians are disconnected from the needs of ordinary people, coupled with
concerns about corruption or scandals, can foster public cynicism. The growing threat of
foreign interference in elections compounds these challenges. Malicious actors may exploit
social media disinformation campaigns or cyberattacks to manipulate public opinion and
sway election outcomes, undermining the integrity of democratic processes and posing a
threat to national security.

Despite these formidable challenges, which apply greatly to the Nigerian socio-political
context, there are grounds for optimism. Movements advocating for campaign finance
reform, initiatives combating gerrymandering, and the rise of citizen journalism offer avenues
to address some of these issues. Renewed efforts to promote civic education and critical
thinking skills can empower citizens to make informed choices.
Group Work: Language Use in Political Institutions
Course Title: Discourse Analysis
Course Code: ENG 434
Group Members:
Omoya, Comfort Modupe 180102081
Rufai, Oyimdamola Ayobami 180102082
Emmanuel,Jane Oluwafunmilola 180102083
Soyemi, Philip Adeoluwa 180102084
Olutade, Adetutu Becky 180102085
Sumday , Mary Olayinka 180102086
Adadu, Judie Atibi 180102087

Introduction
In his satirical utopia novel , 1984, George Orwell characterized these
changes as Newspeak, a jargon coined to “meet the ideological needs” of the
ruling dictatorship of the fictitious state of “Oceania”. Its purpose is to establish
“doublethink”, the “power of holding two contradictory beliefs in one’s mind
simultaneously, and accepting both of them” (Orwell 1984), which finds its
most (in)famous expression in the deliberately paradoxical slogans of the
“Ministry of Truth” (i.e. the Ministry of Propaganda): “WAR IS PEACE,
FREEDOM IS SLAVERY, IGNORANCE IS STRENGTH” (Orwell 1984).
Orwell based Newspeak on the experiences of contemporary propagandistic
language during the National Socialist and Stalinist dictatorships, in particular,
obfuscation of references to historical events, denial or cover-up of state crimes,
vilification of dissent, and formulaic and hyperbolic discourse. With the
emergence of the social view of language as against the asocial view in the 60’s,
language came to be fully analyzed and understood in relation to other fields
like Philosophy, Psychology, Political Science, History, Economics,
Anthropology, Sociology,etc. It is with respect to this that the paper seeks to
deviate and examine the language used by political institutions. Simply put, this
study looks into the concept of political discourse/linguistics, using Nazi
Germany as a case study.
Body
 Typical examples of totalitarian states are Nazi Germany and its chief allies,
the Fascist Dictatorship of Mussolini in Italy, the USSR under Lenin and
Stalin,etc. Even this core group of totalitarian states is characterized by
considerable variation in terms of power structures. If less typical cases are
taken into consideration, “totalitarianism” as a political category becomes
harder to define. From a critical, Discourse-Historical Approach perspective
(within the wider field of Critical Discourse Studies, whose objective is to
uncover and analyze the establishment and justification of power hierarchies
through discourse,(see Fairclough 2014), we can reformulate it so that
totalitarian political systems are defined as those that use totalitarian discourses.
The latter’s purpose is evidently to propagate and legitimize a “total” control of
society through a maximally strict demarcation of ‘“insiders” vs. enemy-
“outsiders”’ (Faye 2003). After the Nazis had gained power in Germany, and
later in annexed Austria after 1938 and in the conquered countries after 1939,
open criticism of their discourse was impossible in Germany. Instead, the Nazi
“Minister for Public Enlightenment [!] and Propaganda”, Joseph Goebbels, and
his academic sympathizers advertised their own jargon as expressing a
“liberating” new national world-view (Pechau 1935; Six 1936). They viewed
the German language as a “mirror” of the German people’s “soul”, which would
be enhanced by the addition of lexical material related to Nazism and the
reinterpretation of “old” words that were allegedly “infected” by Jewish Marxist
ideology.Such writings are evidence of the Nazis’ claim to create a new
language that would match the national/racial “instincts” of the German people.
In German academic linguistics, this stance led to a boom in studies of supposed
volk-ish roots of modern German vocabulary and grammar in archaic Germanic
world-views and to academics’ co-operation with the SS Institut Ahnenerbe
(‘Forefathers’ legacy’) (Ahlzweig 1989).
Soon after the war, however, two seminal publications on Nazi discourse
came out in East and West Germany, which were based on “critical insider”
observations. One was authored by Victor Klemperer; it was entitled LTI (short
for the Latin, Lingua Tertii Imperii, (Language of the Third Reich)). The other
publication was a series of articles by the anti-Nazi political scientists and
journalists Gerhard Storz, Dolf Sternberger and Wilhelm E Süskind (Storz &
Süskind 1989). The main objectives of these two – and many following –
analyses were respectively: (1) documentation and critique of the Nazis’ hate
and heroism propaganda; and (2) stigmatization of lexemes and formulas that
expressed Nazi ideology, as a warning to future generations about the deceptive
power of manipulative language. In order to understand this aspect, the
contribution of social and political historians in the area of media and
propaganda research on Nazi Germany proved essential. One of their major
insights from this research was the recognition of the Nazi leadership’s
unprecedented control over the media through daily supervision of print media,
radio and the film industry (Evans 2005, 2008). This control was by no means
monolithic because there was still competition and confusion about
competencies within the National Socialist ruling elite (Abel 1990), but such
Nazi-internal competition meant only that the public had to put up with a surfeit
of propaganda, never with a shortage, and the public was “educated” to always
note and “learn” the latest discourse-rules (Sprachregelungen). Thus, officially
approved phrases were constantly refined, reproduced and disseminated, while
“deviant” uses were sanctioned and could only be uttered in private and/or in
clandestine contexts.
The constant barrage of propaganda events and rituals (e.g. party
congresses, national and militaristic memorial events and celebrations), the
heavily censored and biased news and development of a ‘homely’ aesthetics of
supposedly indigenous cultural forms, as well as their organizational
underpinning (e.g., in the Hitler Youth, Nazified trade unions, the school and
university system, and professional institutions) have to be taken into account
when assessing the conditions for language use in the political space of the then
Nazi Germany. While these aspects have been thoroughly researched from
social, cultural and political history perspectives, their integration with
linguistic and discourse studies, especially with the Discourse Historical
Approach (DHA) are still, to some extent, a desideratum. The DHA aims to
“transcend the purely linguistic dimension” by combining and comparing it with
“the historical, political, sociological and/or psychological dimension” in order
to “triangulate” its research findings in an interdisciplinary account (Reisigl &
Wodak 2001). Such triangulation is necessary in order to assess which
communicative and social weight certain speech acts by specific speakers in
particular situations have in shaping discourse overall. Hitler’s Mein Kampf, for
instance, published several years before his dictatorship had come to power,
functioned as a key text throughout the rule of the “Third Reich”, that is, as a
blueprint for countless follow-up discourses produced under the Nazi regime.
These socio-political conditions distinguish totalitarian discourses from other
uses of discriminatory and belligerent rhetoric and require a DHA-triangulation
of linguistic, socio-psychological and historical factors.Such a triangulation of
the impact of Hitler’s speech at the 1935 Party Congress is profoundly evident
within the wider field of cognitive studies that encompass Cognitive Grammar,
psychology and neuro-linguistic approaches, cognitive semantics and especially
Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT). Instead of viewing metaphors and other
figurative language use as ‘special’ poetic or rhetorical ornaments, CMT
stresses their fundamental function for cognitive “mappings” and “blendings”
across conceptual domains that underlie all language use (Lakoff & Johnson
1980, 1999). Conceptual mappings enable humans to connect diverse domains
of experience and knowledge and “frame” them mentally and communicatively
as new concepts. The mapping of biological and religious source inputs (i.e.
parasite-disease-poison and devil-personified evil) onto the
socio-cultural/religious target category of jewishness resulted in a special type
of frame/scenario that depicted the supposed racially constituted “people’s
body” (Volkskörper) as threatened by a deadly infection caused by the devil-
like Jewish “parasite”- race, which had to be annihilated. This mapping, which
was elaborated in Hitler’s Mein Kampf, was reiterated publicly on innumerable
occasions after the Nazi takeover in 1933. It appeared in every prominent Nazi
speech and was omnipresent by way of public posters, public stalls and
propaganda films, such as The Eternal Jew. It was explicitly linked to Hitler’s
repeated “justifications” for the extermination of European Jewry as a result of
their allegedly having unleashed both World Wars against Germany, and it was
even included in manuals of the State Security and police units that carried out
the mass murders in Eastern Europe (Browning 2004). While the genocide was
perpetrated, this parasite-annihilation scenario featured in speeches by Hitler,
Goebbels and other Nazi leaders as a ‘prophecy’ that was ‘coming true’, that is,
that was being implemented literally to ensure that all Jews would physically
disappear from the territories under German control. The conceptual framing
achieved by this deep discursive entrenchment was much more than a merely
occasional use of discriminatory terminology: it served as an invitation to the
whole populace to assist or at least collude in the ongoing genocide. Similar
uses of the parasite-annihilation scenario as a means to denounce large groups
of people as “anti-social” enemies and justify their elimination can also be
found in Soviet Russian discourses in the Leninist and Stalinist eras (Fitzpatrick
2006) and in Maoist slogans in Communist China (Lu 1999).
Conclusion
This essay has examined the use of language by political institutions. It used
the German political milieu in the 20th century as a springboard to fully
exemplify this topic.It is instructive to note that sympathizing groups in the
Nazi party and the wider populace were forced into knowing that antisemitic
practices would be condoned as long as they could be “legitimized” within the
terms of the new laws.As a result the Jewish victims were kept in the dark about
the future repression and given illusionary hopes until it would be too late for
them to take counter-measures.

References
Abel, K-D, 1990, Presselenkung im NS-Staat: Eine Studie zur Geschichte der
Publizistik in der nationalsozialistischen Zeit, Colloquium
Berlin,
Berlin.
Ahlzweig, K, 1989, “Die deutsche Nation und ihre Muttersprache”, in Sprache
im
Faschismus, ed. K Ehlich, Suhrkamp, Frankfurt, pp. 35–57.
Browning, C, 2004, The origins of the Final Solution: The evolution of Nazi
Jewish
policy, September 1939 – March 1942, with contributions by J
Matthäus, Heinemann, London.
Evans, R J, 2005, The Third Reich in power, 1933–1939, Allen Lane, London.
Fairclough, N, 2014, Language and power, Longman, London.
Faye, J-P, 2003, Introduction aux langages totalitaires, Hermann, Paris.
Fitzpatrick, S, 2006, “Social parasites: How tramps, idle youth, and busy
entrepreneurs impeded the Soviet march to communism”, Cahiers du Monde
Russe, vol. 47, nos. 1–2, pp. 377–408
Lakoff, G & Johnson, M, 1999, Philosophy in the flesh: The embodied mind
and its
challenge to Western thought, Basic Books, New York.
Lu, X, 1999, “An ideological/cultural analysis of political slogans in communist
China”, Discourse & Society, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 487–508.
Orwell, G, 1984, 1984, with a critical introduction and annotations by B Crick,
Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Pechau, M, 1935, Nationalsozialismus und deutsche Sprache, Hans Adler,
Greifswald.
Reisigl, M & Wodak, R, 2001, Discourse and discrimination. Rhetorics of
racism
and antisemitism, Routledge, London.
Six, F A, 1936, Die politische Propaganda der NSDAP im Kampf um die
Macht,
Winter, Heidelberg.
Sternberger, D, Storz, G & Süskind, W E, 1989 [1945], Aus dem Wörterbuch
des
Unmenschen, Ullstein, Berlin.
 UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

FACULTY OF ARTS

COURSE CODE: ENG434

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

TOPIC: POLITICAL DISCOURSE STRUCTURES

NAMES MATRIC NUMBERS

OLAYEMI, Andrew Adeyeye 180102088

OWOKONIRAN, Olajuwon Folaranmi 180102089

ADESANYA, Adewale Adeshina 180102090

OMOWAYE, Deborah Omotola 180102091

SHITTU, Dorcas Omodolapo 180102092

OKUGO, Faith 180102093

ABDULQUADRI, Aishah Adedayo 180102094

 POLITICAL DISCOURSE STRUCTURES
Van Dijk's theory in 1997 examined political text structures and strategies for their persuasive
effectiveness, encompassing topics such as superstructure or textual schemata, local
semantics, lexicon, syntax, rhetoric, expression structure, and speech act and interaction.
These elements are used to emphasize the meaning of words and to lead people's perspectives
and minds on whether to get support or against the opponent. Then, ultimately, to be able to
win the election. Owing to this fact, this paper aims to discuss the elements of the political
discourse structure, as propounded by Van Dijk in 1997 using Joe Biden's Acceptance speech
as a case study.

ANALYSIS OF THE POLITICAL DISCOURSE STRUCTURE OF JOE BIDEN'S

ACCEPTANCE SPEECH
The Superstructure or Textual Schemata

The opening segment of Joe Biden's speech spans from the first to the third paragraph. Here,
he begins with a quote to convey his role as a beacon of hope for the nation, promising a
brighter future under his leadership. In the closing section, Biden reaffirms his commitment
to the nation and offers a message of hope amidst the challenges facing the United States and
the world, and the overarching message of his speech regarding the importance of hope and
optimism in times of adversity.

Topic: "After losing my first wife in a car accident, Jill came into my life and put our family
back together." The significant semantic participants are Joe Biden and Kamala Harris, along
with their respective families. The semantic macroposition can be understood as the method
by which a political actor highlights their own significance, thereby shaping expectations for
future political actions. This portrayal aims to instill confidence in Biden and Harris as
potential presidents and vice presidents of the United States, as they have been forged by
challenging circumstances that have taught them resilience and strength.

Local Semantics: “Her story is the American story. She knows about all the obstacles
thrown in the way of so many in our country.” Local semantics refers to how the speaker
portrays a positive image of themselves. In the provided quotation, it is evident that the
speaker aims to create a favourable impression among the audience by highlighting their
upbringing in a middle-class family and their life struggles. The inclusion of Kamala Harris's
experiences as a minority further enhances their appeal, particularly to those advocating for
equality.
Lexicon: “I know she will make a great First Lady for this nation...Senator Kamala Harris."
Lexicon refers to the specific vocabulary used within the domain of political discourse. In the
context of the speech and the country where it was delivered, it is understood that the phrase
"first lady" is used by the speaker to refer to their own spouse, who would assume the role of
first lady upon the speaker's election as president of the USA.

Rhetoric: “She knows about all the obstacles thrown in the way of so many in our country.
Women, Black women, Black Americans, South Asian Americans, immigrants, the left-out
and left-behind." The quotation provided exhibits semantic repetition, as the speaker
consistently emphasizes the same ideas when describing his vice presidential candidate,
Kamala Harris. Through repetitive mentions of Harris's family background and the obstacles
she has overcome, the speaker aims to underscore her suitability for the role of vice president.

Syntax: “As God's children each of us has a purpose in our lives....all men and women are
created equal” The use of political pronouns is evident in the quotation "As God's children
each of us has a purpose in our lives." Here, the speaker utilizes pronouns like 'we' and 'us' to
align themselves with society, emphasizing a shared purpose and mission for the country.
This linguistic strategy serves to underscore the speaker's solidarity with the audience and
their collective goals for the nation.

Expression Structure: “We have a great purpose as a nation: To open the doors of
opportunity to all Americans. To save our democracy. To be a light to the world once
again... let us begin— you and I together, one nation, under God— united in our love for
America and united in our love for each other” The semicolon ';' serves as an expression
structure to highlight the subsequent words. Some words are emphasized through a deliberate
pause in speech, accentuating their importance. Additionally, the use of '—' separates
essential words from the rest of the sentence, while also signalling a change in intonation to
emphasize the words following the quotation. This deliberate emphasis underscores the
speaker's message and heightens its impact on the audience.

Speech Act and Interaction: “Let us begin, you and I together, one nation, under God,
united in our love for America and united in our love for each other." In this theory,
illocutionary force is expressed through directives such as advice, command, and order. The
quotation functions as an illocutionary act of advice directed towards the audience. The
speaker is advising the audience to take collective action for the betterment of the nation.
 CONCLUSION
Political discourse structures serve to provide organization and coherence to a speech,
ultimately aiming to persuade the audience. Various elements of political discourse structure,
including local semantics, lexicon, syntax, rhetoric, expression structure, and speech act and
interaction have been examined. Ultimately, the goal of the speaker is to garner support and
secure victory in the election.

REFERENCES

Rahayu, N., Suastini, N., & Jayantin, G. (2021). Political Discourse Structures on Joe Biden's
Acceptance Speech. International Journal of English Learning and Applied
Linguistics, 26(2), 69-84.
https://ejournal.unida.gontor.ac.id/index.php/IJELAL/issue/view/414/114
FACE SAVE AND FACE ATTACKS IN POLITICAL DISCOURSE

GROUP FOURTEEN

NAMES MATRIC NUMBER

GEGELESO, Israel Oluwatimilehin 180102096

(Group Lead)

ADEOYO, Oluwatobi Solomon 180102095

ADEDEJI, Temitope Christiana 180102097

OYEGUNLE, Esther Ilerioluwa 180102099

SAHEED, Mariam Omowunmi 180102100

NWAUKOR, Gloria Isioma 180102101

Introduction
Extant records posit that face-saving and face-attacking are strategies commonly used to
manage or manipulate perceptions, relationships, and power dynamics in political discourse.
Face-saving strategy involves actions or statements aimed at preserving one's own or another's
social dignity, respect, or honour. Politicians may employ face-saving tactics to maintain
credibility, protect their reputation, or defuse tense situations. For example, offering
compromises, providing justifications for decisions, or using diplomatic language in public
statements, etc.
Similarly, in today’s often hyper-partisan political domains, face attacks are a common
feature of political discourse. It involves actions or statements that threaten or undermine the
social dignity, respect, or honour of another individual or group. In political discourse, this can
take the form of personal attacks, or the dissemination of negative information aimed at
discrediting opponents. In this light, this paper attempts to contribute to extant scholarship within
the domains of political discourse by probing for deeper meanings in the selected speeches.

Theoretical Framework
This study adopts Norman Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). With an eye
towards the various ways in which language has the tendency to predispose people to behaving in
certain ways, it undertakes both grammatical analysis (for the level of description) and
ideological analysis (for the levels of explanation and interpretation). As such, this study seeks to
measure the depths of political rhetorics using CDA.

Methodology: Qualitative Content Analysis in Qualitative Research

To augment the analysis, data for this study were selected from a public speech given by Vice
President Yemi Osinbajo on 29 May 2017, during his tenure as “Acting President”. Some other
monological statements from a faction of the opposition party, PDP, are included. Since Antaki
(2008) asserts that such data may be drawn from “official and unofficial texts, speeches, media
accounts and representations, and interviews” (p. 432), this study therefore utilises Qualitative
Content Analysis (QCA) to interrogate and condense these data to fit into two categories: face
attack and face save in political domains.

Data Presentation and Analysis

Moving on, Paul ten Have (2004) opines that qualitative research involves fishing out “hidden
meanings, non-obvious features, multiple interpretations, implied connotations, unheard voices”
with a view to providing complex descriptions while trying “to explicate webs of meaning.” (p. 5)
Hence, in line with these principles, this study will critically assess archetypal evidences of face
attack and face save in selected clauses and clause complexes in the political speeches. The
complete source video for the speeches can be seen here.

PDP Adherent, Mr Dayo Adeyeye, as a Political Demagogue

1. Nigerians have never been this hungry in their entire lives as seen in the last two years except
during the civil war. The Federal Government under the PDP created 500,000 jobs per
annum for our teening unemployed youths.

To speak of hunger, the speaker uses the preceding lexical item “this” to intensify the horrendous
situation of Nigerians. Examining the second clause in the excerpt above, he paints his party,
PDP, as a beacon of hope during its incumbency. Unemployment seems to remain a prevalent
problem in Nigeria, thus Adeyeye here capitalises on this to applaud the PDP. However, since ten
Have says that CDA often involves “implied connotations”, we can therefore presuppose that
Adeyeye strategically aims to condemn the ruling party, APC, as we shall vividly see in clauses
[2] below.

2. Since the APC-led administration took over, more than 4.5 million people have lost their jobs
instead. Buhari’s government is full of despondency, ambiguity, repression and depression.
We would have simply wished Nigerians happy celebrations, but there is nothing to celebrate
from this APC government which represents confusion in its entirety.

The implication of clauses [2] above sets the pace for a discerning listener to quickly understand
Adeyeye’s major aim. Having first established that Nigerians have never been “this hungry,” he
exposes the root cause of this socio-economic problem. An administration which takes over the
baton is expected to be superior in action and in performance to the previous. Regrettably, the
clauses in [2] above seriously batters the ruling party which has caused more degradation in the
nation’s economy since its resumption into office. “Happy celebrations” refers to Democracy
Day, a national public holiday in Nigeria to commemorate the restoration of democracy in 1999.
However, Adeyeye’s feisty rhetoric above carries fire. Thus, he not only uses linguistic items
“despondency,” “ambiguity,” “repression,” and “depression” to signal APC’s weaknesses, but
also implies that the Buhari-government is a totally failed system.

Acting President, Yemi Osinbajo, as Face Saver and Restorer of Hope

Acting President Yemi Osinbajo discursively elaborates by asserting himself as a competent

knower who is aware of the economic crisis. Thus, in excerpt [3] below, he uses grammatical
modality that signals his own acceptance.
 3. Let me first express just how concerned we have been since this administration took office
about the impact of economic recession on our citizens. Some companies shut down their
operation; people lost jobs. In some states, civil servants worked month on end without the
guarantee of a salary. We have been extremely mindful of the many sacrifices that you have
had to make over the last few years.

Given the modality of the above, he uses “how concerned we have been” to initiate tactical
diplomacy that is triggered by the first person plural pronoun “we”. Through the repetition of
“we”, he gives his audience a sense of togetherness. In clause complex [4] below, he attempts to
restore their hope:

4. For this reason, this administration’s work on the economic front has been targeted at the
combination of short-term interventions to cushion the pain, as well as medium to long-term
efforts aimed at rebuilding an economy that is no longer helplessly dependent on the price of
crude oil. See full speech here.

Further to claiming the identity of a competent knower, the Acting President portrays his
government as having effective short and long-term solutions for the economic crisis. Explicit in
the phrase “rebuilding an economy” is the attempt to defuse the tense situation, and offer light at
the end of the tunnel.

Limitation of the Study

A complete and exhaustive analysis could not be conducted owing to the omissions of particular
components of the method of analysis and especially the constraint of space.

Discussions and Conclusion

The chosen data for this study has a high degree of the two political strategies – face attack and face
save. All parts of the speeches thus account for both strategies. Mr Dayo Adeyeye as a face attacker,
uses feisty rhetoric to explicitly besmirch the Buhari government. However, a more critical
examination of Osinbajo’s diplomatic language reveals the primacy to restore hope while face-saving
APC concomitantly. Generally speaking now, it is the stance of this paper to argue that from then till
now, there has been no significant improvement in the national economy. The Nigerian government
must do better.
 VOICE OF AUTHORITY AND POWER RELATION IN
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

DEPARTMENT OF EGLISH, FACULTY OF ARTS

UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS, AKOKA, YABA, LAGOS

A PAPER WRITTEN BY GROUP 15 AS PART OF THE

REQUIREMENT FOR ENG434 (INTRODUCTION TO
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS)
GROUP MEMBERS
S/N NAME MATRIC
NUMBER
1 OLOWOLABI, OLUWATOONILOBA SILAS 180102102
2 IBIKUNLE EMMANUEL AYOMIDE 180102103
3 ODIACHI MIRACLE ANWULI 180102104
4 OCHAYI EMMANUEL SAVIOUR 180102105
5 OGWUCHE COMFORT EVE 180102107
6 DADA ENIOLA AYOMIDE 180102108
7 ALIM BARAKAH ASAKE 180102110

FEBRUARY 2024
 In understanding human interactions and societal dynamics, the concept of the voice

of authority and power relations play a significant role. It hints into how authority figures

assert control and influence over others, shaping social structures and determining the

distribution of power within a given context. This essay aims to explore the intricacies of the

voice of authority and power relations, drawing upon scholarly insights and real-world

examples to explain its complexities. At its core, the voice of authority encompasses the way

individuals or institutions assert dominance and control over others through the exercise of

power. Power, in this sense, refers to the ability to influence or direct the behavior of others,

often accompanied by legitimacy and social recognition. Authority figures, whether they are

political leaders, educators, or employers, wield power through various means, including

rhetoric, coercion, and institutional structures.

One prominent scholar who has extensively studied the dynamics of authority and

power relations is Michel Foucault. Foucault's concept of "disciplinary power" shed light on

how institutions, such as prisons, schools, and hospitals, exert control over individuals

through surveillance, normalization, and discipline. In his seminal work " Discipline and

Punish," Foucault examines how institutions produce docile bodies and regulate behavior

through mechanisms of surveillance and normalization. Through the panopticon, a

metaphorical model of disciplinary power, individuals internalize disciplinary mechanisms,

leading to self-regulation and obedience to authority.

Moreover, Foucault's notion of "governmentality" elucidates how power operates

through techniques of governance, including regulation, surveillance, and the management of

populations. In "The Birth of Biopolitics," Foucault analyzes how neoliberalism governs

individuals not only through coercive measures but also through the shaping of subjectivities

and the regulation of conduct. By examining the ways in which authority figures govern
populations, Foucault reveals the complexities of power relations embedded within social

structures.

The concept of discourse, as employed by Foucault, is integral to understanding the

voice of authority and power relations. Discourse refers to systems of knowledge, language,

and practices that shape how individuals understand and interpret the world around them.

Discourses are not merely descriptive but also prescriptive, determining what is considered

normal, acceptable, or legitimate within a given context. Authority figures utilize discourse to

legitimize their power and control, shaping narratives that justify their actions and maintain

their dominance.

An example of discourse in action can be seen in political rhetoric, where leaders use

language to construct narratives that legitimize their authority and marginalize dissenting

voices. Through discursive practices such as framing, persuasion, and symbolic

representation, political leaders shape public discourse to align with their agendas and

maintain their grip on power. Politicians seek to persuade audiences of their views and a

political speech is one of the ways they go about achieving this goal. An example can be

drawn from one of Peter Obi’s speeches before the Nigerian 2023 Presidential Election at The

Platform Nigeria became the subject of much media debate as an example, facilitating his

meteoric rise to fame and acceptance by many Nigerian youths, many of whom are social

media users. Obi used his speech to Persuade, influence and draw support from Nigerians

especially the younger generation.

Relying on Fairclough’s approach to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and with a

focus on discourse-as-text, our analysis of Obi’s address revealed the presence of dominant

rhetorical devices/ strategies but one will be utilized. These rhetorical devices include

Anecdote Hypophora, Anaphora, Repetition, and Allusion etc. Using the Anecdote, Obi
narrated the story of how he reduced his Abuja travelling entourage from 30 to one person,

just him. According to him, the other 29 persons had no real cause for embarking on trips to

Abuja for state meetings to which he was the only one invited.

In his words: “So, after about the third or fourth trip, I sat down and said, I want you

to write down the names of everybody for me and tell me why and what is the purpose

of this person going to Abuja, And what did they do? What happened? What did they

do? When they finished, I found out that the only person that needs to go to Abuja is

me, so I said to them, leave it, because some of you must have heard, “Peter Obi

travels alone” (Elanhub, 2023, paras. 28-29)

He uses the speech to clarify his argument on the possibility of reducing governance costs in

Nigeria and in addition, boost his positive self-representation and negative-other

characterization using anecdote. Another instance can be authoritarian regimes which often

employs nationalist discourses to rally support and vilify opposition groups as enemies of the

state. By controlling the narrative, authority figures reinforce their legitimacy and suppress

alternative perspectives. A president may employ authoritative language, such as "We must

take decisive action," to project confidence and leadership.

In conclusion, the voice of authority and power relations encompass the intricate ways

in which individuals and institutions assert control and influence within society. Drawing

upon the concept of discourse has shed light on the mechanisms through which power is

exercised and maintained. Whether in political rhetoric, organizational settings, or everyday

interactions, authority figures wield power through various means, shaping social structures

and determining the distribution of resources and opportunities.

 References

Crenshaw, Kimberlé. Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence

against Women of Color.

Elanhub (2023). Peter Obi’s The Platform 2016 speech. Elanhub Media.

https://elanhub.net/full-text-ofpeter-obis-the-platform-2016-speech/

Foucault, Michel, 1926-1984. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York:
Pantheon Books, 1977.
Foucault, Michel. The Birth of Biopolitics: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1978-

1979.Butler, J. (1990)

Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge, New York, 33.
 FACULTY OF ART, ENGLISH DEPARTMENT.

COURSE CODE: ENG434

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS.

WRITERS AND ACTIVE CONTRIBUTORS.

OREKOYA, Iyanuoluwa Orekoya – 180102111

OLAOGUN, Rasheedat Ayinke – 180102112
ENO, Emem Ifreke – 180102113
ADEKOYA, Tolulope Samuel. 180102114
ODESANYA, Oluwatomisin Elizabeth - 180102115
ATKINS, Oluwasegun Ibrahim - 180102116.
ALADESANMI, Miracle Awelewa - 180102117

TITLE

Political speeches and cliches

ABSTRACT

Political speeches are important in Nigeria. Leaders use them to share their plans, get support, and
influence public opinion. They often use clichés to sound familiar and connect with different people.
These clichés are based on cultural, religious, and national feelings in Nigeria. These speeches use
different language tricks, like persuasive words and symbols, to connect with people. However, using
clichés in politics can make people doubt how genuine and honest the communication is.
Looking into political speeches and clichés in Nigeria shows how language, politics, and society
interact. It helps us see how politicians use words to shape public conversations and influence what
people think and do.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

ANALYSIS OF POLITICAL CLICHES USED IN NIGERIAN POLITICAL

DISCOURSE

Generally speaking, when it comes to Nigerian politics, cliches are like the seasoning that add
flavours to the conversation. Cliches are also like well-trodden paths in our thinking and
communication. They can guide us along familiar routes but when those routes become
deeply ingrained, it can be difficult to break free from them. It is like trying to steer out of
well-worn wheel ruts. Cliches as a political tool are commonly used expressions in political
discourse that have become overused and lack originality. On one hand, political cliches are
used to evoke emotions, rally support or deflect attention from substantive political debates.
On the other hand, political cliches mislead and limit the depth of political discussions. They
mostly rely on oversimplified narratives and can be used to manipulate public opinions. Also,
they depend on familiar and relatable imagery or metaphor to simplify complex ideas. All the
same, they serve as shortcuts in political discourse, allowing for quick and easy
communication. One of the cliche that has been used over the years is “politics is a dirty
game.” This expression is simply used to express the perception of people that politics is a
corrupt exercise that is filled with unethical practices. Another cliché that is also used in
politics is “politics is a game of number.” This expression emphasizes the importance of
garnering support and winning elections through strategic allegiance and mobilising a larger
voter base. Also, we have the expression that says “politics na do or die,” which shows the
intense and sometimes ruthless nature of Nigerian politics, where individuals are willing to
go to great lengths to gain or maintain power. These cliches are used to capture certain
aspects of Nigerian politics, but it is better to critically analyse them and seek out diverse
perspectives to gain a more nuanced understanding.
2.0 THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK AND LANGUAGE ANALYSIS

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF NOTABLE POLITICAL SPEECHES IN NIGERIA

AND SOCIOLINGUISTICS IMPLICATIONS OF POLITICAL CLICHES

In Nigeria, a nation marked by a diverse array of socio-political challenges and aspirations,

political rhetoric serves as a powerful tool for mobilization, negotiation, and nation-building.
By examining the language choices, thematic emphases, and strategic appeals employed by
political actors, this discourse analysis seeks to unravel the underlying discursive strategies
and socio-political implications embedded within these speeches. In the inaugural speech of
President Umaru Yar’Adua delivered on May 29, 2007, several key themes and rhetorical
strategies can be identified through a discourse analysis, "I ask you all to march with me
into the age of restoration." language is used to sway people to their side. Also, in President
Muhammadu Buhari’s farewell speech, utilizes language strategically to persuade, promote,
and protect legitimate power as he concludes his tenure as President of Nigeria. “As your
President, I call on all of us to bring to bear the strength of our individualism, the power
of our unity, the convictions of our beliefs to make Nigeria work better and together
with one spirit and one purpose.” he calls on Nigerians to unite and work together to build
a better nation. In the Vice President’s Yemi Osinbajo speech declaring his intention to run for
President in the 2023 elections, he outlines his vision for Nigeria's future, emphasizing key
priorities such as security, infrastructure development, economic growth, education,
healthcare, and poverty alleviation, appealing to the electorate's desire for progress and
improvement.
The study of sociolinguistics looks into how political cliches affect society as a whole.
Authorities' language reflects power dynamics, while marginalized groups may find new
ways to express themselves. By indicating a connection to particular movements or
ideologies, clichés aid in the formation of identity. They create linguistic barriers that
promote in-group and out-group dynamics and further social separation.
Clichés from politics take on cultural significance as symbols of a society's shared ideals.
They are also a technique for manipulating language, swaying public opinion and rephrasing
problems to support specific objectives.

3.0 CONCLUSION

Political clichés in Nigeria have deep roots, tracing back to the struggle for independence and
subsequent governance. These expressions, reflecting societal values, often highlight
prevailing beliefs. For instance, the adage "power corrupts; absolute power corrupts
absolutely" gained prominence during Nigeria's military rule from 1966 to 1979. This
widespread distrust in the government hindered effective responses to issues like insurgency,
as noted by Lappa (2015).
These clichés also mirror cultural values, such as reverence for elders or collective
responsibility. Ogbeidi (2012) observes the intertwining of political leadership and corruption
since Nigeria's independence. Phrases like "the youth are the leaders of tomorrow"
underscore the importance placed on younger generations shaping the nation's trajectory.
Similarly, clichés like "unity is strength" exemplify the communal mindset deeply rooted in
Nigerian society. Within Nigeria's political sphere, certain idioms have become fixtures in
public discourse, carrying significant cultural and historical weight. For example, the
metaphor "cutting corners" symbolizes the legacy of colonial infrastructure development,
where shortcuts led to inadequate roads—a challenge Nigerians still face. Likewise, "eating
from the same pot" symbolizes political unity, originating from communal meals where
sharing a pot signified solidarity.

In summary, Nigerian political clichés encapsulate both historical narratives and

contemporary challenges. Despite being sometimes dismissed as trite, they remain pivotal in
shaping political dialogue and understanding societal dynamics.

REFERENCES:

• Lappa, Aaron C. "Nigeria’s Elusive Peace: How Culture Influences Counterinsurgency."

School of Advanced Air and Space Studies, June 2015.
• Ogbeidi, Michael M. "Political Leadership and Corruption in Nigeria Since 1960: A Socio-
economic Analysis." 2012.
• Marcus, G. E., Neuman. "Affective Intelligence and Political." 2000.
 ENG434: INTRODUCTION TO DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

LECTURER: PROF. OPE-DAVIES (OPEIBI) & DR. ADEPOJU

GROUP TOPIC: METAPHOR AND POLITICAL DISCOURSE

LIST OF MEMBERS OF GROUP 17

OYEBOADE, Joseph Timelehin 180102118

BABALOLA, Elizabeth Moyinoluwa 180102119

OLAYIWOLA, Mutmainah Onikepo 180102120

NWAFOR, Chidiogor Divine-favour 180102121

OPEOLUWA, Opeifa Oluwafifunmi 180102122

WILLIAMS, Moyinoluwa Aderinsola 180102123

KWASAU, Matilda Kauna 180102124

INTRODUCTION
Language, especially from the Functionalist approach, is viewed as a tool and like any other
tool, is designed to perform a function or a role in the society. One of such function is to
communicate ideologies, as ideological positions tend to reflect in people’s choices of word.
In politics, which is our focal point, language is used as an important tool for politicians who
want to gain power. They use language to communicate their ideas and beliefs; also, to
influence people’s views by making them believe certain things for the sole purpose of
gaining an advantage over an opponent or opponents. This is why political language is
associated with different rhetorical and figurative strategies such as metaphor. Thus, this
study, using Lakoff & Johnson’s Conceptual Metaphor theory, will identify, as well as,
examine the use of metaphors in President Bola Tinubu’s acceptance speech and Atiku
Abubakar’s declaration speech delivered in the last presidential election in Nigeria.

METAPHOR AND POLITICAL DISCOURSE

Metaphor can be defined simply as a direct comparison between two things or concepts. It
plays a central role in public discourse because it allows writers or speakers to make
equivalencies between seemingly unrelated concepts to show how they are similar. This is
particularly true of political discourse which rely heavily on persuasion and rhetoric. In his
analyses, Taiwo Rotimi reveals that three major issues are commonly focused on in
metaphorical expressions in the Nigerian political discourse. Guided by Lakoff & Johnson’s
(1980) theory of conceptual Metaphors, Rotimi identified the three target domains as sources
of conceptual metaphor in his data: the nation, politicians, and politics. He stated that the
NATION was conceptualized as FAMILY and as PERSON; POLITICIANS as BUILDERS;
and POLITICS as BATTLE and as JOURNEY. Rotimi’s identification of these three domains
will guide our examination of metaphor in the political speeches of President Tinubu and
Atiku Abubakar. However, politicians will also be conceptualized as SAVIOURS in this
study.

Political discourse, on the other hand, has been defined by many scholars. Wilson (2001:398),
for example, describes political discourse as language used in formal and informal political
context with political actors such as politicians, political institutions, government, political
media, and political supporters operating in political environments with political goals.
Worthy of note is the notion of ‘political goals. This suggests that every political discourse
has a motive. According to Van Dijk, metaphor is a powerful ideological tool that can be
used for negative representation of certain groups and positive representation of others (Van
Dijk, 2006). Thus, by examining metaphors in these political speeches, we can understand the
political goal of both politicians.

CONCEPTUAL MAPPING OF THE NATION

Conceptual metaphor theory recognizes two domains: the source domain from which we
draw a concept and the target domain (which is often an abstract entity) into which the
concept from the source domain is being transferred. Because of Nigeria’s multiethnicity,
unity is always emphasized in political discourses. Thus, conceptualizing the nation as a
family helps politicians to present this message of unity. For example:
 During the election, you may have been my opponent but you were never my enemy.
In my heart, you are my brothers. (Bola Tinubu, Acceptance Speech, 2023)
 Remodeling our precious national home requires the harmonious efforts of all of us.
(Bola Tinubu, Acceptance Speech, 2023)
Also, the nation is presented as having some human physical attributes to bring the picture in
their messages closer to the people. For example:
 Today, Nigeria stands tall as the giant of Africa. (Bola Tinubu, Acceptance Speech,
2023)
 By His mercy, I was a born a son of Nigeria. (Bola Tinubu, Acceptance Speech, 2023)
CONCEPTUAL MAPPING OF THE POLITICIANS

The goal of every politician is to present themselves as people who can be trusted. Thus,
conceptualizing themselves as builders and saviors helps them present their message of hope.
Below are examples of conceptual metaphor of politicians as builders and as savior:
 Peace, unity, and prosperity shall be the cornerstones of the society we intend to build.
(Bola Tinubu, Acceptance Speech, 2023) – the society is compared to a building.
 What we shall accomplish in the coming years you shall speak with pride at being a
Nigerian. (Bola Tinubu, Acceptance Speech, 2023)
 I offer myself to rescue the sinking ship. Under my captainship, this ship will sail to a
brighter course. (Atiku Abubakar, Declaration Speech) – Nigeria is compared to a
ship.
 My fellow Nigerians, I am the unifier that is coming to bond the broken union. (Atiku
Abubakar, Declaration Speech, 2023).
 Nigeria is a land of possibility. (Atiku Abubakar, Declaration Speech, 2023)
These politicians choose their words carefully to reassure the people they lead and to
convince them of their ability to bring about positive change.

CONCEPTUAL MAPPING OF POLITICS

Politics is often seen as a battlefield, where the fight for power takes centre stage. That's why
politicians often depict themselves as heroes while casting their opponents as villains. For
example:

 We pledge to listen and to do the difficult things, the big deeds, that put us on the path
of irreversible progress. (Bola Tinubu, Acceptance Speech)
 It is a choice between two paths: the paths of unity and progress or the path of
division and backwardness. (Atiku Abubakar, Declaration Speech)
Similarly, politics is portrayed as a journey, inspiring hope for better days ahead among the
people:

 Let our stories be told for generations to come that we are the ones that rescued
Nigeria when it was on the verge of fatal destruction. (Atiku Abubakar, Declaration
Speech)
CONCLUSION

This study, using Lakoff & Johnson’s Conceptual Metaphor theory as a framework,
identified, as well as, examined the use of metaphors in President Bola Tinubu’s acceptance
speech and Atiku Abubakar’s declaration speech delivered in the last presidential election in
Nigeria. It has been explained that conceptualizing the NATION as FAMILY and PERSON;
POLITICIANS as BUILDERS and SAVIOURS; and POLITICS as JOURNEY and BATTLE
has enabled politicians achieve their goal of persuading, as well as, influencing the choices of
their listeners.

REFERENCE

Otieno, R. F., Owino, F. R., & Attyang, J. M. (2016). “Metaphors in political discourse: A
review

of selected studies.” International Journal of English and Literature, 7(2), 21-26.

Taiwo, R. (2014). “Metaphors in Nigerian political discourse.” Selected Papers from the
2008
Stockholm Metaphor Festival (8th ed., 193-205). Stockholm:Univ.
 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS IN
POLITICAL DISCOURSE

GROUP 18

GROUP MEMBERS

BADMUS, Tolani Opeoluwa 180102125

OGBONNA, Victoria Ebube 180102126

BUSARI, Oluwatomilola Ireoluwa 180102127

SONAIKE, Oluwasegun Damilare 180102128

AKINMOYE, Bolajoko Esther 180102130

AGBOGUN, Holy Damilola 180102131

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS

A direct speech act occurs in an utterance when there is a direct relationship between the
structure and the communicative function of the utterance. It shows when the intention of the
speaker is understood. Direct speech allows us to convey someone’s exact words and is used
in storytelling or reporting conversations. It explicitly illustrates the intended meaning a
speaker has before making an utterance.
An indirect speech act is performed employing another which means that there is an indirect
relationship between the form and the function of the utterance. It shows when the intention
of the speaker is not clearly expressed. Here, the speaker does not explicitly state the meaning
behind the utterance. Indirect speech acts are used to relay information without using direct
quotations and they are commonly used in formal writing or when summarizing
conversations. It’s the hearer whose task is to analyze the utterance to understand its
meaning.

POLITICAL DISCOURSE
Political discourse encompasses various forms of communication within the political realm,
including speeches, debates, media coverage, and social media interactions. It involves
discussions about political issues, policies, candidates, and ideologies, shaping public opinion
and influencing decision-making processes. The definition of political discourse involves
verbal and written exchanges among individuals, organizations, and institutions on
governance, public policy, and societal issues. It features diverse perspectives, rhetorical
strategies, power dynamics, and media influence. Participants use rhetorical devices to
persuade others, with power dynamics and media ownership impacting the accessibility of
voices within the discourse. Political discourse is vital for democratic governance, allowing
for the exchange of ideas between citizens and policymakers and fostering civic engagement.
Engaging in political discourse cultivates critical thinking, dialogue, and civic responsibility,
contributing to the vibrancy of democratic societies. Ultimately, political discourse plays a
fundamental role in shaping public opinion, influencing decision-making, and determining
the course of political action in societies.

DIRECT SPEECH ACT IN POLITICAL DiSCOURSE

In political discourse, a direct speech act refers to a statement or utterance made by a speaker
to convey a specific message or perform a particular function directly.
These speech acts are often clear and explicit in their meaning, direct expressions of intention
or belief play a crucial role in shaping public opinion, influencing policy decisions, and
rallying support for political agendas.

Here are some examples of direct speech acts commonly found in political discourse:

Declaration: "We will implement new tax reforms to stimulate economic growth."

Promise: "I pledge to increase funding for education if elected."

Command: "Vote for our party in the upcoming election."

Assertion: "Our healthcare system is in dire need of reform."

Denial: "I categorically deny any involvement in the scandal."

Accusation: "The opposition party is spreading misinformation to discredit our government."

Explanation: "The budget deficit is a result of increased spending on infrastructure projects."

Agreement: "We agree to the terms of the trade agreement."

These direct speech acts are used by political figures to convey their positions, intentions, and
policies clearly and explicitly to the public, fellow politicians, and other stakeholders.

INDIRECT SPEECH ACT IN POLITICAL DiSCOURSE

Indirect speech acts in political discourse can take various forms and serve different purposes.
They often involve the use of language that goes beyond the literal meaning of the words
spoken. Here are some additional details about indirect speech acts in political discourse:

1. Politeness: Politicians may use indirect speech acts to maintain a sense of politeness when
discussing sensitive or controversial topics. By using indirect language, they can express their
views or criticisms without being overly confrontational.

2. Power dynamics: Indirect speech acts are frequently employed to assert or challenge power
dynamics in political discourse. For example, a politician might use an indirect speech act to
assert their authority or to subtly undermine their opponents.

3. Emotional appeals: Indirect speech acts can be used to evoke emotions and appeal to the
values and beliefs of the audience. By framing arguments indirectly, politicians can tap into
the emotions of the listeners and create a stronger connection.
4. Persuasion: Indirect speech acts are often employed as a persuasive strategy in political
discourse. By using subtle and indirect language, politicians can influence public opinion
without appearing overly forceful or manipulative.

5. Interpretation: Understanding indirect speech acts in political discourse requires careful

interpretation of the speaker's intentions, as they may not explicitly state their true meaning.
Listeners must analyze the context, tone, and nonverbal cues to fully understand the intended
message.

It is important to note that indirect speech acts can vary greatly depending on cultural, social,
and political contexts. The interpretation of these acts may also be subjective, as individuals
may perceive and understand them differently.

In summary, the analysis of direct and indirect speech acts in political discourse reveals the
complex strategies used by politicians to convey messages, influence opinions, and achieve
rhetorical goals. Direct speech acts demonstrate strength and decisiveness, while indirect
speech acts involve subtlety and strategic ambiguity to navigate sensitive topics. These
linguistic strategies reflect power dynamics, persuasion tactics, and the negotiation of public
perception. Understanding context and cultural subtle differences is essential in interpreting
political language effectively. As political landscapes change, speech act strategies evolve,
offering insights into the dynamic nature of political communication. By studying direct and
indirect speech acts, individuals can develop a more discerning approach to understanding
political rhetoric and contribute to a more informed citizenry. Ultimately, exploring speech
acts in politics uncovers the complex interplay of language, power, and persuasion in political
contexts.
FOCUS, EMPHASIS AND THEMES IN

POLITICAL DISCOURSE

ENG 434: INTRODUCTION TO DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

AGUNBIADE, Titobi Emmanuel 180102133

EGEJURU Sandra Ijeoma 180102135

OGUNBANJO, Ibukunoluwa Victoria 180102137

ADEOJO, Olamide Grace 180102138

SULAIMON, Misturah Yetunde 180102139

ADEIDOWU, Kehinde Deborah 180102140

INTRODUCTION

Political discourse refers to the exchange of ideas, opinions, and arguments on political

topics. It is an essential component of democratic societies, as it allows individuals

(especially politicians) to express their views, engage in debates, and shape public opinion.

Political discourse can take place in various forms, such as speeches, debates, media

discussions, online interactions and exchanges of ideas related to governance, policies, and

societal issues.

In political discourse, individuals and groups analyze and discuss political issues, policies,

and ideologies. These discourse aims to persuade others, gather support for their positions, or

challenge existing beliefs. It concentrates on the forms of public communication which the

politicians use with the aim of winning and retaining power. According to T.A van Dyck, he

asserts that political discourse participates "in the enactment, reproduction, and legitimization

of power and domination" (2003, p. 360). Thus, political discourse across politicians tends to

have recurring themes and emphasis since they are all to perform the same function.

FOCUS IN POLITICAL DISCOURSE.

Political discourse is the method of communication, the strategies used by politicians or those

in power to persuade, influence and entice the citizens in the country. It includes the use of

emotional or material appeal to cause effects on the people to adhere to the laws or vote them

in power. The primary focus of discourse is to sway citizens to their side by their choice of

words. It involves an in-depth exploration of the people's needs that is needed and insightful

to persuade them to believe in their goals. It also focuses on commissive ways the politicians

can meet these their needs. It differs from other discourses because more than

communication, it is specifically to convince and manipulate the decisions of the citizens

through words.
Another primary focus of political discourse is governance itself it includes debates over

electoral systems, representation, and political participation, reflecting the fundamental

principles of democracy and citizenship. Also, Transparency and Accountability in political

discourse focuses on promoting transparency, exposing corruption, and demanding

accountability from elected officials.

EMPHASIS IN POLITICAL DISCOURSE.

Emphasis in political discourse refers to the use of various rhetorical techniques to highlight

certain ideas or arguments in political discussions. It often involves strategically placing

emphasis on specific points to influence public opinion or shape the narrative around a

particular issue. Here are a few examples of emphasis in political discourse:

1. Healthcare: Discussions about healthcare often revolve around access, affordability, and

the role of government in providing or regulating healthcare services. Debates may focus on

issues such as universal healthcare, private insurance, pharmaceutical pricing, and the impact

of healthcare policies on different demographics.

2. Economic Inequality: Debates about economic inequality focus on issues such as wealth

distribution, income disparities, social mobility, and the impact of economic policies on

different socioeconomic groups. Discussions may revolve around tax reform, minimum wage

laws, social welfare programs, and the role of government in addressing poverty and

inequality.

3. National Security: National security discourse encompasses discussions about defense

spending, military intervention, intelligence gathering, and counterterrorism efforts. Debates

may center on the balance between civil liberties and security measures, the effectiveness of

military strategies, and the implications of geopolitical developments on national security

interests.
These examples illustrate how political discourse highlights key issues that shape public

opinion, policy decisions, and the trajectory of governance in democratic societies.

In summary, the emphasis of political discourse encompasses a wide array of interconnected

topics, each reflecting the complex dynamics of modern societies and the competing interests

and values that animate them. Emphasis in political discourse is achieved through framing,

repetition, emotional appeal, soundbites, visual communication and so on.

THEMES IN POLITICAL DISCOURSE.

Ruth Wodak (1996) views theme as a crucial aspect of discourse structure. She emphasizes

that themes are not only about what the text is "about" but also about how power, ideology,

and social relations are manifested through language. Theme in political discourse refers to

the overarching subject that runs through a speech, text, or conversation. Van Dijk, Teun A.

(1977) defines theme as 'an essential element in discourse that refers to the central message or

proposition of a text'. It is a central topic that shapes the content and argumentation within

political discourse, it has to do with the recurring ideas or motifs that shape the narrative and

provide coherence to the communication. Identifying the theme in political discourse

involves analyzing the language used by speakers to convey a central idea or topic. For

example, in a political speech about economic policies, words like 'devaluation', 'suffering',

'deteriorated', 'hampered' and 'exacerbated' indicate. Other themes that can be found inn

political discourse are:

Economic instability. Words like these show a downturn in the economy.

Insecurity: State police being a mirage and recipe for anarchy. Lexical items like 'worry',

'persecute', 'rig', 'harass' and 'armed wing' are used to show the theme of state police being a

tool for anarchy. They have transited from securing lives to persecuting people.
Other theme that can be found include: Power and Governance , Ideology, Economic

Policies, Social Justice, Environmental Policies and Addressing issues related to equity,

diversity, tourism, defense, foreign policies and so on.

REFERENCES

Abimbola, O. (2024, February 20). Many Nigerians can no longer afford beer - NB CEO.

Retrieved from https://punchng.com/many-nigerians-can-no-longer-afford-beer-nb-ceo/?amp

Chilton, P. (2004). Analyzing Political Discourse: Theory and Practice. London: Routledge.

Dyck, T.A. van. (2000). Language. Cognition. Communication. Blagoveshchensk: I.A.

Baudouin de Courtenay BGC.

Dyck, T.A. van. (2013). Discourse and Power: Representations of Dominance in Language

and Communication. Moscow: Book House "LIBROCOM".

Fairclough, I. (2012). Political Discourse Analysis: A Method for Advanced Students.

Routledge.

Fairclough, N. (1992). Discourse and Social Change. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Habermas, J. (1991). The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a

Category of Bourgeois Society. Cambridge: MIT Press

Sanni, S. (2024, February 19). Insecurity: State police is mirage, recipe for anarchy.

Retrieved from https://www.vanguardngr.com/2024/02/insecurity-state-police-is-mirage-

recipe-for-anarchy-shehu-sani/

Sunstein, C. R. (2017). #Republic: Divided Democracy in the Age of Social Media.

Princeton: Princeton University Press

Van Dijk, T. A. (1977). Text and Context: Explorations in the Semantics and Pragmatics of

Discourse. New York: Longman.

Wilson, J. (2008). The Handbook of Discourse Analysis. January 2008 (pp. 398-415).

Wodak, R. (1996). Disorders of Discourse. University of Michigan: Pearson.

COURSE TITLE: DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

COURSE CODE: ENG 434

FACULTY: ARTS

DEPARTMENT: ENGLISH

ASSIGNMENT: PROCESSES AND CIRCUMSTANCES

GROUP 20

GROUP MEMBERS

1. Odubayo, Esther Modupe 180102142 GROUP LEADER

2. Achodor, Smart Dozie 180102143

3. Logunleko, Afolashade Aonatallah 180102144

4. Olaleru, Abigail 180102145

5. Ezikeoha, Clara Oluchi 180102147

6. Chu, Joy Enuofima 170102109

7. Oluwafemi, Victory Eniola. 170102081

Processes and Circumstances

According to Halliday (1994), language mainly serves three primary functions which are ter
med as metafunctions. The ideational metafunction considers the clause as a representation of
reality. The ideational function consists six processes called material, mental, relational, beha
vioural, verbal and existential. Material, relational and mental processes are primary whereas
verbal, behavioural and existential processes are secondary. Processes represent the actions th
at are expressed through language in a clause. They are mostly verbal groups. There are
elements than the verbal group which give extra information about the context in which those
actions or events occur, these are circumstances, Thompson (2014). In other words, circumsta
nces help specify the manner, time, place, or purpose of a process. Processes and circumstanc
es are fundamental to understanding how language constructs meaning in context.

Definition of Processes

Process refers to the meaning expressed by the verb in a clause. Processes are the core of the
clause from the experiential perspective, the clause is primarily about the action, event or
state that the participants are involved in. The process is typically expressed or realized by the
verbal group in the clause. Processes are the happenings represented in a clause.

Types of Processes

Material Process
These are processes of “doing” It describes what people or things do. The doer of the action i
s called the “actor”. The second participant who receives the action is the “goal”. The actor m
ay be human or inanimate, and the goal may be human or inanimate. Example: “She drew a p
icture.” “She” is the actor; “painted” is the material process; “a picture” is the goal.

Relational Process
This process describes states or conditions that exist. The central function of meaning of this t
ype of process is that something “is”. Linking verbs belonging to the “be” category and verbs
such as see, turn, and become. The two participants in this process are the “carrier” and the “a
ttribute”. The “carrier” is the entity which carries the “attribute”. The formula for attributing t
he relational process if “X” is an attribute of “Y”. Example: “Bisi is a doctor.” “Bisi” is the c
arrier; “is” is the relational process; “a doctor” is the attribute
Verbal Process
This process involves communication or expression of information. It is the process of “sayin
g”. Here, “saying” covers any kind of symbolic exchange of meaning. One prominent particip
ant is the “sayer”. Other participants are the receiver and the verbiage. Example: “She said go
odbye.” “She” is the sayer, “said” is the verbal process while goodbye is the verbiage.

Mental Process
This process describes perception, cognition, or emotion. In a clause of mental process, there
is always one participant who is human. This is the one that feels or senses. The two participa
nts in the mental process are the “senser” and the “phenomenon”. While the “senser” is the co
nscious being that feels, thinks. The “phenomenon” is what is sensed, felt.

Example: “I believe you.” “I” is the senser; “believe” is the mental process; “you” is the phen
omenon”.

Behavioral Process
This is a process of physiological and psychological behaviour like breathing, dreaming, smi
ling and coughing. They are intermediate between material and mental processes. The majorit
y of behavioral processes have one participant only, called the “behaver”.
Example: “The girl coughed” “The girl” is the behaver; “coughed” is the behavioral process.

Existential Process
This process represents that something exists or happens. The key to the recognition or identi
fication of the existential process is the presence of the empty or dummy subject “there”. Exis
tential clauses typically have the verb “be” or other verbs such as “exist” and “arise”.

Example: “There is a battle.” “is” is the existential process; “a battle” is the existent.

Circumstances

Circumstances, on the other hand, provide additional information about the context which a p
rocess occurs. They describe the time, place, manner, purpose, or condition of the expressed
by the process. For example, in the sentence “John kicked the ball in the park,” “in the park” i
s a circumstance that specifies the location of the action. These are prepositions and adverbs.

An Analysis of Processes and Circumstances in the 2009 State-of-the-Nation Address in

Ghana by John Atta Mills

Processes
Mental Process

There are 317 material processes identified in the text. Some of the material processes as used
in the address are illustrated below:

For example:

As the third President in Ghana’s Fourth Republic (circumstance) I (Actor) will play (Materia
l process) my part (Goal) to add to their legacy (Circumstance).

Mills uses I and We actors to carry out the various material processes in the clause. These are
all human actors. A closer examination of actors and their roles indicate that they are ideologi
cally motivated. The analysis of actor indicates that Mills identifies himself and his administr
ation as main actors and sole doers of main developmental processes happening in Ghana.

Relational Process

In the address, there are 111 relational processes were identified.

For example:

Consensus-building (Carrier) is (Attributive relational process) vital (Attribute)

Time (Carrier) is (Attribute relational process) very precious (Attribute)

These relational processes establish a relationship between the carrier and the attribute. Mills
identifies consensus building and time consciousness as being important factors for nation-
building. These two factors are very essential in his discharge of responsibility of renewing th
e hopes and aspirations of his people.

Mental Process

President Mills deploys seventy-seven mental processes in his address for different purposes.
The various participant roles are illustrated in the following clauses as used in the address:

We all (Senser) value (Mental process) accountability of government and free expression (Ph
enomenon)

I (Sensor) believe (Mental process) it is possible to bring back smiles to the faces of all Ghan
aians (Phenomenon)

The mental process is used to assure by Mills to assure Ghanaians of accountability and give
hope to them.
Circumstances

For example: As the third President in Ghana’s Fourth Republic (Circumstance) I (Actor) will
play (Material process) my part (Goal) to add to their legacy (Circumstance). The first
circumstance functions as a temporal circumstance. It provides information about the context
in which the action described in the main clause happens. The phrase "to add to their legacy"
functions as a purposive circumstance. It indicates the intention behind “play my part”.

References

Halliday, M. A. K. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar (2nd ed.). London: Hodde

r Arnold.

Mills, J. E. A. (2009). State of the Nation Address. Retrieved on 8th March, 2024.

www.parliament.gh/publications/49 and www.myjoyonline.com

Thompson, G. (2014). Introducing Functional Grammar: Third Edition (Third Edit). New
York: Routledge.
 LEXICON AND LOCAL SEMANTICS

GROUP 21

180102149. OBISANWO, Oladipupo

180102150. Oke, David Adeshina

180102151. Akintunde, Oyindamola Rokeebat

180102154. Olamide, Elizabeth Abosede

180102153 Oludipo Oreoluwa

180102152 AKAIGWE CHIOMA NNEMDI

According to the Oxford diction, Lexicon is the vocabulary of a person, language or branch of
knowledge. The lexicon encompass the words and phrases in a language. It is the glossary of
a person or a language. On the other hand, Local Semantics refer to how these words and
phrases are understood within a specific context, that is, meaning attributed to words based
on context of use. Both the lexicon and local semantics can change depending on the topic
being discussed:

The influence of lexicon and local semantics on discourse is a complex and multifaceted
phenomenon, and it has been the subject of extensive research in the fields of linguistics,
sociology, and communication. One example that illustrates the influence of lexicon and
local semantics is the use of the word "home." In English-speaking countries the word
"home" can have a variety of meanings, depending on the local semantics of the speaker or
writer. For some people, "home" may refer to a physical place, such as a house or
apartment. For others, it may refer to a more abstract concept, such as a sense of belonging
or a feeling of comfort. This variation in meaning is a direct result of the differences in local
semantics, and it can lead to misunderstandings when people from different backgrounds
use the same word but mean different things.

Another example that highlights the influence of lexicon and local semantics is the use of
the phrase "I love you." In some cultures, this phrase is used very casually, and it may be
said to friends, family members, or even strangers. In other cultures, however, the phrase is
much more serious and is only used between people who are in a committed romantic
relationship. This difference in meaning can lead to confusion and miscommunication when
people from different cultures interact.

How about we look at the word "family"? This is another word that can have very different
meanings depending on the local semantics of the speaker or writer. In some cultures,
"family" may refer only to immediate relatives, such as parents, siblings, and children. In
other cultures, the term may be used more broadly to include extended family members,
such as aunts, uncles, and cousins. Additionally, in some cultures, "family" may even include
non-related people who are considered close friends or members of a community.
In summary, the examples of "home" and "family" show how the meaning of words can vary
greatly depending on the local semantics of the speaker or writer. This variation in meaning
can lead to miscommunication and misunderstanding, so it is important to be aware of
these differences when communicating with people from different cultures. By
understanding the role of lexicon and local semantics in discourse, we can become more
effective and empathetic communicators.Lexicon and local semantics play crucial roles in
communication and interpretation. The lexicon, which encompasses the vocabulary of a
language, is essential for efficient communication.

It involves accessing information from the mental lexicon, which activates both phonological
and semantic components.

Lexicon plays a crucial role in communication. When individuals share a common lexicon, it
facilitates mutual understanding and accurate interpretation of messages.

Local semantics which is the meaning of words within a specific context, further refines this
process.

Imagine a lexicon as a shared toolbox of words. If two people have a similar set of tools,
communication becomes smoother. However, local semantics introduce nuance. A word
may have different meanings based on the context in which it's used. Understanding these
nuances is vital for accurate interpretation.

For instance, the word "bark" can mean the sound a dog makes or the outer covering of a
tree. Without considering local semantics, misinterpretations can occur. Clear
communication hinges on a shared lexicon and a nuanced grasp of local semantics within a
given context.
The interaction between these components influences how words are understood and
produced.

Research explores the relationship between phonology and semantics in lexical access,
highlighting their similarity and interactive nature

Different linguistic theories propose varying models for how these components interact
during lexical access, with debates ongoing about the exact nature of this process.

Understanding the implications of lexicon and local semantics is fundamental for

comprehending how language functions in human communication. The structure of the
lexicon, its organization, and the interplay between phonology and semantics all contribute
significantly to effective communication and interpretation.

Lexicon and local semantics play crucial roles in communication and interpretation. The
lexicon, which encompasses the vocabulary of a language, is essential for efficient
communication.

It involves accessing information from the mental lexicon, which activates both phonological
and semantic components.

Lexicon plays a crucial role in communication. When individuals share a common lexicon, it
facilitates mutual understanding and accurate interpretation of messages.

Local semantics which is the meaning of words within a specific context, further refines this
process.

Imagine a lexicon as a shared toolbox of words. If two people have a similar set of tools,
communication becomes smoother. However, local semantics introduce nuance. A word
may have different meanings based on the context in which it's used. Understanding these
nuances is vital for accurate interpretation.

For instance, the word "bark" can mean the sound a dog makes or the outer covering of a
tree. Without considering local semantics, misinterpretations can occur. Clear
communication hinges on a shared lexicon and a nuanced grasp of local semantics within a
given context.

The interaction between these components influences how words are understood and
produced.

Research explores the relationship between phonology and semantics in lexical access,
highlighting their similarity and interactive nature

Different linguistic theories propose varying models for how these components interact
during lexical access, with debates ongoing about the exact nature of this process.
ENG434: INTRODUCTION TO DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

TOPIC: SYNTAX OF POLITICAL DISCOURSE

GROUP MEMBERS NAMES AND MATRIC NUMBER

OFOEBU, Amarachi 180102155

UMOREN, Alex Daniel 180102162
Adeyemi Peace Omolola 180102158
BENSON, Mopelola 180102161
OGUNNAIKE, Olumide Oluwaseun 180102159

RESEARCH AND BACKGROUND STUDY ON THE SYNTAX OF

POLITICAL DISCOURSE :-
 Political discourse, the realm where language intertwines with
power, ideology, and governance, has long been a subject of
scholarly inquiry across various disciplines, including linguistics,
political science, and communication studies. Understanding the
syntax of political discourse involves delving into the linguistic
structures, rhetorical devices, and communicative strategies
employed by politicians and leaders to shape public opinion,
influence policy outcomes, and maintain power dynamics.
The study of political discourse dates back to classical rhetoric,
where scholars like Aristotle explored the art of persuasion and
argumentation in public speaking. However, it wasn't until the
emergence of modern linguistics that researchers began to
systematically analyze the linguistic aspects of political
communication. In recent decades, scholars have increasingly
turned their attention to the syntax of political discourse, recognizing
its significance in analyzing the power dynamics and persuasive
strategies employed in political communication. This
interdisciplinary field draws on insights from linguistics, discourse
analysis, pragmatics, and sociolinguistics.
KEY CONCEPTS IN THE STUDY OF THE SYNTAX OF
POLITICAL DISCOURSE INCLUDES:-
(1.) Syntactic Structures
(2.) Rhetorical Devices
(3.) Power and Ideology
(4.) Audience Engagement
https://www.lagosppa.gov.ng/the-budget-of-rekindled-hope-speech-
delivered-by-gov-sanwo-olu-on-2021-budget/
In this speech above titled “THE ENDSARS PROTESTS” by the
Governor of Lagos State, several elements of political discourse
can be analyzed through the lens of syntax and linguistic approach
(1.) Identification and Positioning:- The governor begins by
positioning himself and the state government as allies of the END
SARS protests, stating, "We identified with, and continue to identify
with, the legitimate objectives of the ENDSARS protests." The
syntax here employs parallel structure ("we identified with, and
continue to identify with") to emphasize the government's alignment
with the protesters' objectives.
(2.) Acknowledgment of Concerns:- The governor acknowledges
the concerns raised by the protests, such as ending police brutality
and holding law enforcement accountable. This is done through the
use of parallel structure again ("ending police brutality, encouraging
reforms...and ensuring that the police are held accountable"),
highlighting the interconnectedness of these issues.
(3.) Contrast and Justification:- The speech then contrasts the noble
ideals of the protests with the actions of "agents of destruction" who
hijacked the movement. The syntax employs juxtaposition to
highlight the divergence between the original intent of the protests
and the destructive actions that ensued. Additionally, the use of the
word "unfortunately" at the beginning of the sentence conveys a
sense of regret or disappointment, further emphasising the contrast.
(4.) Quantification and Impact:- The governor quantifies the damage
caused by the protests, stating that it cost "public and private
property worth hundreds of billions of Naira." The syntax here
utilises numerical quantification to emphasise the scale of the
damage, enhancing the impact of the statement.
Linguistic analysis of the speech.
(1.) Lexical Choice:- The governor employs specific lexical choices
to convey his message effectively. For example, phrases like
"legitimate objectives," "agents of destruction," and "resilience and
energy" evoke certain connotations and emotional responses in the
audience, framing the discourse in a particular light. The speech
also maintains a formal register, appropriate for a governmental
address. The tone is generally solemn and serious, reflecting the
gravity of issues discussed.
(2.) Discourse Markers:- The speech uses discourse markers to
structure the discourse and signal transitions between ideas. For
instance, phrases like "unfortunately," "despite these challenges,"
and "as I noted earlier" help guide the audience through the
different points being made and emphasize key arguments.
(3.) Pragmatic Features:- Pragmatic features, such as politeness
strategies and speech acts, are evident in the speech. The
governor expresses empathy and solidarity with the protesters by
stating, "We identified with, and continue to identify with, the
legitimate objectives of the ENDSARS protests."
(4.) Syntactic Structures:- The speech employs various syntactic
structures to convey its message persuasively. For example,
parallel structure is used to emphasize alignment with the
protesters' objectives ("we identified with, and continue to identify
with").
In conclusion, the analysis of the syntax of political discourse, as
exemplified by the speech on “THE ENDSARS PROTESTS”
delivered by the Governor of Lagos State, underscores the deeper
relationship between language, power, and persuasion in the realm
of politics. Through a careful examination of lexical choices,
syntactic structures, pragmatic features, and discourse markers, we
have gained valuable insights into how language is wielded as a
tool of communication, rhetoric, and influence. This essay has
highlighted the governor's strategic use of language to position the
state government, acknowledge concerns, justify actions, express
resilience, and outline a vision for the future.
 RACISM AND XENOPHOBIC LINGOS: A CRITICAL

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF JOSEPH CONRAD’S

HEART OF DARKNESS

GROUP MEMBERS

ADEFOLALU, AARINADE A. 180102163

OGUNBO, JOY A. 180102165

UDOH, JOY I. 180102166

ADESANYA,YETUNDE D. 180102167

OBADEYI, MICHAEL O. 180102168

ABDULRASAQ, ABDULLAHI O. 180102169

 Racism, a social phenomenon rooted in power structures, manifests through
various forms, including language. Discourse plays a crucial role in not only
reflecting but also reinforcing racist ideology. This essay explores how Joseph
Conrad's novella, Heart of Darkness, exemplifies racist discourse through the lens of
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA).
CDA, as defined by Van Dijk (2015), is a research approach that examines
how social power, inequality, and dominance are reflected and enacted in language
use. CDA delves beyond the surface level of language to uncover the underlying
ideologies and power dynamics embedded within texts. Reisigl and Wodak (2001)
emphasize the importance of "triangulation" in CDA, which involves combining
historical, sociopolitical, and linguistic perspectives to analyze the construction of
racist language. Their framework proposes five key questions to guide the analysis:
 Naming and Referring: How are characters identified and referred to in the
text?
 Attributing Traits: What characteristics and qualities are ascribed to different
groups?
 Justification Strategies: How are discriminatory practices justified or
rationalized within the text?
 Perspective: From whose viewpoint are events and characters presented?
 Intensity of Discrimination: Are discriminatory utterances direct and overt, or
are they softened or mitigated?
Applying these questions to Heart of Darkness reveals how Conrad utilizes
language to perpetuate racist ideologies and construct a binary world order that
privileges Europeans and demonizes Africans.
One of the key features of the novella's racist discourse is the use of "linguistic
exclusion" to marginalize Africans. British characters, such as Marlow and Kurtz, are
consistently referred to by proper nouns, establishing their individuality and humanity.
Conversely, African characters are rarely named, often addressed using deictic
expressions like "they" or "he" or derogatory terms like "dark things" and "black
fellows." This lack of individual names creates a sense of anonymity and
dehumanization, effectively stripping them of their agency and reducing them to a
homogenous mass. Furthermore, negative adjectives like "savage" and "cannibal" are
frequently used to define the African characters, reinforcing stereotypical perceptions
of them as primitive and barbaric.
Conrad's use of language also contributes to the construction of a binary world
order in Heart of Darkness. The novella establishes a clear distinction between
"black" and "white," "civilized" and "primitive," and "superior" and "inferior."
Metaphors, similes, and adjectives become tools for Conrad to solidify this binary.
For instance, the description of Africans as "streams of human beings...poured into the
clearing by the dark-faced and pensive forest" (Conrad, p.32) emphasizes their
animalistic nature and lack of agency. They are depicted as an unstoppable force,
devoid of individuality or control over their own actions. Also, the use of darkness as
a symbol for Africa reinforces its association with savagery and chaos, while Europe
is implicitly linked to light and civilization.
Conrad utilizes specific word choices that further intensify the racist
undertones of the narrative. African characters are consistently described with
derogatory terms like "unhappy savages," "primitive men," and "prehistoric men."
Verbs like "hate" are used to highlight the prejudice held by some European
characters. An example of this is Marlow's statement, "'When one has got to make
correct entries, one comes to hate those savages- hate them to the death'" (Conrad, p.
62). This quote not only exemplifies the racist attitudes of some European characters
in the text but also serves to normalize and legitimize such sentiments within the
narrative. The language choices effectively create a distance between the European
reader and the African characters, fostering a sense of superiority and justifying the
discriminatory practices depicted in the novella.
Heart of Darkness is narrated through the view of Marlow, a European
character. This singular perspective reinforces the power dynamics at play and
positions the reader to experience the story through the eyes of a colonizer. The
reader is limited to Marlow's interpretations and observations of Africa and its
inhabitants. This limited perspective prevents a deeper understanding of the African
culture and context, further contributing to the dehumanization and othering of the
African characters. The reader is never given the opportunity to see the world from
the perspective of the colonized, perpetuating a one-sided narrative that serves the
interests of the colonizer.
While the overall narrative structure of Heart of Darkness reinforces racist
ideologies, it is important to acknowledge a mitigating factor: Marlow's internal
conflict. As the story progresses, Marlow deals with the brutality and moral ambiguity
he witnesses in the Congo. His initial justifications for colonialism begin to crumble
as he confronts the hollowness of Kurtz's "civilizing mission" and the devastating
effects of European intervention on the African population. Marlow's internal struggle
is evident in his use of ambivalent language and his questioning of European
superiority. Marlow's repeated use of phrases like "the horror! the horror!" (Conrad, p.
150) at the conclusion of the novella suggests his disillusionment with colonialism
and its consequences. While Marlow does not explicitly denounce colonialism, his
internal conflict creates a space for the reader to question the narrative's underlying
assumptions and challenge the justifications for European dominance.
However, it is crucial to acknowledge the limitations of Marlow's
introspection. His internal conflict never fully disrupts the racist stance of the
narrative. The voices of the African characters are entirely absent from the text. Their
experiences, perspectives, and suffering remain beyond the scope of Marlow's
narration. LThis silence underscores the power dynamics at play and reinforces the
marginalization of the colonized "other."
Using Critical Discourse Analysis, Heart of Darkness reveals how language
can be used to perpetuate racist ideology and construct a hierarchical world order.
Conrad's use of linguistic exclusion, binary oppositions, and charged vocabulary
contributes to the dehumanization of Africans and the justification of European
dominance. While Marlow's internal conflict introduces a degree of complexity to
the narrative, it does not ultimately dismantle the racist underpinnings of the text.
Examining Heart of Darkness through CDA allows us to critically deconstruct the
racist assumptions embedded within the text and to recognize the lasting impact of
colonial discourse.
 WAYS OF DOING POLITICAL
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

GROUP 25:
AKINLOTAN, Oluwatomiwa Adekemi 190102503
AJAYI, Samuel Adesayo 190102504
TORIOLA, Omolola Elizabeth 190102505
ODEYEMI, Taiwo Oluwatoyin 190102506
MAKANBI, Modupe Oluwayemisi 190102508
OHIRI-ANYANWU, Chimsom Janet 190102509

ENG 434: INTRODUCTION TO DISCOURSE

ANALYSIS
LECTURER(s) IN CHARGE: PROFESSOR OPE-
DAVIES & DR. ADEPOJU
 INTRODUCTION: Definition and Importance of
Political Discourse Analysis
Political discourse is the central object of political linguistics research. There are dozens of
definitions of it, but most often they turn to the definition of A.N. Baranov: political discourse is
"the totality of all speech acts used in political discussions, as well as rules of public policy,
sanctified by tradition and proven by experience" Creating her own definition of political
discourse, E.R. Levenkova also includes in it a reference to the mental sphere of human
existence, without the analysis of which modern studies of discourse would be incomplete.
According to the researcher, political discourse is "a linguistic expression of public practice in
the sphere of political culture, which is the professional use of language, which is based on the
nationally and socio-historically conditioned mentality of its speakers" The authors of these
definitions, along with foreign (T.A.van Dyck and R.Vodak) and domestic (E.G.Kazakevich)
scientists, in the study of political discourse, concentrate only on the forms of public
communication of professional politicians with the aim of winning and retaining power.
Thus, T.A. van Dyck asks in his book "The Discourse of Power" whether the media can be
considered a "power group", and, consequently, whether the results of the activities of
journalists, reporters and other representatives of this group can be attributed to political
discourse. According to the author, the media only contributes to the dissemination of political
discourse, facilitating access to it by citizens of the whole world, but they themselves cannot be
considered political discourse. Unlike linguists who support the so-called "narrow" approach to
understanding political discourse, E.I. Sheigal, A.G. Altunyan, A.P. Chudinov and others are
among those who advocate a broad commemoration of political discourse, which includes all
forms of linguistic activity in which something connects it with the world of politics (be it the
subject, addressee or the content of a sample of discourse).
 METHODOLOGY OF POLITICAL DISCOURSE
ANALYSIS
Methodology of political discourse analysis involves the use of critical discourse, rhetorical,
corpus linguistics, and sociolinguistic approaches. It provides insights into political talk's
complexities and implications for society.
1. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is a method that explores the interplay between language,
power, and ideology, revealing hidden meanings and power structures within political discourse.

2. Rhetorical analysis examines how politicians use persuasive techniques in speeches, debates,
and communication to influence public opinion and shape policy outcomes.

3. In the context of political talk, corpus linguistics can help identify recurring themes, rhetorical
devices, and linguistic strategies used by politicians. It provides quantitative data to support
qualitative analyses of political discourse.

4. Sociolinguistic analysis examines how language in politics influences social identities, power
dynamics, and cultural norms, examining factors like variation, discourse markers, and speech
communities.
Each method offers unique insights and tools for unpacking the complexities of political
communication.

EXAMPLES OF POLITICAL DISCOURSE

ANALYSIS
Presidential campaign: Discourse analysts often analyze the language used by political
candidates during presidential campaigns to understand how they construct their messages and
appeal to voters. For instance, a study might analyze the speeches of presidential candidates and
examine how they frame key issues, such as healthcare or immigration, to appeal to different
segments of the electorate.
Political debates: Another common application of political discourse analysis is the study of
political debates. Researchers might analyze transcripts or recordings of debates between
political candidates to identify rhetorical strategies, argumentative patterns, and the use of
language to persuade voters. For example, a study might examine how candidates use techniques
such as framing, rebuttal, or emotional appeals to gain an advantage in a debate.

Policy papers: Policy papers are detailed documents released by a political party which outlines
their proposed strategies for addressing specific issues like health care or education. Political
discourse analysis can be done on these documents through a critical analytical approach that
aims to understand these proposed strategies in an objective way and in the process, expose the
shortcomings found in these documents or support the ideas presented if they are found credible.
Other examples of political discourse analysis are academic research or opinion papers,
media coverage of political events, as well as public forums.

REFERENCES
Baranov, A. N. Parliamentary debates: traditions and innovations / A. N. Baranov, E. G.
Kazakevich. - M.: Znanie, 1991. - 64 p.

Dyck, T.A. van. Discourse and power: representation of dominance in language and
communication: trans. from English / T.A. van Dyck. - M.: Book House "LIBROCOM",
2013. - 344 p.

Fairclough, N. (2013). Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language. Routledge.

Hauser, G. A. (2014). Introduction to Rhetorical Theory. Waveland Press.

Maslova, V.A. Political discourse: Language games or word games? / V.A. Maslova // Political
linguistics.- Yekaterinburg, 2008. - Issue 1 (24). - pp. 43-48.
 UNIVERSITY OF
LAGOS
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
Course Title:

Introduction to Discourse Analysis

Topic:

Parties, actors, and lobbyists

Group Members

1. IBEH, Chiamaka Euphemia 190102510

2. OKOLIE, Dumebi Blessing 190102512
3. ADETOLA, Oreoluwa Emmanuella 190102513
4. ADEOJO, Temitope Omotayo 190102514
5. TAJUDEEN, Aisha Eniola 190102515
6. ABIMBOLA, Mojisola Rukayat 190102516
7. AINA, Tolulope Emotan 190102518
 Political discourse in Nigeria is dominated by a complex web of influences from

political parties, lobbyists, and individual political actors. The two major parties, APC and

PDP, drive much of the national political rhetoric and policy agenda. Additionally, influential

lobbyists such as trade unions, ethics and religious organizations, etc., as well as strong

personality such as presidents, governors, traditional leaders, etc., utilize their status to shape

political conversations, impact policy debates, influence public opinion and pressure

politicians. This essay attempts to consider the interconnections between these parties,

interest groups, and individuals in relation to political discourse.

A political party is a group of people that come together to contest elections in order

to hold power in the government. In Nigeria we have two major parties that have been at the

forefront since the early 2000s – The People’s Democratic Party (PDP) and All Progressive

Congress (APC). Political parties often employ the use of rhetoric and persuasive language

while electioneering. This technical use of language is exhibited in campaign speeches and

slogans. The use of persuasive language or emotional appeals can engage voters, however,

relying solely on them can backfire. It is important to create manifestos with clear, specific

details and a realistic vision that allows voters to trust and make informed decisions. For

instance, we can study the APC campaign slogan for the 2023 presidential election and say

that it is indicative of the lack of nationalism because the slogan is not encoded in the official

language of the country and therefore alienates citizens who do speak the language.

Political actors are individuals who participate in the political process, influencing

decision-making and shaping government policies. One type of political actor is the

president, who can act as a political “patron” dispensing favours to his or her supporters or

allies. A president may employ rhetoric to frame certain policies or actions as beneficial for a

specific group or region, or to reward loyal followers with appointments or grants. This way,

the president can create a sense of obligation and gratitude among the recipients of his or her
favours, and secure their loyalty and support in return. The president can also use language to

justify or legitimize his or her decisions or actions, especially when they are controversial or

unpopular. The president's use of language can thus shape the public perception of his or her

leadership and authority, and influence the political agenda and outcomes. Other types of

political actors includes elected officials, interest groups, Government bureaucrats, etcetera.

Lobbyists are individuals or groups employed to advocate for specific interests and

influence government decisions on behalf of their clients. These lobby groups gain access to

key policymakers in the Nigerian government through influential “godfathers” such as Ex-

military generals, former Heads of State, Traditional rulers, Religious figures, etc., and links

to the two major parties. These godfathers use their senior status, wealth and connections to

broker closed-door meetings and transactions between politicians and business lobbyists. In

return, the godfathers gain kickbacks while the lobbyists shape economic bills and policies to

be more relaxed around issues like environmental standards, minimum wage and

privatization of state assets. This results in an economic policy that serves the narrow

interests of Nigerian big businesses rather than the wider population.

Taking cognisance of everything discussed in this paper, one can easily arrive at the

conclusion that political discourse in Nigeria is shaped by multifaceted arena through the

interactions of political parties, lobbyists, and individual actors. The dominant forces in

Nigeria’s political sphere drive policy direction while influential lobbyists and strong

personalities wield significant influence over political conversations. Therefore, the role of

political parties, lobbyists, political actors, including presidents, elected officials, and interest

groups, in influencing policies and public perception through language and actions is

paramount. This intricate web of influences underscores how political discourse not only

shapes public opinion but also impacts policy outcomes and societal welfare in Nigeria.
References

Grad Coach (2021). What (Exactly) Is Discourse Analysis? A Plain-Language Explanation &
Definition (With Examples). https://gradcoach.com/discourse-analysis-101/

https://repository.unam.edu.na/handle/11070/1926

Scribbr (2021). Critical Discourse Analysis | Definition, Guide & Examples.

https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/discourse-analysis/

Wodak R., Krzyzanowski M., eds. (2008). Qualitative Discourse Analysis in the Social Sciences.
Palgrave Macmillan.
UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
FACULTY OF ARTS
Group Members

1 AGBAKU ANGEL 190102519

2 ALADE-YUSUFF,MARIAM ADENIKE 190102520

3 SHOGBESAN,AYOBAMI LAURA 190102523

4 BAKARE,AYOMIDE GBEMISOLA 190102524

5 LAWAL, ABDULRAHMON ADETUNJI 190102525

POLITICAL DISCOURSE STRUCTURE

Introduction to Political Discourse
Political discourse can be defined as the dynamic communication process through which
individuals and groups express, debate, and negotiate their political beliefs, values, and
interests. It serves as the cornerstone of democratic societies, providing a platform for
citizens to engage in dialogue, exchange ideas, and advocate for their viewpoints.
The significance of political discourse cannot be overstated. It plays a crucial role in shaping
public opinion by exposing people to different perspectives and information. Through
discourse, individuals can challenge prevailing narratives, critically evaluate policies, and
contribute to the formation of informed opinions. Moreover, political discourse serves as a
catalyst for influencing policy outcomes, as it provides a forum for stakeholders to articulate
their preferences, mobilize support, and hold decision-makers accountable.
Furthermore, political discourse is essential for fostering democratic participation. By
facilitating open dialogue and debate, it empowers citizens to actively engage in the political
process, express their concerns, and participate in decision-making. In doing so, it helps to
cultivate a vibrant civic culture characterized by pluralism, tolerance, and civic engagement.
Political discourse, in summary, is a fundamental aspect of democratic societies, serving as a
mechanism for expressing, debating, and negotiating political beliefs, values, and interests.
Its importance lies in its ability to shape public opinion, influence policy outcomes, and
promote democratic participation, thereby contributing to the functioning and resilience of
democratic institutions.

Components of Political Discourse structure

Here are some components of political discourse ;
Participants :Participants in political discourse encompass politicians, citizens, media, and
interest groups. Politicians shape discourse through speeches, policies, and debates, seeking
to persuade and mobilize support. Citizens engage through voting, activism, and public
opinion expression, influencing political agendas.
Topics and Issues: Political discourse encompasses various topics and issues, including
economic policy, social justice, foreign relations, and environmental sustainability. The
framing of these subjects influences public perception and policy decisions, influencing the
direction of economic policy. Economic policy, encompassing taxation, government
spending, and monetary policy, often revolves around market freedom versus intervention
ideologies. Social justice issues, addressing inequalities across race, gender, sexuality, and
class, can mobilize support for progressive reforms or provoke backlash.
Language and rhetoric
Language and rhetoric are pivotal in political discourse, shaping public opinion and rallying
support for political agendas. Through persuasive techniques like emotional appeals and
logical reasoning, politicians sway audiences to their viewpoints. Rhetorical devices such as
metaphors and framing techniques are employed to evoke emotions and simplify complex
ideas. Platforms and medium
Platforms and mediums in political discourse encompass a wide range of channels used for
communication and engagement in political discussions. These include traditional platforms
such as television, radio, newspapers, and magazines, which reach broad audiences and
provide in-depth analysis of political issues. In the digital age, social media platforms like
Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram play a significant role, offering real-time updates,
interactive content, and opportunities for citizen engagement. Online forums, blogs, and
websites also serve as platforms for political discourse, allowing individuals to share
opinions, debate ideas, and mobilize support for various causes..

Structural dynamics of political discourse

I Agenda setting :Agenda setting is mainstream media utilizing their influence to sway the
significance of various topics on the public agenda.We’re all aware of the power the media
holds in shaping the public’s view on certain events. The agenda setting theory was first
introduced by Dr. Maxwell McCombs and Dr. Donald Shaw in 1972. It is a key structural
dynamic in political discourse as it influences which issues receive attention,their framework
and ultimately shaping public perceptions and policy priorities.It makes use of various media
influences;Media Agenda Setting ,Political Messaging,Public Perception, and Policy impact.
Debate and Deliberation: Debate and deliberation play a crucial role in structural dynamics
of political discourse,they are mechanisms through which ideas,policies and perspectives are
examined, and refined within a democratic society. Debate involves the presentation of
contrasting viewpoints on particular issues or topics as it is characterized by the exchange of
arguments and counterarguments between different participants.They often occur in
structured settings such as legislative bodies,public forums or media platforms where
participants can engage in critical analysis. Deliberation on the other hand is an
argumentative genre that involves a more collaborative and inclusive form of decision
making.
Power dynamics:Power dynamics is an essential aspect in any society and organization,as it
shapes the interactions, outcomes and overall functioning of the discourse. Powerful actors
such as politicians,media organizations,celebrities can leverage their resources and influence
to shape narratives,and control the flow of information.They can also steer the discourse
towards their preferred agendas or priorities while ignoring other important issues.Power
dynamics can lead to manipulation of political discourse through the spread of
disinformation,propaganda,or misleading narratives .Ultimately a healthy and balanced
political discourse requires the active participation and engagement of diverse voices as well
as mechanisms that mitigate the undue concentration of power.
CHALLENGES OF POLITICAL DISCOURSE
Political discourse in today's world faces several challenges.
One major challenge is Polarization, where people become deeply divided and find it difficult
to have meaningful conversations with those who hold different views. Another challenge is
the spread of misinformation , which can distort the truth and make it harder to have
informed discussions.
Echo chambers also pose a challenge, as people tend to surround themselves with like-
minded individuals, reinforcing their own beliefs and limiting exposure to diverse
perspectives.
Lastly, declining trust in institutions can hinder open dialogue and make it harder to find
common ground. It's important for us to be aware of these challenges and strive for respectful
and constructive conversations.
OPPORTUNITIES FOR ADDRESSING THESE CHALLENGES
There are several strategies and opportunities to address these challenges. Media literacy
initiatives play a crucial role in equipping individuals with the skills to critically evaluate
information and discern fact from fiction. Through the promotion of media literacy, we can
empower people to make informed decisions and engage in meaningful political discourse.
Grassroots mobilization is another powerful strategy. When individuals come together at the
community level, they can collectively advocate for change.
Conclusion
Political discourse encompasses the exchange of ideas, arguments, and debates surrounding
political issues and policies within a society. It involves discussions about governance,
ideologies, public policies, and the role of government in addressing societal challenges.
Political discourse can occur in various forms, including speeches, debates, social media
discussions, news coverage, and academic analyses. It plays a crucial role in shaping public
opinion, influencing policy making, and fostering democratic participation. However, it can
also be polarizing and contentious, reflecting the diversity of perspectives and interests within
a society.
Reference
Political discourse “.Science direct.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/political-discourse (February 23rd
2024)
Study.com. (n.d.). Agenda-Setting Theory: Politics & Examples. Retrieved
fromhttps://study.com/learn/lesson/agenda-setting-theory-politics-examples.html
ResearchGate. (n.d.). Deliberative Discourse. Retrieved
fromhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/282850888_Deliberative_Discourse
Power Dynamics - FasterCapital. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://fastercapital.com/keyword/power-dynamics.html
Rikedahl, Diane. “Political Discourse.” The International Encyclopedia of Anthropology.
Edited by Hill Callan. Johns Willy& Sons.Ltd. 2018.
 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

LIST OF GROUP MEMBERS

NAME MATRIC
NUMBER

YUSUF, Taibat Oluwapelumi 190102526

ALE, Temitope Isaac 190102527

ADEGBOLA, Egomaron Faith 190102528

PELEMO, Bisola
190102529

NWUBA, Favour Adanna 190102530

MATILDA, Ojonoma Ameh 190102531

OLORUNFEMI, Olorunjoba Daniel 190102532

 VOICE OF AUTHORITY AND POWER RELATIONS.

Voice of authority

The term voice of authority is generally linked to critical discourse analysis (CDA), which
refers to a research method that examines written or spoken language in relation to its social
context. It aims to offer a different mode or perspective of theorising, analysis, and
application throughout the whole field. CDA seeks to understand how language functions in
real-life situations, shedding light on power dynamics, ideologies, and authority structures.

The term “voice of authority'' can therefore be defined as the linguistic expression or tone
used by a speaker or writer to convey expertise, prerogatives, or influence on a particular
topic. It often involves the use of language that exudes confidence, knowledge, power, and
professionalism, which can persuade or convince the audience to accept the speaker's or
writer's point of view. The voice of authority can manifest in various linguistic features, such
as specialised vocabulary, technical jargon, formal syntax, and assertive statements. Such
linguistic choices aid in establishing the speaker or writer as an expert in their field as well as
asserting their insight and comprehension of the subject matter. In discourse analysis, it is
important to identify and analyze the voice of authority, as it provides an understanding of
how language is used to shape power dynamics, influence, perceptions, and establish
plausibility within communication contexts.

Power relations in discourse analysis

Power and discourse are constantly debated topics that have different interpretations
depending on the academic discipline. Power is commonly understood as an individual's
capacity to shape the actions of others, while discourse typically refers to the use of language
as a means of social engagement. The connection between power and discourse largely
depends on the varying perspectives held by different academic fields regarding the nature of
power and the role of language in social interactions.

At its core, power relations in discourse analysis involve studying how power functions in
specific contexts and influences the creation, dissemination, and interpretation of meaning.
Language is not neutral; it carries social, cultural, and political implications that reflect power
dynamics. Certain groups or individuals may possess more power and influence over the
meanings ascribed to words, symbols, and discourses, while others may be marginalised or
silenced. An important aspect of power relations in discourse analysis is the examination of
dominant discourses. Dominant discourses encompass sets of ideas, beliefs, and values that
are widely accepted and promoted by those in positions of power. These discourses shape
societal norms, values, and expectations, often perpetuating existing power structures and
reinforcing social inequalities.

Ideological power also plays a significant role in power relations within discourse analysis.
Ideologies encompass belief systems, values, and norms that shape individuals' and societies'
understanding and interpretation of the world.

Power relations in discourse analysis are a central focus for comprehending how language
and communication reflect and sustain social hierarchies and inequalities.

The importance of studying the voice of authority and power relations in discourse
analysis.

- The Power of Language: Language is a powerful instrument that reflects and maintains
power relations in addition to transmitting information. Discourse analysis enables us to see
how language creates and maintains hierarchies by elevating some voices above others and
suppressing others.

- Authority in Discourse: Beyond official positions of power, the idea of authority includes
the capacity to mold and influence stories. Examining those with the ability to establish
agendas, create meanings, and steer narratives is a necessary step in analyzing the voice of
authority in discourse.

- Power Relations in Discourse: Discourse analysis reveals systemic disparities and hidden
hierarchies by illuminating the subtleties of power relations ingrained in language.
Researchers can spot power disparities and hierarchies in discursive encounters by closely
examining language choices, interruptions, and turn-taking in discussions.

An analysis of specific discourse instances showcasing the voice of authority and power
relations.

Analysing discourse instances that showcase the voice of authority and power relations
involves examining how language is used to assert dominance, control, or influence within a
particular context. Here are a few examples:
In speeches, political leaders often employ rhetoric that positions them as authoritative
figures. For instance, in a speech addressing a nation, a leader might use declarative
statements and assertive language to convey power and authority. Phrases like "I will ensure"
or "We must act decisively" establish the speaker as a figure of authority, influencing the
audience's perception of their leadership.
Also, in corporate communications, executives may use language to assert their authority and
reinforce power dynamics within the organization. For example, during a company meeting,
a CEO might use phrases such as "It's imperative that we follow this strategy" or "I expect
everyone to comply with these directives," signalling their authority and shaping the
discourse within the company.

In academic contexts, professors or experts often assert their authority through the use of
specialized terminology, citations of research, and confident assertions. An example is a
lecture or scholarly article, an academic might use phrases like "According to recent studies"
or "It is widely accepted that..." to establish their expertise and influence the discourse within
their field.

In conclusion, the study of voice of authority and power relations in critical discourse
analysis (CDA) unveils the intricate ways language is used to assert dominance, control
narratives, and shape ideologies. Through analysing texts, conversations, and media, CDA
reveals how individuals or institutions assert their authority through linguistic strategies, such
as employing formal language, using expert jargon, or employing persuasive techniques. It
also sheds light on how power dynamics are manifested in language, with certain groups or
individuals wielding linguistic power to reinforce social hierarchies and marginalize others.

References
Fairclough, N. (1995). Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language. London:
Longman.

Foucault, M. (1972). The Archaeology of Knowledge. New York: Pantheon Books.

Van Dijk, T. A. (1993). Principles of Critical Discourse Analysis. Discourse & Society, 4(2),
249-283.

Chiang, S.Y. (2015). Power and discourse. The International Encyclopedia of Language and
Social Interaction. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118611463.wbielsi149.
 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS GROUP
ASSIGNMENT
TOPIC: Direct/Indirect speech acts in political discourse

LIST OF GROUP MEMBERS

NAMES MATRIC NUMBER

LATEEF, Rukayat Omowunmi 190102534

MONEKE, Chukwunonso Jeff 190102535

OSHO, Adeola Zainab 190102536

ANIMASHAUN, Faith Omowunmi 190102537

OGUNLEYE, Oluwatoyin Peace 190102538

AYENI, Idris Olatubosun 190102539

ALONGE, Oreoluwa Esther 190102540

The Speech-Act Theory

The speech-theory encapsulates the way in which words can be used not only to present
information but also to carry out an actions. It is the sub-field of pragmatics. It’s used to
analyze a text meaning, the purpose of the text and saying something that makes someone to
acts. The theory was propounded by Oxford philosopher J.L Austin in his book titled ‘How to
Do Things with Words’ and it is further developed by the American philosopher J.R Searle. It
took into account three levels or components of utterances, such as: locutionary acts (the
making of a meaningful statement, saying something that a hearer understands), illocutionary
acts (saying something with a purpose, such as to inform), and perlocutionary acts (saying
something that causes someone to act).

Direct speech acts are a fundamental tool in political discourse, which allow politicians to
communicate their intentions and goals clearly and directly. These acts are characterized by a
straightforward relationship between the words spoken and the intended meaning.

Here are some of the most common types of direct speech acts used in political discourse:

Assertives: These statements aim to convey information that the speaker believes to be true.
For example, a politician might say, "The unemployment rate has fallen by 5% since I took
office."

Directives: They are used to get the listener to do something. Politicians often use directives
to give orders, make requests, or offer advice. For example, "Vote for me on Election Day."

Commissives: These speech acts commit the speaker to a future course of action. Politicians
use commissives to make promises, guarantees, or threats. For example, "I will create one
million new jobs in my first term."

Expressives: These utterances express the speaker's emotions, feelings, or beliefs. Politicians
use expressives to show their support for a cause, their disapproval of an action, or their
condolences for a tragedy. A politician might say, "I am outraged by this act of violence."

Declaratives: These statements formally bring about a change in state or condition. While
less common, pronouncements of war, declarations of states of emergency, or legislative
approvals all fall under declaratives.

Example: "I hereby declare a national state of emergency due to the recent hurricane."
The use of direct speech acts in political discourse can be effective in conveying a clear
message and persuading the audience.

Indirect speech acts in politics involves the use of language to convey meaning beyond
the literal interpretation of words spoken. Political actors tend to communicate in vague and
oblique ways in order to protect and further their own career to gain both political and
interactional advantage over their political opponent. They are speech acts that are often used
to maintain diplomacy, avoid direct confrontation, a subtly influence public opinion. They
rely heavily on context, tone and cultural understanding to be interpreted correctly, making
them a powerful tool for persuasion in a political area.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS

1. In a direct speech, Inverted commas are used to highlight the exact words of the speaker
when reporting them while in an indirect speech, it involves reporting what someone said
without exact quoting them. In indirect speech, the speaker's original statement is not
highlighted by inverted commas; instead, it is reported using own words. In order to
understand the two properly, we must examine the examples.

Direct: Sarah said, "I will meet you at the park tomorrow."

Indirect: Sarah informed me that she would meet me at the park the next day.

Direct: Tom said, "I can't attend the seminar due to a prior commitment."

Indirect: Indirect: Tom mentioned that he wouldn't be able to attend the seminar because of a
prior commitment.

In these two examples, you may have noticed that we use quotations to outline the speaker's
words when speaking directly. As against, in an indirect speech, the listener narrates in their
own words.

2. Direct Speech is when someone repeats their words directly using a quotative frame. On
the other hand, indirect speech is the act of reporting something said or written by someone
else without using exact words.

3. Direct Speech is also known as a quoted speech because it uses the speaker's exact words
while indirect speech is termed as reported speech because it narrates what the speaker said.
4. Direct speech is from the speaker's perspective, while indirect speech is from the listener's
perspective.

5. A direct speech is when we use the exact pronunciation of the speaker's words.
Conversely, in an indirect speech own word are used to report the speaker’s statement. The
inverted comma is used in direct speech, but not in an indirect speech

In conclusion, speech-act theory is a vital subfield of pragmatics, as it examines the

multifaceted ways in which language not only conveys information but also accomplishes
actions. Initially introduced by J.L. Austin and further elucidated by J.R. Searle, this theory
dissects the intricacies of locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts within language
use. Direct speech acts are pivotal in political discourse, they facilitate clear communication
of intentions and objectives. Understanding the difference between direct and indirect speech
acts is crucial, as direct speech involves quoting the speaker's exact words, while indirect
speech conveys the message in the reporter's own words. This distinction underscores the
importance of linguistic accuracy and contextual interpretation in effective communication,
particularly within the broad field of political discourse.

References
Obeng, S. G. (1997). Language and politics: indirectness in political discourse. Discourse &
Society, 8(1), 49-83.

Safwat, S. (2015, July). Speech Acts in Political Speeches. Retrieved from

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284064722_Speech_Acts_in_Political_Speeches

Speech-act theory. (2019, July 3). ThoughtCo. Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/speech-act-theory-1691061

Key Differences. (n.d.). Difference Between Direct and Indirect Speech. Retrieved from
https://www.keydifferences.com/difference-between-direct-and-indirect-speech.html
 DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

GROUP ASSESSMENT(GROUP 30)

TOPIC: LEXICON AND LOCAL SEMANTICS

GROUP MEMBERS
NAME MATRIC NUMBER
1. OKWECHIME ANITA
190102544
NKIRUKA
2. OCHONMA PAULA ONYINYE 190102542
3. AKEJU TIOLUWANI ISAAC 190102543
4. OWOYEMI INIOLUWA PRAISE 190102546
5. MBONU ADANNA ANITA 190102547
6. NWOGU GOODLUCK 190102545

for

ENG 434:
INTRODUCTION TO DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
 LEXICON AND LOCAL SEMANTICS

Introduction: Lexicon semantics and local semantics are fundamental concepts in

linguistics that play a significant role in understanding the meaning and structure of language
within discourse analysis at word-level and discourse-level contexts.

Understanding the concepts: Lexicon semantics is a subfield of linguistic semantics

that focuses on the study of word meanings. It delves into how words structure their
meanings, their role in grammar and compositionality, and the relationships between different
senses and uses of a word. It focuses on the meanings of individual words. Local semantics
examines how meaning is derived from the context surrounding a word or phrase within a
discourse. It explores whether the meaning of a Lexicon unit is established by looking at its
context in natural sentences or if the meaning is inherently contained within the Lexicon unit
itself.

Relevance to Discourse Analysis: In discourse analysis, understanding lexicon and

local semantics is crucial for deciphering how words contribute to the coherence and
interpretation of discourse within a given context. Discourse analysis goes beyond individual
sentences to examine how language functions within larger units of communication, making
lexicon and local semantics essential for understanding how meaning is constructed and
conveyed in discourse.

Interplay between Lexicon and Local Semantics

The interplay between Lexicon and Local Semantics is evident in how word choices
influence the interpretation of a given context. For instance, consider the word "strike." In
Sports, it implies hitting a ball, while in a Labor context, it denotes work stoppage. The
Lexicon choice of "strike" significantly impacts the Local semantics, as it dictates the
interpretation of the entire sentence or discourse. Consider the word "run." In a Lexicon
sense, it can mean a fast, steady pace of movement. However, in local semantics, its
interpretation shifts based on context. In a sentence like; "She decided to run the company’’;
the Lexicon choice of "run" takes on a managerial sense, altering the local semantics from
physical activity to organizational leadership. The interplay also extends to idiomatic
expressions. The phrase "kick the bucket" lexically means to die, and its choice influences
local semantics dramatically. Using this idiom alters the interpretation of a sentence,
showcasing how cultural and Lexicon elements intertwine in shaping meaning within
discourse. Lexicon choices can also introduce ambiguity or nuance to local semantics. The
word "bank" could refer to a financial institution or the side of a river. With consideration of
the broader context, local semantics alone might lead to misinterpretation. They also play a
role in creating connotations. Lexical choices shape discourse structure and influence the tone
of a conversation. This alters Local Semantics and overall meaning, making them intricately
linked in discourse analysis. Lexical choices lay the foundation for Local Semantics,
influencing how words are interpreted in context. Let’s explore the key features of Lexicon
and Local Semantics.
Key features of Lexicon semantics include:
- Polysemy : The ability of a word to have multiple meanings, such as "bank"
referring to a financial institution or the side of a river.
- Synonymy : The relationship between words that have similar meanings, like "big"
and "large."
- Antonymy : The relationship between words that have opposite meanings, like
"hot" and "cold."
Word choice and meaning in discourse analysis are closely linked. For example, the
choice of a specific word can influence the interpretation of a sentence or a text. Consider the
sentence "The cat is on the mat." The word "cat" has a specific meaning, and its choice
influences the interpretation of the sentence. If "cat" is replaced with "dog," the meaning of
the sentence changes.
Key features of Local semantics include:
- Word Order : The arrangement of words in a sentence can influence meaning. For
example, "The cat sat on the mat" implies a different meaning compared to "The mat sat on
the cat."
- Sentence Structure : The structure of a sentence can affect its meaning. For
example, a declarative sentence ("The cat is on the mat") conveys a different meaning
compared to an interrogative sentence ("Is the cat on the mat?").
- Cohesion and Coherence : The relationships between words and sentences within a
text contribute to its overall meaning. Cohesion refers to the connections between words and
sentences within a text, while coherence refers to the overall logical flow of the text.
- Discourse Markers : Words or phrases that signal a shift in discourse, such as
"however," "therefore," or "in conclusion," can influence the interpretation of a sentence or a
text.
In discourse analysis, local semantics plays a crucial role in understanding how
meaning is constructed and conveyed within a text. For example, the use of discourse
markers like "however" can signal a shift in the argument or perspective of a text, influencing
the interpretation of the sentence or the text as a whole. Let's analyze a short literary passage
from "The Great Gatsby" by F. Scott Fitzgerald:

"His heart beat faster and faster as Daisy’s white face came up to his own. He knew
that when he kissed this girl, and forever wed his unutterable visions to her perishable breath,
his mind would never romp again like the mind of God. So he waited, listening for a moment
longer to the tuning-fork that had been struck upon a star. Then he kissed her. At his lips’
touch she blossomed for him like a flower and the incarnation was complete."
 Lexicon Semantics: Heart: Beyond its physiological meaning, "heart" here
symbolizes emotions, desires, and passion.

Daisy’s white face: The color white often symbolizes purity or innocence, but it can also
represent emptiness or superficiality.
Kissed: Implies physical contact, but in this context, it also suggests a deeper emotional
connection and commitment.
Unutterable visions: Describes Gatsby's dreams and aspirations, suggesting they are profound
and difficult to express in words.
Local Semantics: Heart beating faster: Indicates heightened emotions, specifically
excitement or nervousness.

Tuning-fork struck upon a star: Metaphorically describes the moment as being perfectly in
tune with the universe, emphasizing its significance and rarity.
Blossomed like a flower: Implies a transformation or awakening, suggesting that Daisy
becomes more vibrant and alive in Gatsby's eyes.
Incarnation was complete: Suggests the merging of Gatsby's dreams with reality through his
relationship with Daisy, implying a sense of fulfillment or completion.
In F. Scott Fitzgerald's "The Great Gatsby," the word choice and local elements
contribute significantly to the overall meaning and effectiveness of the discourse, particularly
in conveying the themes of love, aspiration, and the fleeting nature of dreams.
Word Choice:
● "His heart beat faster and faster": The choice of "heart" over "pulse" or "blood" conveys the
emotional intensity of the moment. It suggests that Gatsby's feelings for Daisy are not merely
physical but deeply heartfelt.
● "Perishable breath": The juxtaposition of "perishable" with "breath" underscores the transient
nature of life and human existence. It suggests that despite Gatsby's desire for eternal union
with Daisy, everything is ultimately fleeting and ephemeral.
Local Elements:
● "Listening for a moment longer to the tuning-fork that had been struck upon a star": This
metaphorical imagery evokes a sense of cosmic harmony and alignment. It suggests that
Gatsby perceives the moment of kissing Daisy as being perfectly attuned to the universe,
imbuing it with a sense of destiny and significance.
● "At his lips’ touch she blossomed for him like a flower": This simile not only portrays Daisy's
physical beauty but also suggests a deeper emotional transformation. It implies that Gatsby's
love and affection have the power to awaken and enrich Daisy's life, symbolizing the
transformative nature of love itself. The word "incarnation" also implies a sense of
embodiment or manifestation, emphasizing the tangible and corporeal nature of their
connection.