UNIT-2 SOLAR ENERGY

2. Solar Energy Basics

2.1 Introduction

 Solar energy can be converted directly or indirectly in to other forms of energy.

 In-exhaustible source of useful energy.

 Major drawbacks to the extensive application of S.E

 The intermittent and variable manner in which it arrives at the earth’s surface
 The large area required to collect the energy at useful rate.

 Energy is radiated by the sun as electromagnetic waves of which 99% have wave
lengths in the range of 0.2 to 4.0 µm
 Solar energy reaches the top of the earth atmosphere consists of about

 8% Ultraviolet radiation (short wave length, less than 0.39µm )

 46% visible light (0.39 to 0.78µm) and 46% Infrared radiation (long wave
length more than 0.78µm

2.1.1 Solar Constant

 The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heating being generated by various
kinds of fusion reactions.
 Sun diameter is 1.39X106 km, while earth is 1.27X104 km.

 Mean distance between sun and earth is 1.50X108 km

 The beam of radiation received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel.

 The brightness of the sun varies from its centre to its edge. For calculations, it is
customary to assume that the brightness all over the solar disc is uniform.
 Radiation coming from the sun approximately-57620K.

 The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere is called the solar
constant ISC. This is the amount energy received in unit time on unit area
perpendicular to the sun’s direction at mean distance of the earth from the sun. The
rate of arrival of solar radiation varies throughout the year.
  Solar constant is an average from which actual values vary up to about 3% in either
direction.

 NASA has expressed solar constant in three common units

 1.353KW/ m2 or 1353 W/m2 116.5 langleys (calories/cm2) per hour, or

1165/kcal/m2/hr (1 langley=1cal/cm2)

Solar radiation received in one day= 429.2 Btu/ square feet/hr.

 The distance b/w the earth and sun varies a little through the year. Because of this
variation, the extra terrestrial (outside the atmosphere) flux also varies. The earth is
closest to the sun in the summer and farthest away in the winter.
 The variation in the distance produces a nearly sinusoidal variation in the intensity of
solar radiation ‘ I’ that reaches the earth approximately,
 I/Isc = 1+0.033 COS (360(n-2))/365 (or) = 1+ 0.033 COS (360 x n)/365

2.2 Solar Radiation at Earth’s Surface

 The solar radiation that penetrates the earth’s atmosphere and reaches the
surface differs in both amount and character from radiation at the top of the
atmosphere.
 The radiation entering the atmosphere is partly absorbed by molecules, and a
part of the radiation is reflected back into the space by clouds.
 Part of the solar radiation is scattered by droplets in clouds by atmospheric
molecules and dust particles.
 Oxygen and ozone absorb nearly all the ultraviolet radiation whereas CO2
and H2O vapour absorb some energy from infrared range.
 Fig2.2 Solar Radiation at Earth’s surface

 Part of the radiation is reflected back into the space, especially by clouds.
 Oxygen and ozone absorbs nearly all the ultraviolet radiation and water vapour and
CO2 absorb some of the energy in the infrared range.
 Some part of the solar energy radiation is scatted by droplets in the clouds by
atmospheric molecules, and by dust particles.

2.3 Beam radiation

 Solar radiation that has not been absorbed or scattered and reaches the ground
directly from the sun is called ‘direct radiation’ or ‘Beam radiation’.
 It is the radiation which produces a shadow when interrupted by an opaque object.

2.4 Diffusion radiation

 Diffuse radiation is that solar radiation received from the sun after its direction has
been changed by reflection and scattering by the atmosphere
 The total solar radiation received at any point on the earth’s
surface is the sum of the direct and diffuse radiation. This referred
to in a general sense as the insulation at that point.
 The insulation is defined as the total solar radiation energy
received on a horizontal surface of unit area on ground in unit
time.
  The insulation at a given location on the earth surface depends on
the altitude of the sun in the sky. The altitude is the angle between
the sun’s direction and the horizontal)
 Since the sun’s altitude changes with the date and time of the day
and with the geographic latitude at which the observations are
made, the rate of arrival of solar radiation on the ground is
variable quantity even in the time.
2.5 Some Definitions

 Sun at zenith: It is the position of the sun directly over head.

 Air mass: It is the path length of radiation through the atmosphere to the length of
path and when the sun is at the zenith. Air mass = cos (altitude angle) except for very
low solar altitude angles.
o Solar angles Let θ = Angle between an incident beam radiation I and the
normal to the plane surface. Then, radiation intensity normal to the surface is
I = I cosθ
Where θ = Incident angle,
 Latitude, l
o It is the angle made by the radial line joining the location to the centre of earth
with the projection of the line on the equatorial plane, denoted by l. It is also
given by the angular distance north or south of the equator measured from the
centre of the earth.

Fig.2.5 Different angles in Solar Radiation

 Latitude ,hour angle w, and sun’s declination

o If P is the location on the earth’s surface and O is the centre of the earth, the
l is given by the angle between the line OP and projection of OP on the
equatorial plane. As a method of convention, the latitude will be measured as
+ve for the northern hemisphere.
 Declination (δ)
o It is the angular distance of sun’s rays north or south of the equator. It is the
angle between the line extending from the centre of the sun to the centre of
the earth and the projection of this line upon the earth’s equatorial plane.
Declination varies between 23.5 on June 22 to 23.5o on December 22.

Fig.2.6 Variation of Sun's Inclination

The declination in degrees for any given day may be given by Cooper’s equation.

 δ (in degrees) = 23.45 sin 〖360/365(284+n)〗 where n is the day of the

year
 e.g.: March 22 is the 31 + 29 + 22 = 82nd day n = 82
 Hour angle (ω)
 It is the angle through which the earth must turn to bring the meridian of a
point directly in line with the sun’s rays. The hour angle is equivalent to
15o per hour.
 It is measured from noon based on the solar local time (LST) or local
apparent time, being positive in the morning an negative in the
afternoon. It is the angle measured in the earth’s equatorial plane,
 between the projection of OP and the projection of O line from the
centre of the sun to the centre of the earth.

 Altitude angle (α)

 It is the vertical angle between the projection of the sun’s rays on the
horizontal plane and the direction of sun’s rays passing through the point.

 Zenith angle (θZ)

 It is the angle between the sun’s rays and a line perpendicular to the horizontal
plane through the point P. i.e., the angle between the beam from the sun and
the vertical. Zenith angle is complimentary angle of sun’s altitude angle.
 θZ =π/2- α

 Solar azimuth angle (γS)

 It is the solar angle in degrees along the horizon cost or west of north or it is
the horizontal angle measured from the north to the horizontal projection of
sun’s rays. It is considered +ve when measured west wise.

 In terms of basic angles, cos 〖θ_Z 〗 = cos .cosω.cosδ+sin .sinδ

cos γS = secα(cos .sinδ cosδ.sin .cosω) sinγS= secα.cosδ.sinω

 If north latitudes are considered positive and south latitudes negative, the
declination will be positive for summer period between the vernal equinox
and autumnal equinox and negative at other.

 The slope (s)

It is the angle made by the plane surfaces with the horizontal. It is considered
positive for surfaces slopping towards the south and negative for surface slopping
towards the north.

 Surface azimuth angle (γ)

 It is the angle of deviation of the normal to the surface from the local
meridian, the zero point being south, east positive and west negative.
 Fig. Surface azimuth angle and slope defined
 Incident angle (θ)
 It is the angle being measured from a plane and is equal to the angle between
the beams of rays and normal to the plane. It is expressed as

cosθ=sin l(sinδ.cos 〖s+cosδ.cos〗 γ.cosω.sin s ) + cos l

(cos∂.cosω.cos 〖s-sinδ.cosγ.sin s〗+cosδ.sinγ.sinω.sin 〖s)〗------------

----------- (1)
Where,
 l = Latitude (North positive)
 δ= Declination (North positive)
 ω= Hour angle (Positive between solar mid night and noon, otherwise
negative) Hour angle is mathematically expressed as, ω = 15(12 - LST)-----(2)
Note:
 At solar noon, ω = 0 and each hour angle is 15o with morning
positive and afternoon negative For vertical surfaces s = 90o in

equation 1 above cos 〖θ=sin 〖 .cosδ.cosγ.cosω-cos

.sinδ.cosγ+cosδ.sinγ.sinω〗 〗------------- (3)

 For horizontal surfaces s= oo, θ= θZ in equation above cosθZ =

sinδ.cos +cosδ.cos .cosω = sin -----------------------------------------------------
-----(4) For surfacing facing due south, γ = 0; θ= θt(tilted)

cos θt = sin (sinδ.cos 〖s+cosδ.cosω.sin 〖s)〗 〗 = cos

(cosδ.cosω.cos 〖s-sinδ.sins〗) = sinδ sin ( -s)+cosδcosω cos ( -s)---

-- (5)

For vertical surfaces facing due south, s = 90; γ=0 cosθZ =

sin cosδcosω-cos sinδ— (6)
 Day Length
 o At the time of sun rise or sunset, θZ= 90o substituting in equation (4),

sun rise hour angle ωs is given by, cosω_(s )= (sin .sinδ)/(cos

.cosδ)= -tan .tanδ ωs = cos^(-1) 〖(-tan .tanδ)〗

o At 15o of the hour angle = 1hour, day length td1 = 2ωs/15= 2/15

cos^(-1) 〖(-tan .tanδ)〗------------------------------------- (7)

 Note:
 For hour angle at the time of sun rise or sunset on an inclined surface
θZ=90o, from equation (5),

 ω¬st= cos^(-1) 〖(-tan ( -s)tanδ)〗 Hence day length td= 2/15

cos^(-1) 〖(-tan ( -s.tanδ)〗----------------------------- (8)

 Local Solar Time

 It is also known as local apparent time which is the time used for
calculating the hour angle. The local solar time is obtained from the
standard time observed on a clock by making two corrections.
 The first correction takes into account the difference in longitude
between a location and a meridian on which the standard time is
based. For every degree difference in longitude this difference is 4
minutes.
 The second correction takes into account time correction arising due to small
perturbations in earth’s orbit and rate of rotation.
 LST = Standard time ±4(Standard time longitude – Longitude of location) +
Equation of time correction.

Note:- The –ve sign is applied for eastern hemisphere.

2.6 General points

 The smaller the sun’s altitude, the greater the thickness of atmosphere through
which the solar radiation must pass and reach the ground.
  As a result of absorption and scattering, the insolation is less when sun is low
in the sky than when it is higher.
 Scattering occurs diffuse radiation constitutes a larger fraction of the total
received.

 On a clear, cloudless day, about 10 to 20% of the insolation is from diffuse

radiation, proportion increases upto 100% when the sun is completely
obscured by clouds.
 When the humidity is high, insolation as high as 50% of the insolation on a
clear day at same time and place.
 Insolation is not isotropic (from the observer point of view)

2.7 Solar Radiation Data

 Solar radiation data are available in several forms and should include the
following information.
o Whether they are instantaneous measurements or values integrated
over some period of time
o The time or time period of the measurements
o Whether the measurements are of beam, diffuse or total radiation and
the instrument used.
o The receiving surface orientation
o If averaged, the period over which they averaged.
 Solar radiation received on the surface of the earth is measured by
solarimeter, which give readings for instantaneous measurement at rate
throughout the day for total radiation on a horizontal surface.
 1 langley =1 cal/cm2
2.8 Solar Radiation measurement Data:

 India lies between latitude 70 and 370N , and receives an annual average intensity of
solar radiation between 16700-29260 kj/m2/day (400-700 cal/cm2/day)
 Peak values are measured in April or May

 Peak values in Rajasthan and Gujarat are 25100 kj/m2/day (600 cal/cm2/day)
  During monsoon and winter daily solar radiation decreases to about 16700
KJ/m2/day (400 cal/cm2/day)
 The annual daily diffuse radiation received over the whole country is observed to be
about 7300 kj/m2/day (175 cal/cm2/day)
 The Minimum values of diffuse radiation, measured over many parts of the country
during November and December are between 3135-4180 Kj/m2/day (75-100
cal/cm2/day)
 Maximum values in july are 12550 kj/m2/day (300 cal/cm2/day) (in Gujarat)

2.9 Estimation of average solar radiation

 Monthly average horizontal solar radiation was given by angstrom is Hav = Ho’
(a’+b’(n/N))

2.9.1 Thermoelectric Pyranometer

 Measures solar irradiance from 300-4000 nm

 Sensor: Blackened copper constantan thermopile covered with two concentric glass
domes which are transparent to radiation from 300-4000 nm.
 Generated emf by thermopile is proportional to incident radiation. The typical value
is approximately 5 micro Volts/watt/sq. metre
 Used for instantaneous measurement and continuous recording of Global, Diffused,
Reflected Solar irradiance.

Fig2.9.1 Pyranometer (Installation View)

2.9.2 The Angstrom Pyrheliometer

 Measures direct solar irradiance from 300-4000 nm at normal incidence.

 Sensor: Two blackened identical mangnin strips in thermal contact with
thermocouples but electrically insulated.
 Sensor mounted in a long metallic tube to collimate the beam and minimize the effect
of scattered irradiance.
 Shutter provided to shield one of the strips alternately.
 The heating by direct irradiation received by the exposed strip is compensated by
electrically heating the shielded strip.
 Electrical power required for heating the shielded strip is proportional to incident
irradiance.
 Used for instantaneous measurement of direct solar irradiance, is capable of very high
accuracy and has very high stability.
  When used with coloured glass broad band pass filter we get spectral distribution of
direct solar irradiance.

2.9.3 Thermoelectric pyrheliometer on solar tracker

 Measures direct solar irradiance from 300-4000 nm at normal incidence.

 Sensor: Blackened copper constantan thermopile.
 Sensor mounted in a long metallic tube to collimate the incident beam.
 Solar tracker maintains the pyrheliometer always directed towards the sun.
 Generated emf by the thermopile is proportional to incident irradiance. (Approx. 5
micro volts/watt/sq. metre)
 Used for instantaneous measurements and continuous recording of direct solar
irradiance.
2.10 Solar Thermal Systems

2.10.1 Introduction

 "Drying is an excellent way to preserve food and solar food dryers are an appropriate
food preservation technology for a sustainable world."
 Actually, solar food drying is one of the oldest agricultural techniques related to food
preservation,
 Drying of crops can change this trend and is useful in most areas of the world,
especially those without a high humidity during the harvesting season.
 If drying of produce were widely implemented, significant savings to farmers would
be achieved. These savings could help strengthen the economic situation of numerous
developing governments as well as change the nutritional condition in these same
countries.
 Unfortunately many of the areas that could benefit from solar drying technology lack
adequate information related to how to employ this technology and which technology
to use under specific conditions.
  Many of the latest developments in solar drying technology, as well as significant
achievements through applying this body of knowledge are not available in libraries
or the Universities of developing countries.
 However, modern science has provided a new resource that helps bridge this
information void.
 The World Wide Web, commonly known as the INTERNET can provide the solution
to rapidly spreading new information and applications of known information into
areas of greatest need.

2.10.2 Physical principles of the conversion of solar radiation into heat:

Fig 2.10.2 Green House Effect

 Green houses are useful for growing and propagating plants because they both allow
sunlight to enter and prevent heat from escaping.
 The transparent covering of the greenhouse allows visible light to enter unhindered,
where it warms the interior as it is absorbed by the material within.
 The transparent covering also prevents the heat from leaving by reflecting the energy
back into the interior and preventing outside winds from carrying it away.
 Like the greenhouse covering, our atmosphere also serves to retain heat at the surface
of the earth. Much of the sun's energy reaches earth as visible light.
  Of the visible light that enters the atmosphere, about 30% is reflected back out into
space by clouds, snow and ice-covered land, sea surfaces, and atmospheric dust. The
rest is absorbed by the liquids, solids, and gases that constitute our planet.
 The energy absorbed is eventually reemitted, but not as visible light (only very hot
objects such as the sun can emit visible light). Instead, it's emitted as longer-
wavelength light called infrared radiation. This is also called "heat" radiation, because
although we cannot see in infrared, we can feel its presence as heat. This is what you
feel when you put your hand near the surface of a hot skillet.
 Certain gases in our atmosphere (known as "trace" gases because they make up only a
tiny fraction of the atmosphere) can absorb this outgoing infrared radiation, in effect
trapping the heat energy.
 This trapped heat energy makes the earth warmer than it would be without these trace
gases.
 The ability of certain trace gases to be relatively transparent to incoming visible light
from the sun yet opaque to the energy radiated from earth is one of the best-
understood processes in atmospheric science.
 This phenomenon has been called the "greenhouse effect" because the trace gases trap
heat similar to the way that a greenhouse's transparent covering traps heat. Without
our atmospheric greenhouse effect, earth's surface temperature would be far below
freezing.
 On the other hand, an increase in atmospheric trace gases could result in increased
trapped heat and rising global temperatures.

2.10.3 Flat plate Collectors:

 Made of rectangular panels (1.7 to 2.9 Sq.m)

 Simple to construct and erect.

 Can collect and absorb both direct and diffuse radiations

 Flat plate solar collectors classified into two types based on the type of heat transfer
fluid
 o Liquid heating collectors are used for heating water and nonfreezing aqueous
solutions ( rarely Non aqueous solutions)
o Air or gas heating collectors are employed as solar air heaters.

2.10.3.1 Basic Components of Flat plate collectors:

 A transparent cover which may be one or more sheets of glass or radiation

transmitting plastic film or sheets.
 Tubes, fins, passages or channels are integrate with the collector absorber plate or
connected to it, which carry the water, air or other fluids.
 The absorber plate, normally metallic or with a black surface although a wide variety
of other materials can be used with air heaters.
 Insulation, Which should be provided at the back and sides to minimize the heat
losses. (fiber glass or styro-foam)
 The casing or container which encloses the other components and protects them from
the weather.
 Fig.2.10.3 Flate Plate Collector

2.10.3.2 Advantages of Flat plate collector:

 Of using both beam and diffuse solar radiations

 They do not require orientation towards the sun
 They require little maintenance.

 Mechanically simpler than the concentrating reflectors, absorbing surfaces and

orientation devices of focusing collectors

2.10.3.3 Drawbacks of using water as fluid:

 Freezing in the collector tubes in the cold climates during cold nights. (ethyline
glycol is added to prevent)
 Corrosion of the metal tubes

2.10.4 Concentrating Collector:

 Focusing Collector is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity of solar
radiation on the energy absorbing surface. Optical systems in the form of reflectors
or refractors are used.
 A focusing collector is a special form of flat plate collector modified by introducing
a reflecting surface between the solar radiators and absorber.
 Radiation increases from low value of 1.5-2 to high values of the order of 10,000.
  Radiation falling on a relatively large area, is focused on to a receiver (or absorber)
of considerably smaller area.
 Fluid can be heated to temperature of 5000C or more.

2.10.4.1 Types of Concentrating Collectors:

 Depending on concentrating, collectors may classified as

 Line focusing and
 Point focusing

Fig 2.10.4 Types of concentrating collectors

 As per the no. of concentrating collector geometries, the main types of concentrating
collector are

 Parabolic through collector

 Mirror strip reflector
 Fresnel lens collector
 Flat plate collector with adjustable mirrors
 Compound parabolic concentrator (C.P.C)
2.10.5 Line focusing collectors (Parabolic through reflector)

 Solar radiation coming from the particular direction is colleted over the area of the
reflecting surface and is concentrated at the focus of the parabola, if the reflector is in the
form of a through with parabolic cross-section, the solar radiation is focused along a line.
 Mostly cylindrical parabolic concentrators are used, in which absorber is placed along
focus axis.
 Parabolic through reflectors have been made of highly polished aluminum, of silvered
glass or of a thin film of aluminized plastic on firm base

Fig 2.10.5 Parabolic Reflector

2.10.5.1 Mirror strip Reflector

 Slightly curved mirror strips are mounted on a flat base.

 The angles of the individual mirrors are such that they reflect solar radiation from a
specific direction on to the same focal line.
 Angles of the mirrors must be adjusted to allow for changes in the sun’s elevation, while
the focal line remains in a fixed position.

2.10.5.2 Pointed Focusing collector (Paraboloidal type)

 Absorber located at the focus is a cavity made of zirconium-copper alloy with black
chrome selective coating.
 The heat transport fluid flows into and out of the absorber cavity through pipe bonded to
the interior.
 Fig 2.10.5.2 Pointed Focusing collector (Paraboloidal type)

2.10.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Concentrating vs Flat Plate type collectors:

2.10.6.1 Advantages

 Reflecting surfaces require less material and are structurally simpler than flat plate
collectors. (less cost )
 The absorber area of a concentrating system is smaller than that of a flat plate system for
same solar energy collection.
 Loss of energy after collecting is less than FPC, because of large absorber area in FPC,
working fluid can attain higher temperature.
 Owing to the small area of absorber per unit of solar energy collecting area, selective
surface treatment and/or vacuum insulation to reduce heat losses and improve collector
efficiency are economically feasible.
 Can be used for electricity power generation.

 Heat storage costs are less

 Little or no anti freeze is required to protect the absorber.

 It is possible to get higher efficiencies.

2.10.6.2 Disadvantages:

 Only beam component is collected.

 Costly oriented systems
 Additional requirements of maintenance are required.
 Non uniform flux on the absorber.
 Additional optical losses such as reflectance loss and the intercept loss, so they
introduce additional factors in energy balances.
 High Initial cost.
2.11 High temperature solar thermal electric power plant

 To collect solar radiation from a large area on the ground. The receiver mounted on
the top of the tower, converts water into high pressure steam at around 500oC.
 The high pressure steam is expanded in a turbine coupled with an alternator.
 The electric power produced is fed to the grid.

2.12 Solar Electric Systems

2.15 Solar Photovoltaic

 Photovoltaics (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar

radiation into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic
effect.
 Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of solar cells
containing a photovoltaic material. Materials presently used for photovoltaics include
mono-crystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride,
and copper indium gallium selenide/sulfide.
 Due to the growing demand for renewable energy sources, the manufacturing of solar
cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in recent years.
 Solar photovoltaic have long been argued to be a sustainable energy source.
 By the end of 2011, a total of 67.4 GW had been installed, sufficient to generate 85
TWh/year.
 Solar photovoltaics is now, after hydro and wind power, the third most important
renewable energy source in terms of globally installed capacity.
 More than 100 countries use solar PV. Installations may be ground-mounted (and
sometimes integrated with farming and grazing) or built into the roof or walls of a
building (either building-integrated photovoltaics or simply rooftop).

2.15.1 Solar cells

 Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating electric power by using solar
cells to convert energy from the sun into a flow of electrons.
 The photovoltaic effect refers to photons of light exciting electrons into a higher state of
energy, allowing them to act as charge carriers for an electric current. The photovoltaic
effect was first observed by Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel in 1839.
 The term photovoltaic denotes the unbiased operating mode of a photodiode in which
current through the device is entirely due to the transduced light energy. Virtually all
photovoltaic devices are some type of photodiode.
 Solar cells produce direct current electricity from sun light, which can be used to power
equipment or to recharge a battery.
 The first practical application of photovoltaics was to power orbiting satellites and other
spacecraft, but today the majority of photovoltaic modules are used for grid connected
power generation.
 In this case an inverter is required to convert the DC to AC. There is a smaller market for
off-grid power for remote dwellings, boats, recreational vehicles, electric cars, roadside
emergency telephones, remote sensing, and cathodic protection of pipelines.
 Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of solar cells
containing a photovoltaic material.
 Materials presently used for photovoltaics include monocrystalline silicon,
polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium gallium
selenide/sulfide.
 Due to the growing demand for renewable energy sources, the manufacturing of solar
cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in recent year. ells require
protection from the environment and are usually packaged tightly behind a glass sheet.
 When more power is required than a single cell can deliver, cells are electrically
connected together to form photovoltaic modules, or solar panels.
 A single module is enough to power an emergency telephone, but for a house or a power
plant the modules must be arranged in multiples as arrays of cells require protection from
the environment and are usually packaged tightly behind a glass sheet.
 When more power is required than a single cell can deliver, cells are electrically
connected together to form photovoltaic modules, or solar panels. A single module is
enough to power an emergency telephone, but for a house or a power plant the modules
must be arranged in multiples as arrays

Fig 2.15.1 Solar Cell

2.16 Solar characteristic

 In solar cell applications this characteristic is usually drawn inverted about the voltage
axis, as shown below.
 The cell generates no power in short-circuit (when current Isc is produced) or open-
circuit (when cell generates voltage Voc).
 The cell delivers maximum power Pmax when operating at a point on the
characteristic where the product IV is maximum. This is shown graphically below
where the position of the maximum power point represents the largest area of the
rectangle shown.
 Fig.2.16 I-V Characteristics of a Solar Cell

 The efficiency (n) of a solar cell is defined as the power Pmax supplied by the cell at the
maximum power point under standard test conditions, divided by the power of the
radiation incident upon it.
 Most frequent conditions are: irradiance 100 mW/cm2 , standard reference spectrum, and
temperature 25 0 C.
 The use of this standard irradiance value is particularly convenient since the cell
efficiency in percent is then numerically equal to the power output from the cell in
mW/cm2.

2.17 Solar Panel, Module and Array

 Assemblies of photovoltaic cells are used to make solar modules which generate
electrical power from sunlight.
  Multiple cells in an integrated group, all oriented in one plane, constitute a solar
photovoltaic panel or "solar photovoltaic module," as distinguished from a "solar
thermal module" or "solar hot water panel."
 The electrical energy generated from solar modules, referred to as solar power, is an
example of solar energy. A group of connected solar modules (such as prior to
installation on a pole-mounted tracker system) is called an "array."

Fig 2.17 Solar panel and Solar module and array

2.18 Solar Photovoltaic Systems

 Solar Photovoltaic System uses solar cells to convert light into electricity. A PV system
consists of PV modules and balance of systems (BOS). Balance of systems includes
module support structure, storage, wiring, power electronics, etc.
 DC (direct current) electricity is generated when solar radiation strikes the PV module.
Power can be used in any DC load directly during this generation. But the generation
exists during daytime.
 So, some storage device is needed to run the system at night or in low sunshine
hour. Again this power cannot be used to run any AC (alternate current) load.
 Inverter has to be used to convert DC into AC.
 Solar PV systems are categories into
 Stand-alone PV systems (also called off-grid systems)
 Grid connected PV systems (also called on-grid systems)
 Hybrid systems
2.18.1 Stand-alone PV systems

 Stand-alone systems are not connected with utility power lines and these are self
sufficient systems. These systems could either be used to charge the batteries that serve
as an energy storage device or could work directly using the solar energy available in the
daytimes. These systems consist of the following:
 Solar panels mounted on the roof or in open spaces. Photovoltaic modules produce direct
current (DC) electrical power.
 Batteries to store DC energy generated by the solar panels.
 Charge controller to prevent overcharging the battery.
 Inverter to convert electricity produced by the system from DC to AC power.
 The following diagram shows PV system powering AC loads with battery bank. DC
loads can also be connected directly to the battery bank. It is also possible to power the
AC load without battery, but in that case it would be confined only to daytime when solar
radiation is sufficient to generate required electricity.

Fig 2.18.1 Stand-alone PV Systems

2.18.2 Grid connected PV systems

 A grid connected photovoltaic system will be interacted with utility grid. The main
advantage of this system is that power can be drawn from the utility grid and when power
is not available from grid, PV system can supplement that power.
 These grid connected systems are designed with battery or without battery storage. These
systems consist of the following:
 Solar panels mounted on the roof or in open spaces. Photovoltaic modules produce direct
current (DC) electrical power.
 Batteries to store DC energy generated by the solar panels.
 Charge controller to prevent overcharging the battery.
 Specially designed inverter to transform the PV generated DC electricity to the grid
electricity (which is of AC) at the grid voltage.
 The following diagram shows PV system powering AC loads. This system is connected
to utility power supply and having battery storage for backup

Fig 2.18.2 Grid Connected Systems

2.18.3 SOLAR POND

  The top layer, which has a low salt content.
 An intermediate insulating layer with a salt gradient, which establishes a density.
 Gradient that prevents heat exchange by natural convection.
 The bottom layer, which has a high salt content
 The black bottom serves as an absorber and the layer of still water above it is used
as an insulator rather than normal glazing and air space.
 Heat exchanger exchanges the heat and the vapor is passed to the turbine. The
turbine starts rotating and alternator also rotates and power passed to the grids.
2.19 Applications

2.19.1 Solar Lighting

 A Solar lantern is a simple application of solar photovoltaic technology, which has found
good acceptance in rural regions where the power supply is irregular and scarce.
 Even in the urban areas people prefer a solar lantern as an alternative during power cuts
because of its simple mechanism.
 Home lighting System is powered by solar energy using solar cells that convert solar
energy (sunlight) directly to electricity. The electricity is stored in batteries and used for
the purpose of lighting whenever required.
 These systems are useful in non-electrified rural areas and as reliable emergency lighting
system for important domestic, commercial and industrial applications.
 The SPV systems have found important application in the dairy industry for lighting milk
collection/ chilling centers mostly located in rural areas.
 Solar Street Light system is designed for outdoor application in un-electrified remote
rural areas. This system is an ideal application for campus and village street lighting.
 The system is provided with battery storage backup sufficient to operate the light for 10-
11 hours daily. The system is provided with automatic ON/OFF time switch for dusk to
down operation and overcharge / deep discharge prevention cut-off with LED indicators.