Transformer

Introduction
The transformer is probably one of the most useful electrical devices ever invented. It can
change the magnitude of alternating voltage or current from one value to another. This
useful property of transformer is mainly responsible for the widespread use of alternating
currents rather than direct currents i.e., electric power is generated, transmitted and
distributed in the form of alternating current. Transformers have no moving parts, rugged
and durable in construction, thus requiring very little attention. They also have a very
high efficiency as high as 99%.

Transformer
A transformer is a static device of equipment used either for raising or lowering the voltage
of an a.c. supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. It essentially
consists of two windings, the primary and secondary, wound on a common laminated
magnetic core as shown in Fig below. The winding connected to the a.c. source is called
primary winding (or primary) and the one connected to load is called secondary winding
(or secondary). The alternating voltage V whose magnitude is to be changed is applied
to the primary.
Depending upon the number of turns of the primary ( N ) and secondary (N ), an
alternating e. m. f. E is induced in the secondary. This induced e. m. f. E in the
secondary causes a secondary current I . Consequently, terminal voltage V will appear
across the load.
If V > V , it is called a step up-transformer.
If V < V , it is called a step-down transformer.

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Working
When an alternating voltage V is applied to the primary, an alternating flux ∅ is set up
in the core. This alternating flux links both the windings and induces e. m. f. s. E and
E in them according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. The e. m. f. E is
termed as primary e. m. f and e. m. f. E is termed as secondary e. m. f.
Clearly
𝑑∅
E = −N
𝑑𝑡
And
𝑑∅
E = −N
𝑑𝑡
:-
E N
=
E N

Note that magnitudes of E and E depend upon the number of turns on the secondary
and primary respectively
If N > N , then E > E (or V >V ) and we get a step-up transformer.
If N < N , then E < E (or V < V ) and we get a step-down transformer.

The following points may be noted carefully:

1- The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagnetic induction.
2- There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary.
The a.c. power is transferred from primary to secondary through magnetic flux.
3- There is no change in frequency i.e., output power has the same frequency as the
input power.
4- the losses that occur in a transformer are:
a- core losses—eddy current and hysteresis losses
b- copper losses—in the resistance of the windings

In practice, these losses are very small so that output power is nearly equal to the input
primary power. In other words, a transformer has very high efficiency.

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 Transformer Iron: - The transformer core can be made from

1- low Silicon Iron

1% Silicon , 99% Steel
Specific loss= 1.7 Watt/Kg at 1 Tesla & 50 Hz
1- High Silicon Iron
4 – 5 % Silicon , 95% - 96% Steel
Specific loss= 1.2 Watt/Kg at 1 Tesla & 50 Hz

Note If the silicon percentage is increase above 5% the steel will be hard and it will be
difficult to make laminations from it

Transformers classification according to use the application

1- Power transformer
a- Large transformer:
15 – 300 MVA
10 – 500 KV
Used in high voltage transmission lines
b- Medium transformers
10 – 1000 MVA
3 – 30 KV
Used in distribution networks (distribution transformers)
c- Small transformers
They are used industry and general application

2- Instrument transformers
Used for measuring the current ("CT" current transformers) or for measuring
the voltage ("PT" potential transformers)

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Example

𝐼 𝑁 1
𝐼 𝑁 =𝐼𝑁 → = →𝐼 = × 10000 = 10𝐴
𝐼 𝑁 1000

𝑉 𝑁 1
= →𝑉 = × 100000 = 100𝑉
𝑉 𝑁 1000

3- High frequency transformers

Used in electronic circuits high frequencies and low power.
These transformers have air core to reduce the iron loses at high frequencies and for
linearity (no saturation).
These transformers are also called air- core transformers

4- Impedance matching transformers

Used for impedance matching in communication circuits.
The can be used to match the load impedance with the internal source impedance in
order to have maximum power transferred to the load
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Iron core type
a- Core type
high voltage & Low current

In core type transformers half of primary winding and half of the secondary
winding are placed round each limb. this reduced the leakage flux. It is a usual
practice to place the low-voltage winding below the high-voltage winding for
mechanical considerations and to reduce the size of the insulator used

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 b- Shell-type transformer
Low voltage & high current

This method of construction involves the use of a double magnetic circuit. both the
windings are place round placed round the central limb, the other two limbs acting simply
as a low-reluctance flux path.
The choice of type (whether core or shell) will not greatly affect the efficiency 𝑓 the
transformer. The core type is generally more suitable for high voltage and small current
while the shell-type is generally more low voltage and high current.

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 Core section

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E.M.F Equation of a Transformer:
Consider that an alternating voltage V of frequency 𝑓 is applied to the primary as
shown below .
The sinusoidal flux ∅ produced by the primary can be represented as:

∅ = ∅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 ,−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 90)

The instantaneous 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓
∅
𝑒 =−𝑁 =−𝑁 (∅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)

= −𝜔𝑁 ∅ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 = −2𝜋𝑓 𝑁 ∅ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡

𝑒 = 2𝜋 𝑓 𝑁 ∅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 90)

It is clear from the above equation that maximum value of induced e. m. f in the primary
is:
𝐸 = 2𝜋 𝑓 𝑁 ∅

The r. m. s value E of the primary e. m. f is:

E 2𝜋 f N ∅
E = =
√2 √2

E = 4.44 f N ∅ similarly E = 4.44 f N ∅

(as the e. m. f E is produced by the same flux ∅ = ∅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 that cause E .
Thus the only difference of the two is the number of turns)

Note it is clear from the above that e. m. f E induced in the primary and E induced
in the secondary lag behind flux ∅ by 90°

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Ideal transformers:
For ideal transformers:
1- E = V and E =V

As there is no voltage drop in the winding

= =

2- There is no loss, therefore, volt-amperes input to the primary are equal to the
output volt-amperes i.e.

𝐼 𝑉 =𝐼 𝑉

Or
𝐼 𝑉 𝑁
= =
𝐼 𝑉 𝑁

Hence currents are in the inverse ratio of voltage transformation ratio

This simply means that if we rise the voltage V ↑there is a corresponding
decrease of current I ↓

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Example:
A 2000/200 V, 20 KVA transformer has 66 turns in the secondary.
Calculate
1- Primary turns.
2- Primary and secondary full load currents.
Neglect the losses

Solution

1- = =

2000
𝑁 =𝑁 × = 66 × 10 = 660 turns
200

2- 𝐼 𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑉 = 20 × 10

× ×
𝐼 = = 100 𝐴 𝐼 = = 10 𝐴

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Practical Transformers
A Practical transformer differs from the idea transformer in many respects.
The Practical Transformers Has
1- iron loss
2- winding resistance
3- magnetic leakages, giving rise to leakage reactance.

Practical Transformers On No Load

Consider a Practical transformer on no load I.e., secondary on open-circuit as shown in
figure below.
The primary will draw a small current I to supply
1- The iron losses
2- a very small amount of copper loss in the primary.

Hence the primary no load current I is not 90°behind the applied voltage V but lags
it by an angle ∅ < 90° as shown in the phasor diagram below.

No load input power, w = V I cos∅

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As seen from the phasor diagram, the no-load primary current I can be resolved into two
rectangular components

1- The component I in phase with the applied voltage V . This is known as active
or working or iron loss component and supplies the iron loss and a very small
primary copper loss.
I = I cos∅

2- The component I lagging behind V by 90° and is known as magnetizing

component. It is this component which produces the mutual flux ∅ in the core.

I = I sin∅

Clearly, I is phasor sum of I and I .

I = I 2+I 2

No load power factor, cos∅ =

The no load primary copper loss (i.e. Io R1 ) is very small and may be neglected.
Therefore, the no load primary input power is practically equal to the iron loss in the
transformer i.e.,

No load input power, w = Iron loss = core loss

V I cos∅ = I 2 R

Note.
At no load, there is no current in the secondary so that V = E .
On the primary side, the drops due to I are also very small because of the smallness of
I . Hence, we can say that at no load, V = E .

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Example: A 230/ 2300 V transformer takes no load current of 5 A at 0.25 power factor
lagging. find
1- The core loss
2- Magnetizing current

Solution
1- core loss w = V I cos∅ = 230 × 5 × 0.25 = 287.5 w

2- Iron-loss current I = I cos∅ = 5 × 0.25 = 1.25 A

Magnetizing current I = I −I = √5 − 1.25 = 4.85 A

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Practical Transformer On Load

The secondary current I set up an m. m. f 𝑁 I which produces a flux in the opposite

direction to the flux ∅ originally set up in the primary by the magnetizing current. This
will reduce the flux in the core from the magnetizing original value and hence E . Since
applied voltageV is kept fixed, E must remain unchanged. This is possible only if the
flux remains fixed. Hence mutual flux ∅ remains fixed whether a load is connected or
not. In order to fulfill this condition, the primary must develop an m. m. f which exactly
counter balances the secondary m. m. f 𝑁 I .Hence the primary current I must follow
such that:
A.T. at no load =I 𝑁 I load component of primary current
A.T. at to load on secondary =I 𝑁
A.T. at to load on primary =I 𝑁
=I 𝑁

I =I
primary current= I =I +I

* The power input, therefore, automatically increases with

the output.
* The flax in the core of the transformer is constant,
therefore the iron losses in the core are constant also.
* I is 180 out of phase with I

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Magnetic Leakage in Transformers

Both primary and secondary currents produce flux. The flux ∅ which links both the
windings is the useful flux and is called mutual flux. However, primary current would
produce some flux ∅ which would not link the secondary winding. Similarly, secondary
current would produce some flux ∅ that would not link the primary winding. The flux
such as ∅ or ∅ which links only one winding is called leakage flux. The leakage flux
paths are mainly through the air.

∅ ∝𝐼

N ∅ =L I
Also

∅ ∝𝐼

N ∅ =L I
Where
L = leakage inductance on primary winding
L = leakage inductance on secondary winding

In other words, the effect of primary leakage flux ∅ is to introduce an inductive

reactance X in series with the primary winding

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Similarly, the secondary leakage flux ∅ introduces an inductive reactance X in series
with the secondary winding.

r = primary winding resistance

r = secondary winding resistance
x = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓L (leakage reactance) on primary
x = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓L (leakage reactance) on secondary

𝑉 = −𝐸 + 𝐼 (𝑟 + 𝑗𝑥 ) ………..(1
𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼 (𝑟 + 𝑗𝑥 ) …………..(2
= ……………………………. (3
𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝐼 ………………….....…..… (4
I = I …………....…...…......…..… (5

practical transformer having winding resistance and leakage reactance. There is voltage
drop in r and x so that primary e. m. f. E is less than the applied voltage V .
Similarly, there is voltage drop in r and x so that secondary terminal voltage V is less
than the secondary e. m. f. E .

The current I must meet two requirements:

1- It must supply the no-load current I to meet the iron losses in the transformer and to
provide flux in the core.
2- It must supply a current I to counteract the demagnetizing effect of secondary
currently I

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Phasor diagram

Both E and E lag the mutual flux ∅ by 90°. The current I'2 represents the primary
current to neutralize the demagnetizing effect of secondary current I .Now I = k I and
is opposite to I . Also I is the no-load current of the transformer
(I = I + I ) . The Phasor sum of I and I gives the total primary current I .
Note that counter e. m. f that opposes the applied voltage V is -E . Therefore, if we add
I R (in phase with I ) and I X (90° ahead of I ) to -E , we get the applied primary
voltage V . The phasor E represents the induced voltage in the secondary by the mutual
flux ∅.
The secondary terminal voltage V will be what is left over after subtracting I R and
I X from E .

Load power factor = 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

Primary power factor = 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
Input power to transformer, P = V 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
Output power to transformer, P = V 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

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Example: The primary of a 1000/250 V transformer has a resistance of 0.15 Ω
And leakage reactance of 0.8 Ω.
Find the primary induced e. m. f when the primary current is 60 A at 0.8 p. f . lagging

Solution
Primary impedance, z = 0.15 + 𝑗0.8 = 0.814 ∠ 79.6° Ω
Power factor angle, ∅ = cos 0.8 = 36.9°
Taking applied voltage as the reference phasor, we have, V = 1000∠ 0°
−E = 𝑉 − 𝐼 𝑍

= 1000∠ 0° − 60 ∠ −36.9° × 0.814 ∠ 79.6°

= 1000∠ 0° −48.4 ∠ 42.7°

= 1000 − (36 + 𝑗33) = 964 − 𝑗33 = 964.5 ∠ −2° 𝑉

-: primary e. m. f E = −964 + 𝑗33 = 964.5 ∠ 178° 𝑉

Example: The voltage on the secondary of a single phase transformer is 200 V

When suppling a load of 8 kw at a p. f . of 0.8 lagging. The secondary resistance is 0.04 Ω
and secondary leakage reactance is 0.8 Ω . Calculate the induced e. m. f in the secondary .

Solution
×
Secondary current 𝐼 = × .
= 50𝐴

Power factor angle, ∅ = cos 0.8 = 36.9°

𝐼 = 50 ∠ −36.9° 𝐴

𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼 𝑍 = 200 ∠ 0° + 50 ∠ −36.9° × 0.8 ∠ 87.14°

= 200 ∠ 0° + 40 ∠ 50.24° = 227.67 ∠ 7.8° 𝑉

The secondary e. m. f E loads the secondary terminal voltage V by 7.8°

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The equivalent circuit of a transformer

The figure below shows the equivalent circuit of a transformer on load.

1- The equivalent circuit Referred to primary

If all the secondary quantities are referred to the primary, we get the equivalent circuit
of the transformer referred to the primary as shown in figure below

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 = , E =E =E ………..(1

then V =V ………………...(2

𝐼 =𝐼 +𝐼 , I =I ………….…... (3

In The equivalent circuit the power and losses must be the same in the secondary winding

𝐼 (𝑟 + 𝑗𝑥 ) = 𝐼 (𝑟 + 𝑗𝑥 )

𝐼 𝑟 =𝐼 𝑟 ⟹𝑟 =𝑟 ⟶ 𝑟 =𝑟( )

Similarly
N N
X =X , Z =Z ( )
N N

θ = θ prove that?

Because tan θ = = = = tan θ

θ =θ

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The no load current I a transformer is small as compared to rated primary current.
Therefore, voltage drops in R and X due to I are negligible. the equivalent circuit
shown in figure .above can be simplified by transferring the shunt circuit R - X to the
input terminals as shown in figure below.

The simplified equivalent circuit referred to primary

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Phasor diagram
𝑉 = 𝑉 +𝐼 𝑍

Lagging

Leading

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 2- The equivalent circuit Referred to secondary

I =I , I =I , V =V

r =r , Req = Req

X = X , Xeq = Xeq

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Voltage regulation
When a transformer is load with a constant primary voltage the secondary voltage decrease.
The voltage regulation of a transformer is the arithmetic difference (not phasor difference)
between the no-load secondary voltage 𝑜𝑉 and the secondary voltage 𝑉 no load express as
percentage of no-load voltage i.e.

% age voltage regulation up = × 100

% age voltage regulation down = × 100

The way in which the secondary terminal voltage varies with load depends on the load current,
the internal impedance and the load power factor

The regulation may also be explained in the term of primary values

Regulation up % = × 100

Regulation down % = × 100

= × 100 = × 100

ob
= × 100
oa

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Regulation down %
= × 100
on leading power factor θ is negative
Regulation %
Leading
↓
±
= × 100

↑
Lagging

Percentage resistance and percentage reactance:

Regulation up %
±
= × 100

= × 100 cos θ ± × 100 sin θ

Where:
= Req% = Percentage resistance

= Xeq% = percentage reactance

Usually Req% and Xeq% taken at full-load

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 %
Req P.U. =

%
Xeq P.U.=

Regulation % = Req% cos θ ± Xeq% sinθ

Example:

Regulation = 2 × 0.8 + 4 × 0.6 = 4%

On leading power factor:

Regulation % = 2 × 0.8 − 4 × 0.6 = 0.8%

The negative sign means that the voltage will increase when the load is contacted

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 Regulation down = 0 = × 100

.:tan θ = −

From the above the voltage regulation depends on:

1- Load current 𝐼
2- Internal impedance Req , Xeq
3- Load power factor cos θ

Kapp regulation diagram:

Kapp regulation diagram is used to find the regulation at constant load current and
variable power factor.

Take I as a reference:

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Transformer efficiency:
A detailed analysis of transformer losses would take in account the dielectric loss and
stray load loss, but for present purposes they will be assumed to be included in the
iron loss and copper loss respectively. The iron losses are independent of load current
if voltage and frequency are constant so they constitute the fixed loss. The copper
losses I Req referred to either primary or secondary winding represent the variable
losses. The output is V I cos θ

Efficiency = η = =

V cos θ
=
Wi
V cos θ + I Req +
I

From the above equation the efficiency is max when I Req + is minimum
Wi
f(I ) = I Req +
I

𝑑 f(I ) Wi
= Req − = 0 ⇒ Wi = 𝐼 𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝑑I I

.: the condition for maximum efficiency

Iron loss = = Copper loss
(Constant ) (Constant)

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Let x =

.: copper losses = I Req = X I Req = X W

V I cos θ
η=
V I cos θ + I Req + Wi

XV I cos θ
η=
XV I cos θ + X2 Wcufl + Wi

XVA cos θ
η=
XVA cos θ + X2 Wcufl + Wi

At maximum efficiency
Wi = 𝑊𝑐𝑢 = I Req = X I Req = X W

𝑊𝑖
X=
𝑊𝑐𝑢𝑓𝑙

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All – day efficiency
A more suitable method of assessing the efficiency of a transformer having a duty
cycle is on an energy basis. The output and losses are calculated in KW hours over a
24- hours day. The all-day efficiency is then detained as:

All-day = =

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Testing:

a- Polarity test:

The recommended procedure is to connect primary and secondary winding in series

in such a way that the e. m. fs are in phase.

V − (E + E )
I=
Z

In this cave the current I will be low .whereas, if the polarity is not correct the
voltage E opposes E and the current I is high

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 b- Short - Circuit Test:

high current – Law voltage test

Req and Xeq are very small when compared with R // X and V is a small voltage
when compared with rated voltage. For these reasons the current through the magnetising
branch I is very small and can be neglected. R // X can be taken to be open current
I =I =I

w = I Req
w
Req =
I

V
Zeq = ⇒ Xeq = 𝑍𝑒𝑞 − 𝑅𝑒𝑞
I

𝐼 𝐼 𝑁 I
= = =
𝐼 I 𝑁 I

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 c- Open - Circuit Test or No- Load Test:
In this test a rated voltage is applied to the high voltage side keeping the secondary
winding open –circuited

Law current – high voltage test

I ≅ 2.5 % 𝑜𝑓 I

𝑉 𝐸 𝑁
( ) ≅ =
𝑉 𝐸 𝑁

𝑊 =𝑊 = iron losses
𝑊
cos θ =
𝐼𝑉

I = I cos∅ , I = I sin∅

𝑅 = ,𝑋 =

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 Calculation of efficiency from the Open-Circuit Test and Short-Circuit Test:
w = input power in watts on the open circuit test
= iron losses

w = input power in watts on the Short - Circuit Test with full - load current
= 𝐼 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝐼 𝑅𝑒𝑞

Then total loss on full – load = w +w

.
and efficiency on full – load =
.

For any load equal to x full-load corresponding total loss = w +X w

. .
and corresponding efficiency =
. .

Calculation of the voltage regulation from the short circuit test

If the regulation required of I with load angle θ then the current I is passed
through the short current test in the secondary and I , V , W are measured

V
Z =
I

V
Req = cos θ
I

V
Xeq = sin θ
I

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 I =𝐼

Regulation %
𝐼 Req cos θ ± 𝐼 Xeq sin θ
= × 100
V
±
= × 100

V
= (cos θ cos θ ± sin θ sin θ ) × 100
V

Regulation down %
Leading
↓
V
= (cos( θ ± θ ) × 100
V
↑
Lagging

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