MATHEMATICS

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PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL A LEVEL

PURE MATHEMATICS 3
STUDENT BOOK
PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL A LEVEL

PURE MATHEMATICS 3
Student Book

Series Editors: Joe Skrakowski and Harry Smith

Authors: Greg Attwood, Jack Barraclough, Ian Bettison, Gordon Davies, Keith Gallick,
Daniel Goldberg, Alistair Macpherson, Anne McAteer, Bronwen Moran, Su Nicholson,
Diane Oliver, Joe Petran, Keith Pledger, Cong San, Joe Skrakowski, Harry Smith,
Geoff Staley, Robert Ward-Penny, Dave Wilkins
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 CONTENTS iii

COURSE STRUCTURE iv
ABOUT THIS BOOK vi
QUALIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW viii
EXTRA ONLINE CONTENT x
1 ALGEBRAIC METHODS 1
2 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS 10
3 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 46
4 TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE 70
REVIEW EXERCISE 1 97
5 EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS 102
6 DIFFERENTIATION 122
7 INTEGRATION 146
8 NUMERICAL METHODS 158
REVIEW EXERCISE 2 170
EXAM PRACTICE 174
GLOSSARY 176
ANSWERS 178
INDEX 214
iv COURSE STRUCTURE

CHAPTER 1 ALGEBRAIC CHAPTER 4 TRIGONOMETRIC

METHODS 1 ADDITION FORMULAE 70
1.1 ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS WITH 4.1 ADDITION FORMULAE 71
ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS 2 4.2 USING THE ANGLE ADDITION
1.2 IMPROPER FRACTIONS 5 FORMULAE 75
CHAPTER REVIEW 1 8 4.3 DOUBLE-ANGLE FORMULAE 78
4.4 SOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC
EQUATIONS 81
CHAPTER 2 FUNCTIONS AND
4.5 SIMPLIFYING a cos x ± b sin x 85
GRAPHS 10 4.6 PROVING TRIGONOMETRIC
2.1 THE MODULUS FUNCTION 11
IDENTITIES 90
2.2 FUNCTIONS AND MAPPINGS 15
CHAPTER REVIEW 4 93
2.3 COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS 20
2.4 INVERSE FUNCTIONS 24
2.5 y =|f(x )| AND y = f(|x |) 28 REVIEW EXERCISE 1 97
2.6 COMBINING TRANSFORMATIONS 32
2.7 SOLVING MODULUS PROBLEMS 35 CHAPTER 5 EXPONENTIALS
CHAPTER REVIEW 2 40
AND LOGARITHMS 102
5.1 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS 103
CHAPTER 3 TRIGONOMETRIC 5.2 y = eax + b + c 105
FUNCTIONS 46 5.3 NATURAL LOGARITHMS 108
3.1 SECANT, COSECANT AND 5.4 LOGARITHMS AND NON-LINEAR
COTANGENT 47 DATA 110
3.2 GRAPHS OF sec x, cosec x 5.5 EXPONENTIAL MODELLING 116
AND cot x 49 CHAPTER REVIEW 5 118
3.3 USING sec x, cosec x
AND cot x 53
3.4 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES 57
3.5 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS 62
CHAPTER REVIEW 3 66
 COURSE STRUCTURE v

CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 8 NUMERICAL

DIFFERENTIATION 122 METHODS 158
6.1 DIFFERENTIATING sin x AND 8.1 LOCATING ROOTS 159
cos x 123 8.2 FIXED POINT ITERATION 163
6.2 DIFFERENTIATING EXPONENTIALS CHAPTER REVIEW 8 167
AND LOGARITHMS 126
6.3 THE CHAIN RULE 128
REVIEW EXERCISE 2 170
6.4 THE PRODUCT RULE 132
6.5 THE QUOTIENT RULE 134
6.6 DIFFERENTIATING EXAM PRACTICE 174
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 137
CHAPTER REVIEW 6 142 GLOSSARY 176

CHAPTER 7 INTEGRATION 146 ANSWERS 178

7.1 INTEGRATING STANDARD
FUNCTIONS 147
7.2 INTEGRATING f(ax + b) 149 INDEX 214
7.3 USING TRIGONOMETRIC
IDENTITIES 151
7.4 REVERSE CHAIN RULE 153
CHAPTER REVIEW 7 156
vi ABOUT THIS BOOK

ABOUT THIS BOOK

The following three themes have been fully integrated throughout the Pearson Edexcel International
Advanced Level in Mathematics series, so they can be applied alongside your learning.

1. Mathematical argument, language and proof

• Rigorous and consistent approach throughout
• Notation boxes explain key mathematical language and symbols

2. Mathematical problem-solving The Mathematical Problem-Solving Cycle

• Hundreds of problem-solving questions, fully integrated specify the problem

into the main exercises

• Problem-solving boxes provide tips and strategies interpret results
collect information
• Challenge questions provide extra stretch
process and
3. Transferable skills represent information

• Transferable skills are embedded throughout this book, in the exercises and in some examples
• These skills are signposted to show students which skills they are using and developing

Finding your way around the book

Each chapter is mapped to the

specification content for easy
reference

Each chapter starts with a

list of Learning objectives

The Prior knowledge check

helps make sure you are
ready to start the chapter
The real world applications of
the maths you are about to learn
are highlighted at the start of the
chapter.

Glossary terms will be

identified by bold blue text
on their first appearance.
 ABOUT THIS BOOK vii

Step-by-step worked
examples focus on the
key types of questions
you’ll need to tackle

Transferable skills are

signposted where
they naturally occur
in the exercises and
examples

Exercise questions
are carefully graded
so they increase in
difficulty and gradually
bring you up to exam
standard

Exercises are packed Each section begins Problem-solving boxes provide hints,
with exam-style with explanation and tips and strategies, and Watch out
Exam-style questions questions to ensure you key learning points boxes highlight areas where students
are ready for the exams often lose marks in their exams
are flagged with E
Problem-solving
questions are flagged Each chapter ends with a Chapter review
with P and a Summary of key points

After every few chapters, a Review exercise

helps you consolidate your learning with
lots of exam-style questions

A full practice paper at the back of

the book helps you prepare for the
real thing
viii QUALIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW

QUALIFICATION AND
ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW
Qualification and content overview
Pure Mathematics 3 (P3) is a compulsory unit in the following qualifications:
International Advanced Level in Mathematics
International Advanced Level in Pure Mathematics

Assessment overview
The following table gives an overview of the assessment for this unit.
We recommend that you study this information closely to help ensure that you are fully prepared for
this course and know exactly what to expect in the assessment.

Unit Percentage Mark Time Availability

P3: Pure Mathematics 3 _2 75 1 hour 30 min January, June and October
16 3 % of IAL
Paper code WMA13/01 First assessment June 2020

IAL: International Advanced A Level.

Assessment objectives and weightings Minimum

weighting in
IAS and IAL
Recall, select and use their knowledge of mathematical facts, concepts and techniques in a
AO1 30%
variety of contexts.
Construct rigorous mathematical arguments and proofs through use of precise statements,
logical deduction and inference and by the manipulation of mathematical expressions,
AO2 30%
including the construction of extended arguments for handling substantial problems
presented in unstructured form.
Recall, select and use their knowledge of standard mathematical models to represent
situations in the real world; recognise and understand given representations involving
AO3 10%
standard models; present and interpret results from such models in terms of the original
situation, including discussion of the assumptions made and refinement of such models.
Comprehend translations of common realistic contexts into mathematics; use the results of
AO4 calculations to make predictions, or comment on the context; and, where appropriate, read 5%
critically and comprehend longer mathematical arguments or examples of applications.
Use contemporary calculator technology and other permitted resources (such as formulae
AO5 booklets or statistical tables) accurately and efficiently; understand when not to use such 5%
technology, and its limitations. Give answers to appropriate accuracy.
 QUALIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW ix

Relationship of assessment objectives to units

Assessment objective
P3 AO1 AO2 AO3 AO4 AO5
Marks out of 75 25–30 25–30 5–10 5–10 5–10
_1 _1 _2 _1 _2 _1
6_3 –13_3
2 1
% 33 3 –40 33 3 –40 6 3 –13 3 6 3 –13 3

Calculators
Students may use a calculator in assessments for these qualifications. Centres are responsible for
making sure that calculators used by their students meet the requirements given in the table below.
Students are expected to have available a calculator with at least the following keys: +, –, ×, ÷, π, x2,
__ 1
√ x , __, xy, ln x, ex, x!, sine, cosine and tangent and their inverses in degrees and decimals of a degree,
x
and in radians; memory.

Prohibitions
Calculators with any of the following facilities are prohibited in all examinations:
• databanks
• retrieval of text or formulae
• built-in symbolic algebra manipulations
• symbolic differentiation and/or integration
• language translators
• communication with other machines or the internet
x EXTRA ONLINE CONTENT

Extra online content

Whenever you see an Online box, it means that there is extra online content available to support you.

SolutionBank
SolutionBank provides a full worked solution for questions in the book.
Download all the solutions as a PDF or quickly find the solution you need online.

Use of technology y

Explore topics in more detail, visualise Online Find the point of intersection
problems and consolidate your understanding. graphically using technology.
Use pre-made GeoGebra activities or Casio
resources for a graphic calculator.

GeoGebra-powered interactives Graphic calculator interactives

Interact with the maths

you are learning using
GeoGebra's easy-to-use
tools

Interact with the mathematics you are Explore the mathematics you are learning and
learning using GeoGebra's easy-to-use tools gain confidence in using a graphic calculator

Calculator tutorials
Our helpful video tutorials will
guide you through how to use
your calculator in the exams.
They cover both Casio's scientific
and colour graphic calculators.

Online Work out each coefficient quickly using Step-by-step guide with audio instructions
the nCr and power functions on your calculator. on exactly which buttons to press and what
should appear on your calculator's screen
ALGEBRAIC METHODS CHAPTER 1 1

1 ALGEBRAIC
METHODS 1.1
1.2

Learning objectives
A$er completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Multiply algebraic fractions → pages 2–5

● Divide algebraic fractions → pages 2–5

● Add and subtract algebraic fractions → pages 2–5

● Convert an improper fraction into

partial fraction form → pages 5–8

Prior knowledge check

1 Simplify:
5x3y2
a 3x2 × 5x5 b ______ ← Pure 1 Section 1.1
15x2y3
The earliest evidence of written
2 Factorise each polynomial:
mathematics dates from 3000 bce
a x2 − 6x + 5 b x2 − 16x c 9x2 − 25 with the ancient Sumerians, but
← Pure 1 Section 1.3 the equals sign (=) had to wait
3 Simplify fully the following algebraic fractions. another 4500 years. It was invented
x2 − 9 2x 2 + 5x − 12 by the Welsh mathematician Robert
a _________ b __________
x + 9x + 18
2 6x 2 − 7x − 3 Recorde. In his book The Whetstone
x 2 − x − 30 of Witte he explained that he wanted
c ____________ ← Pure 2 Section 1.1
−x 2 + 3x + 18 to avoid ‘tedious repetition’.
2 CHAPTER 1 ALGEBRAIC METHODS

1.1 Arithmetic operations with algebraic fractions

■ To multiply fractions, cancel any common factors, then multiply the numerators
and multiply the denominators.

Example 1 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

Simplify the following products:

3 5 a c x+1 3
a __ × __ b __ × __ c _____ × ______
5 9 b a 2 x −1
2

1
3 51 1 × 1 1 Cancel any common factors and multiply
a __ × __ = _____ = __
1 5 9 3 1 × 3 3 numerators and denominators.
1a c 1×c c
b __ × __ = _____ = __
b a1 b × 1 b Cancel any common factors and multiply
numerators and denominators.
x+1 3 x+1 3
c _____ × ______ = _____ × ____________
2 x2 − 1 2 (x + 1)(x − 1)
1 Factorise (x2 − 1).
x+1
_____ 3
____________
= ×
2 1 (x + 1)(x − 1)
Cancel any common factors and multiply
3
= ________ numerators and denominators.
2(x − 1)

■ To divide two fractions, multiply the first fraction by the reciprocal of the second fraction.

Example 2 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

Simplify:
a a x + 2 3x + 6
a __ ÷ __ b _____ ÷ _______
b c x + 4 x2 − 16

a a 1a c Multiply the first fraction by the reciprocal of the

a __ ÷ __ = __ × __
b c b a1 second fraction. Cancel the common factor a.
1×c
= _____ Multiply numerators and denominators.
b×1
c
= __
b
x + 2 3x + 6
b ______ ÷ _______
x + 4 x2 − 16
x + 2 x2 − 16 Multiply the first fraction by the reciprocal of the
= ______ × _______
x + 4 3x + 6 second fraction.
x + 2 (x + 4)(x − 4)
= ______ × _____________
x+4 3(x + 2) Factorise as much as possible.
1 1
x + 2 (x + 4)(x − 4)
= ______1 × _____________
x+4 3(x + 2)1 Cancel any common factors and multiply
x−4
______ numerators and denominators.
=
3
ALGEBRAIC METHODS CHAPTER 1 3

Exercise 1A SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

x 2 − 64 ______
64 − x 2
E/P 1 Show that ______ ÷ = −1 (4 marks)
x 2 − 36 x 2 − 36

x 2 + 8x + 16 ____________
2x 2 − 11x − 40 __________ 8x 2 + 20x − 48 __
a
E/P 2 Show that ___________ × 2 ÷ = and find the values
x − 4x − 32
2 6x − 3x − 45 10x − 45x + 45 b
2

of the constants a and b, where a and b are integers. (4 marks)

x 2 + 2x − 24 _________
x 2 − 3x
E/P 3 Simplify fully _________ × (3 marks)
2x 2 + 10x x 2 + 3x − 18

2x 2 − 3x − 2 x−2
E/P 4 f(x) = _________ ÷ ___________
6x − 8 3x + 14x − 24
2

2x 2 + 13x + 6
a Show that f(x) = __________ (4 marks)
2 Hint Differentiate each term
b Hence differentiate f(x) and find f9(4). (3 marks) separately. ← Pure 1 Section 8.5

■ To add or subtract two fractions, find a common denominator.

Example 3

Simplify the following:

1 3 a b 2 1 3 4x
a __ + __ b __ + __ c ____ − ____ d ____ − _____
3 4 2x 3x x+3 x+1 x+1 x −12

1
__ 3
a + __
3 4
× __
4
4 × __
3
3
4 9
= ___ + ___
12 12
The lowest common multiple of 3 and 4 is 12
13
= ___
12
a b
b __ + __ The lowest common multiple of 2x and 3x is 6x
2x 3x
3a 2b
= ___ + ___ Multiply the first fraction by _33 and the second
6x 6x
fraction by _22
3a + 2b
= _______
6x
4 CHAPTER 1 ALGEBRAIC METHODS

2 1
c ______ − _____ The lowest common multiple is (x + 3)(x + 1), so
x+3 x+1 change both fractions so that the denominators
2(x + 1) 1(x + 3) are (x + 3)(x + 1)
= ____________ − ____________
(x + 3)(x + 1) (x + 3)(x + 1)
2(x + 1) − 1(x + 3) Subtract the numerators.
= _________________
(x + 3)(x + 1)
2x + 2 − 1x − 3 Expand the brackets.
= _______________
(x + 3)(x + 1)

x−1 Simplify the numerator.

= ____________
(x + 3)(x + 1)
3 4x
d _____ − ______
x + 1 x2 − 1
3 4x
= ______ − ____________
x + 1 (x + 1)(x − 1) Factorise x2 − 1 to (x + 1)(x − 1)
3(x − 1) 4x
= ____________ − ____________
(x + 1)(x − 1) (x + 1)(x − 1) The LCM of (x + 1) and (x + 1)(x − 1) is (x + 1)(x − 1)
3(x − 1) − 4x
= _____________
(x + 1)(x − 1)
−x − 3 Simplify the numerator: 3x − 3 − 4x = −x − 3
= ____________
(x + 1)(x − 1)

Exercise 1B SKILLS INTERPRETATION

1 Write as a single fraction:

1 1 3 2 1 __
1 3 1 3 1 a 3
a __ + __ b __ − __ c __
p+q d __ + __ e __2 − __ f __ − __
3 4 4 5 4x 8x x x 5b 2b

2 Write as a single fraction:

3 2 2 3 4 2
a __ − ____ b ____ − ____ c _____ + ____
x x+1 x−1 x+2 2x + 1 x − 1
1 1 3x 1 5 4
d __ (x + 2) − __ (x + 3) e ______2 − ____ f ______ + ______
3 2 (x + 4) x+4 2(x + 3) 3(x − 1)

3 Write as a single fraction:

2 1 7 3 2 3
a _________ + ____ b _____ + ____ c _________ − _________
x 2 + 2x + 1 x + 1 x −4 x+2
2 x + 6x + 9 x + 4x + 3
2 2

2 3 3 1 x+2 x+1
d ______ + ____ e _________ − _________ f _________ − _________
y −x
2 2 y−x x + 3x + 2 x 2 + 4x + 4
2 x − x − 12 x + 5x + 6
2 2

6x + 1 4
E 4 Express _________ − ____ as a single fraction in its simplest form. (4 marks)
x + 2x − 15
2 x − 3
ALGEBRAIC METHODS CHAPTER 1 5

5 Express each of the following as a fraction in its simplest form.

3 2 1 4 2 1 3 2 4
a __ + ____ + ____ b __ − ____ + _____ c ____ + ____ + ____
x x+1 x+2 3x x − 2 2x + 1 x−1 x+1 x−3

4(2x − 1) _____
7
E 6 Express _______ + as a single fraction in its simplest form. (4 marks)
36x − 1 6x − 1
2

6 36
E/P 7 g(x) = x + ____ + _________ , x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ −2, x ≠ 4
x + 2 x 2 − 2x − 8
x 3 − 2x 2 − 2x + 12
a Show that g(x) = ______________ (4 marks)
(x + 2)(x − 4)
x 2 − 4x + 6
b Using algebraic long division, or otherwise, further show that g(x) = _________ (4 marks)
x−4

1.2 Improper fractions

■ An improper algebraic fraction is one whose numerator has degree greater than or equal to
the denominator. An improper fraction must be converted to a mixed fraction before you can
express it in partial fractions.
x + 5x + 8
2
__________ x + 5x − 9
3
and _______________ are both improper fractions.
x−2 x3 − 4x2 + 7x − 3
The degree of the The degrees of the numerator
numerator is greater and denominator are equal.
than the degree of the
denominator. Notation The degree of a polynomial
is the largest exponent in the expression.
For example, x 3 + 5x − 9 has degree 3.
■ To convert an improper fraction into a mixed fraction,
you can use either:
Watch out The divisor and
• algebraic long division
the remainder can be numbers
• the relationship F(x) = Q(x) × divisor + remainder
or functions of x.
Method 1
Use algebraic long division to show that:
Q(x)
F(x) x + 5x + 8
2
__________ 22
_____
≡x+7+ remainder
x−2 x−2
divisor

Method 2
Multiply by (x − 2) and compare coefficients to show that:
Q(x)
F(x) x 2 + 5x + 8 ≡ (x + 7)(x − 2) + 22 remainder

divisor
6 CHAPTER 1 ALGEBRAIC METHODS

Example 4

x3 + x2 − 7 D
Given that ________ ≡ Ax 2 + Bx + C + ____ , find the values of A, B, C and D.
x−3 x−3

Using algebraic long division: Problem-solving

x2 + 4x + 12 Solving this problem using algebraic
x − 3 x3 + x2 + 0x − 7 long division will give you an answer
x3 − 3x2 in the form asked for in the question.
4x2 + 0x
4x2 − 12x
12x − 7
12x − 36
29
x3 + x2 − 7
So ___________ = x2 + 4x + 12 The divisor is (x − 3) so you need to write the
x−3
with a remainder of 29. remainder as a fraction with denominator (x − 3).
x3 + x2 − 7
___________ 29
= x2 + 4x + 12 + ______
x−3 x−3
It’s always a good idea to list the value of each
So A = 1, B = 4, C = 12 and D = 29 unknown asked for in the question.

Example 5 SKILLS ANALYSIS

Given that x 3 + x 2 − 7 ≡ (Ax 2 + Bx + C )(x − 3) + D, find the values of A, B, C and D.

Let x = 3: Problem-solving
27 + 9 − 7 = (9A + 3B + C ) × 0 + D The identity is given in the form
D = 29 F(x) ≡ Q(x) × divisor + remainder,
Let x = 0: so solve by equating coefficients.
0 + 0 − 7 = (A × 0 + B × 0 + C )
× (0 − 3) + D Set x = 3 to find the value of D.
−7 = −3C + D
−7 = −3C + 29 Set x = 0 and use your value of D to find the
3C = 36 value of C.
C = 12

Compare the coefficients of x3 and x2 You can find the remaining values by equating
Compare coefficients in x3: 1=A coefficients of x3 and x2.
Compare coefficients in x2: 1 = −3A + B Remember there are two x2 terms when you
1 = −3 + B expand the brackets on the RHS:
x3 terms: LHS = x3, RHS = Ax3
Therefore A = 1, B = 4, C = 12 and D = 29
x2 terms: LHS = x2, RHS = (−3A + B)x2
and we can write
x 3 + x 2 − 7 ≡ (x 2 + 4x + 12)(x − 3) + 29
This can also be written as:
x3 + x2 − 7
___________ 29
≡ x2 + 4x + 12 + ______
x−3 x−3
ALGEBRAIC METHODS CHAPTER 1 7

Example 6

x 4 + x 3 + x − 10
f(x) = ____________
x 2 + 2x − 3
Dx + E
Show that f(x) can be written as Ax 2 + Bx + C + ________ and find the values of A, B, C, D and E.
x 2 + 2x − 3

Using algebraic long division: Watch out When you are dividing by a quadratic
x2− x+ 5 expression, the remainder can be a constant or a
linear expression. The degree of (−12x + 5) is less
x2 + 2x − 3 x4+ x3 + 0x2 + x − 10
than that of (x2 + 2x − 3) so stop your division here.
x + 2x3 − 3x2
4
The remainder is −12x + 5.
−x3 + 3x2 + x
−x3 − 2x2 + 3x
5x2 − 2x − 10
5x2 + 10x − 15
−12x + 5
x 4 + x 3 + x − 10
________________ −12x + 5 Write the remainder as a fraction over the whole
≡ x 2 − x + 5 + ____________
x 2 + 2x − 3 x 2 + 2x − 3 divisor.
So A = 1, B = −1, C = 5, D = −12 and E = 5

Exercise 1C SKILLS ANALYSIS

x 3 + 2x 2 + 3x − 4 D
E 1 _______________ ≡ Ax 2 + Bx + C + _____
x+1 x+1
Find the values of the constants A, B, C and D. (4 marks)

2x 3 + 3x 2 − 4x + 5 d
E 2 Given that ________________ ≡ ax 2 + bx + c + _____ , find the values of a, b, c and d. (4 marks)
x+3 x+3
x3 − 8
E 3 f(x) = ______
x−2
Show that f(x) can be written in the form px 2 + qx + r and find the values of
p, q and r. (4 marks)

2x 2 + 4x + 5 nx + p
E 4 Given that ___________ ≡ m + ______ , find the values of m, n and p. (4 marks)
x −1
2 x2 − 1

E 5 Find the values of the constants A, B, C and D in the following identity:

8x 3 + 2x 2 + 5 ≡ (Ax + B)(2x 2 + 2) + Cx + D (4 marks)

4x 3 − 5x 2 + 3x − 14 Cx + D
E 6 _________________ ≡ Ax + B + _________
x 2 + 2x − 1 x 2 + 2x − 1
Find the values of the constants A, B, C and D. (4 marks)
 8 CHAPTER 1 ALGEBRAIC METHODS

x 4 + 3x 2 − 4 sx + t
E 7 g(x) = ___________ . Show that g(x) can be written in the form px 2 + qx + r + ______
x2 + 1 x2 + 1
and find the values of p, q, r, s and t. (4 marks)

2x 4 + 3x 3 − 2x 2 + 4x − 6 dx + e
E 8 Given that _____________________ ≡ ax 2 + bx + c + _________ , find the values
x +x−2
2 x +x−2
2

of a, b, c, d and e. (5 marks)

E 9 Find the values of the constants A, B, C, D and E in the following identity:

3x4 − 4x3 − 8x2 + 16x − 2 ≡ (Ax2 + Bx + C )(x2 − 3) + Dx + E (5 marks)

E/P 10 a Fully factorise the expression x 4 − 1 (2 marks)

−1
x4
b Hence, or otherwise, write the algebraic fraction ______ in the form
x+1
(ax + b)(cx2 + dx + e) and find the values of a, b, c, d and e. (4 marks)

Chapter review 1

1 Simplify these fractions as far as possible:

3x 4 − 21x x2 − 2x − 24 2x2 + 7x − 4
a _________ b ___________ c ___________
3x x2 − 7x + 6 2x2 + 9x + 4
2 Divide 3x3 + 12x2 + 5x + 20 by (x + 4)

2x3 + 3x + 5
3 Simplify ___________
x+1
4 Simplify:
x − 4 2x + 8 x 2 − 3x − 10 __________
6x 2 + 24 4x 2 + 12x + 9 ____________
4x 2 − 9
a _____ × _______ b ___________ × c ____________ ÷
6 x 2 − 16 3x 2 − 21 x 2 + 6x + 8 x 2 + 6x 2x 2 + 9x − 18

4x 2 − 8x x 2 + 6x + 5
E/P 5 a Simplify fully __________ × __________
(3 marks)
x 2 − 3x − 4 2x 2 + 10x
b Given that ln [(4x 2 − 8x)(x 2 + 6x + 5)] = 6 + ln [(x 2 − 3x − 4)(2x 2 + 10x)]
find x in terms of e. (4 marks)

4x 3 − 9x 2 − 9x x 2 − 3x
E/P 6 g(x) = _____________ ÷ ____________
32x + 24 6x 2 − 13x − 5
a Show that g(x) can be written in the form ax 2 + bx + c, where a, b and c
are constants to be found. (4 marks)
b Hence differentiate g(x) and find g9(−2). (3 marks)
ALGEBRAIC METHODS CHAPTER 1 9

6x + 1 5x + 3
E 7 Express ______ + ___________ as a single fraction in its simplest form. (4 marks)
x − 5 x 2 − 3x − 10
3 12
E 8 f(x) = x + _____ − __________ , x ∈ ℝ, x > 1
x − 1 x + 2x − 3
2

x2 + 3x + 3
Show that f(x) = __________ (4 marks)
x+3

9 Find the values of the constants A, B, C and D in the following identity:

x3 − 6x2 + 11x + 2 ≡ (x − 2)(Ax2 + Bx + C ) + D (5 marks)

4x3 − 6x2 + 8x − 5 D
E 10 Show that ________________ can be put in the form Ax2 + Bx + C + ______
2x + 1 2x + 1
Find the values of the constants A, B, C and D. (5 marks)

x4 + 2 D
E 11 Show that ______ ≡ Ax 2 + Bx + C + ______
x −1
2 x −1
2

where A, B, C and D are constants to be found. (5 marks)

Challenge
6x 3 − 7x 2 + 3 C D
SKILLS 1 Given that ____________ ≡ Ax + B + ______ + _____
3x + x − 10
2 3x − 5 x +2
CREATIVITY
find the values of the constants A, B, C and D.
2 Prove that if f(x) = ax 3 + bx2 + cx + d and f( p) = 0, then (x − p) is a factor of f(x).
3 Given that f(x) = 2x 3 + 9x2 + 10x + 3:
a show that −3 is a root of f(x)
10
b express ____ as partial fractions.
f(x)

Summary of key points

1 To multiply fractions, cancel any common factors, then multiply the numerators
and multiply the denominators.

2 To divide two fractions, multiply the first fraction by the reciprocal of the second fraction.

3 To add or subtract two fractions, find a common denominator.

4 An improper algebraic fraction is one whose numerator has degree greater than or equal to
the denominator. An improper fraction must be converted to a mixed fraction before you can
express it in partial fractions.

5 To convert an improper fraction into a mixed fraction, you can use either:
• algebraic long division
• the relationship F(x) = Q(x) × divisor + remainder
2 FUNCTIONS
AND GRAPHS 1.3
1.4

Learning objectives
A!er completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Understand and use the modulus function → pages 11–15
● Understand mappings and functions,
and use domain and range → pages 15–20
● Combine two or more functions to make
a composite function → pages 20–23
● Know how to find the inverse of a function
graphically and algebraically → pages 24–27
● Sketch the graphs of the modulus functions
y = |f(x)|
)| and y = f(|x|) → pages 28–32
● Apply a combination of two (or more)
transformations to the same curve → pages 32–35
● Transform the modulus function → pages 35–40

Prior knowledge check

1 Make y the subject of each of the following:

2y + 8x
a 5x = 9 − 7y b p = ______
5
c 5x − 8y = 4 + 9xy ← International GCSE Mathematics

2 Write each expression in its simplest form.

1
a (5x − 3) 2 − 4 b __________
2(3x − 5) − 4
x+4
____ +5
x+2
c _________ ← International GCSE Mathematics
x+4
____ Code breakers at Bletchley Park
−3
x+2 in the UK used inverse functions
3 Sketch each of the following graphs. Label any points to decode enemy messages
where the graph cuts the x- or y-axis. during World War II. When the
a y = x(x + 4)(x − 5) b y = sin x, 0° < x < 360° enemy encoded a message
← Pure 2 Section 6.1 they used a function. The code
breakers’ challenge was to find
4 f(x) = x 2 − 3x. Find the values of: the inverse function that would
a f(7) b f(3) c f(−3) ← Pure 1 Section 2.3 decode the message.

10
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS CHAPTER 2 11

2.1 The modulus function

The modulus of a number a, written as |a|, is its non-negative numerical value.
So, for example, |5| = 5 and also |−5| = 5. Notation The modulus
■ A modulus function is, in general, a function of the function is also known as the
type y = |f(x)| absolute value function. On a
• When f(x) > 0, |f(x)| = f(x) calculator, the button is o!en
labelled ‘Abs’.
• When f(x) , 0, |f(x)| = −f(x)

Example 1

Write down the values of:

a |−2| b |6.5|
1 4
|
c __ − __
3 5 |
a |−2| = 2 The positive numerical value of −2 is 2.

b |6.5| = 6.5
6.5 is a positive number.
c |3 − 5| = |15 − 15| = |− 15| = 15
1
__ 4
__ 5
__ 12
__ 7
___ 7
___
Work out the value inside the modulus.

Example 2

f(x) = |2x − 3| + 1
Write down the values of:
a f(5) b f(–2) c f(1)

a f(5) = |2 × 5 − 3| + 1 Watch out The modulus function acts like a

= |7| + 1 = 7 + 1 = 8 pair of brackets. Work out the value inside the
modulus function first.
b f(−2) = |2(−2) − 3| + 1
= |−7| + 1 = 7 + 1 = 8 y

Online
x

Use your calculator to work out

c f(1) = |2 × 1 − 3| + 1
values of modulus functions.
= |−1| + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2

■ To sketch the graph of y = |ax + b|, sketch y y=x y = |x |

y
y = ax + b then reflect the section of the
graph below the x-axis in the x-axis. reflected
in the
x-axis
O x O x
12 CHAPTER 2 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

Example 3 SKILLS INTERPRETATION

y

Online
x

Explore graphs of f(x) and

Sketch the graph of y = |3x − 2| |f(x)| using technology.

y y = 3x – 2
Step 1
Sketch the graph of y = 3x − 2
(Ignore the modulus for the moment.)

O 2 x
3

–2

Step 2
y For the part of the line below the x-axis
y =|3x – 2| (the negative values of y), reflect in the x-axis.
For example, this will change the y-value −2
into the y-value 2.
2

You could check your answer using a table of

O 2 x
3 values:
x −1 0 1 2
y = |3x − 2| 5 2 1 4

Example 4 SKILLS INTERPRETATION

Solve the equation |2x − 1| = 5

y Start by sketching the graphs of y = |2x − 1| and

B A y=5
y = 5.
y =|2x – 1|
The graphs intersect at two points, A and B,
O x so there will be two solutions to the equation.

A is the point of intersection on the original part

of the graph.
At A: 2x − 1 = 5
2x = 6 B is the point of intersection on the reflected
x=3 part of the graph.
At B: −(2x − 1) = 5
Notation The function inside the modulus
−2x + 1 = 5
is called the argument of the modulus. You
2x = −4
can solve modulus equations algebraically by
x = −2 considering the positive argument and the
The solutions are x = 3 and x = −2 negative argument separately.
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS CHAPTER 2 13

Example 5 Online Explore intersections of

x

1 straight lines and modulus graphs

Solve the equation |3x − 5| = 2 − __x
2 using technology.

y
y = |3x – 5| Start by sketching the graphs of y = |3x − 5| and
1
y = 2 − __x
2
A
B
O x
The sketch shows there are two solutions, at A
y = 2 – 21 x
and B, the points of intersection.
1
At A: 3x − 5 = 2 − __x
2
7
__
x=7
2
x= 2 This is the solution on the original part of the
1 graph.
At B: −(3x − 5) = 2 − __x
2
1 1
−3x + 5 = 2 − __x When f(x) < 0, |f(x)| = −f(x), so − (3x − 5) = 2 − __x
2 2
5
−__x = −3 gives you the second solution.
2
6
x = __
5 This is the solution on the reflected part of the
6
The solutions are x = 2 and x = __ graph.
5

Example 6

Solve the inequality |5x − 1| > 3x

y
y = |5x – 1| y = 3x
First draw a sketch of y = |5x − 1| and y = 3x
A
B

O x

At A: 5x − 1 = 3x Solve the equation |5x − 1| = 3x to find the

2x = 1 x-coordinates of the points of intersection, A and B.
1
x = __ This is the intersection on the original part of the
2
graph.
At B: −(5x − 1) = 3x
−5x + 1 = 3x
Consider the negative argument to find the point
8x = 1
of intersection on the reflected part of the graph.
1
x = __
8
14 CHAPTER 2 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

Problem-solving
The points of intersection are
Look at the sketch to work out which values of
1 1
x = __ and x = __ x satisfy the inequality. y = |5x − 1| is above
2 8
1 1
So the solution to |5x − 1| > 3x is y = 3x when x > __ or x < __. You could write the
2 8
solution in set notation as {x : x > __} ∪ {x : x < __}
1 1 1 1
x < __ or x > __
8 2 2 8

Exercise 2A SKILLS INTERPRETATION

1 Write down the values of:

||
3
a __
4
b |− 0.28| c |3 − 11| |
5 3
d __ − __
7 8 | e |20 − 6 × 4| f |4 2 × 2 − 3 × 7|

2 f(x) = |7 − 5x| + 3. Write down the values of:

a f(1) b f(10) c f(−6)

3 g(x) = |x2 − 8x|. Write down the values of:

a g(4) b g(−5) c g(8)

4 Sketch the graph of each of the following. In each case, write down the coordinates of any
points at which the graph meets the coordinate axes.
a y = |x − 1| b y = |2x + 3| c y = |4x − 7|
1
d y = __x − 5
2 | |
e y = |7 − x| f y = |6 − 4x|
Hint y = −|x| is a reflection of y = |x|
g y = −|x| h y = − 3x − 1
| | in the x-axis. ← Pure 1 Section 4.5

5 | 3
|
g(x) = 4 − __x and h(x) = 5
2
a On the same axes, sketch the graphs of y = g(x) and y = h(x).
3
|
b Hence solve the equation 4 − __x = 5
2 |
6 Solve:

a |3x − 1| = 5
x−5
b ____ = 1
2 | | c |4x + 3| = − 2

d |7x − 3| = 4
4 − 5x
|
e _____ = 2
3 | x
f __ − 1 = 3
6 | |
7
1
a On the same diagram, sketch the graphs y = −2x and y = __x − 2
2 | |
1
__
b Solve the equation −2x = x − 2
2 | |
E 8 Solve |3x − 5| = 11 − x (4 marks)
1
9 a On the same set of axes, sketch y = |6 − x| and y = __x − 5
2
1
b State with a reason whether there are any solutions to the equation |6 − x| = __x − 5
2
 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS CHAPTER 2 15

P 10 A student attempts to solve the equation |3x + 4| = x. The student writes the following working:
3x + 4 = x −(3x + 4) = x
4 = − 2x or −3x − 4 = x
x = −2 −4 = 4x
x= −1
Solutions are x = −2 and x = −1.

Explain the error made by the student.

11 a On the same diagram, sketch the graphs of y = −|3x + 4| and y = 2x − 9

b Solve the inequality −|3x + 4| < 2x − 9

E 12 Solve the inequality |2x + 9| < 14 − x (4 marks)

1
E/P 13 The equation |6 − x| = __x + k has exactly one solution. Problem-solving
2
a Find the value of k. (2 marks) The solution must be at the vertex of
the graph of the modulus function.
b State the solution to the equation. (2 marks)

Challenge

SKILLS f(x) = |x 2 + 9x + 8| and g(x) = 1 − x

INTERPRETATION a On the same axes, sketch graphs of y = f(x) and y = g(x)
b Use your sketch to find all the solutions to |x 2 + 9x + 8| = 1 − x

2.2 Functions and mappings

A mapping transforms one set of numbers into a different set of numbers. The mapping can be
described in words or through an algebraic equation. It can also be represented by a graph.
■ A mapping is a function if every input has a distinct output. Functions can either be one-to-one
or many-to-one.
A B A B A B

one-to-one function many-to-one function not a function

__
Many mappings can be made into functions by changing the domain. Consider y = √ x :
y

Notation The domain is the set of all possible

y= x
inputs for a mapping. The range is the set of all
possible outputs for the mapping.

O x
16 CHAPTER 2 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

__
If the domain were all of the real numbers, ℝ, then y = √x would not be a function because values of
x less than 0 would not be mapped anywhere.
However, if we restrict the domain to x > 0, then every element in the domain is mapped to exactly
one element in the range.
Notation You can also write this function as:
We can write this function
__
together with its __
f : x ↦ √x , x ∈ ℝ, x > 0
domain as f(x) = √x , x ∈ ℝ, x > 0.

Example 7 SKILLS ANALYSIS

For each of the following mappings:

i state whether the mapping is one-to-one, many-to-one or one-to-many
ii state whether or not the mapping is a function.
a b y c y 1 d y
3 y= x y = x2 – 1
9
–3 y = 2x + 5 y
2 y
4
–2
1
1 O x
–1 –x x
O x

A B O x x

a i Every element in set A gets mapped to

two elements in set B, so the mapping You couldn’t write down a single value for f(9).
is one-to-many.
ii The mapping is not a function.
For a mapping to be a function, every input in the
b i Every value of x gets mapped to one domain must map onto exactly one output.
value of y, so the mapping is one-to-one.
ii The mapping is a function.
c i The mapping is one-to-one. The mapping in part c could be a function if
ii x = 0 does not get mapped to a value x = 0 were omitted from the domain. You could
of y so the mapping is not a function. 1
write this as a function as f(x) = __
x , x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ 0.
d i On the graph, you can see that x and –x
both get mapped to the same value of y.
Therefore, this is a many-to-one mapping. Watch out Normally the domain is all the reals
ii The mapping is a function. (x ∈ ℝ), unless otherwise stated.

Example 8

Find the range of each of the following functions:

a f(x) = 3x − 2, domain {x = 1, 2, 3, 4} b g(x) = x2, domain {x ∈ ℝ, −5 < x < 5}
1
c h(x) = __
x , domain {x ∈ ℝ, 0 < x < 3}
State whether the functions are one-to-one or many-to-one.
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS CHAPTER 2 17

a f(x) = 3x − 2, {x = 1, 2, 3, 4} The domain contains a finite (non-infinite)

number of elements, so you can draw a mapping
1 1 diagram showing the whole function.
2 4
3 7
4 10

Range of f(x) is {1, 4, 7, 10}.

f(x) is one-to-one. The domain is the set of all the x-values that
b g(x) = x2, {−5 < x < 5} correspond to points on the graph. The range is
the set of y-values that correspond to points on
y
the graph.
25
y =g(x)

–5 O 5 x

Range of g(x) is 0 < g(x) < 25

g(x) is many-to-one.
1
c h(x) = __
x , {x ∈ ℝ, 0 < x < 3}
y
y = h(x) 1
Calculate h(3) = __ to find the minimum value in
3 1
1 the range of h. As x approaches 0, __
x approaches
3 ∞, so there is no maximum value in the range of h.

O 3 x

1
Range of h(x) is h(x) > __
3
h(x) is one-to-one.

Example 9
Notation This is an example of a piecewise-
defined function, that is, a function defined by
The function f(x) is defined by
more than one equation. Here one part is linear
f: x ↦ { 2
5 − 2x, x < 1 (for x < 1) and one quadratic (for x > 1).
x + 3, x > 1
y

a Sketch y = f(x), and state the range of f(x). Online

x

Explore graphs of functions

b Solve f(x) = 19. on a given domain using technology.
18 CHAPTER 2 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

a y Watch out Although the graph jumps at x = 1,

the function is still defined for all real values of x:
f(0.9) = 5 − 2(0.9) = 3.2
f(1) = (1)2 + 3 = 4
y =f(x)
5
4 Sketch the graph of y = 5 − 2x for x < 1, and the
3 graph of y = x2 + 3 for x > 1

f(1) lies on the quadratic curve, so use a solid dot

on the quadratic curve, and an open dot on the
O 1 x
line.
The range is the set of values that y takes
and therefore f(x) > 3 Note that f(x) ≠ 3 at x = 1
b y so f(x) . 3
y =5 – 2x y = x2 + 3 not f(x) > 3
19

There are two values of x such that f(x) = 19

Problem-solving
O x
The positive solution is where Use x2 + 3 = 19 to find the solution in the range
x2 + 3 = 19 x > 1 and use 5 − 2x = 19 to find the solution in
the range x , 1
x2 = 16
x = ±4
x=4 Ignore x = −4 because the function is only equal
The negative solution is where to x2 + 3 for x > 1
5 − 2x = 19
−2x = 14
x = −7
The solutions are x = 4 and x = −7

Exercise 2B SKILLS INTERPRETATION

1 For each of the following functions:

i draw the mapping diagram
ii state if the function is one-to-one or many-to-one
iii find the range of the function.
a f(x) = 5x − 3, domain {x = 3, 4, 5, 6}
b g(x) = x 2 − 3, domain {x = −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
7
c h(x) = _____ , domain {x = −1, 0, 1}
4 − 3x
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS CHAPTER 2 19

2 For each of the following mappings:

i state whether the mapping is one-to-one, many-to-one or one-to-many
ii state whether or not the mapping could represent a function.
a y b y c y

O x O x O x

d y e y f y

O x O x
O x

3 Calculate the value(s) of a, b, c and d given that:

a p(a) = 16 where p: x ↦ 3x − 2, x ∈ ℝ b q(b) = 17 where q: x ↦ x2 − 3, x ∈ ℝ
c r(c) = 34 where r: x ↦ 2(2x) + 2, x ∈ ℝ d s(d) = 0 where s: x ↦ x2 + x − 6, x ∈ ℝ

4 For each function below:

i represent the function on a mapping diagram, writing down the elements in the range
ii state whether the function is one-to-one or many-to-one.
a f(x) = 2x + 1 for the domain {x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
__
__
b g: x ↦ √ x for the domain {x = 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36} Notation Remember, √x means
c h(x) = x2 for the domain {x = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2} the positive square root of x.
2
d j: x ↦ __
x for the domain {x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
e k(x) = ex + 3 for the domain {x = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2}

5 For each function:

i sketch the graph of y = f(x)
ii state the range of f(x)
iii state whether f(x) is one-to-one or many-to-one.
a f: x ↦ 3x + 2 for the domain {x > 0} b f(x) = x2 + 5 for the domain {x > 2}
_____
c f: x ↦ 2 sin x for the domain {0 < x < 180} d f: x ↦ √ x + 2 for the domain {x > −2}
e f(x) = ex for the domain {x > 0} f f(x) = 7 log x, for the domain {x ∈ ℝ, x > 0}

6 The following mappings f and g are defined on all the real numbers by

f(x) = { 2 g(x) = { 2
4 − x, x , 4 4 − x, x , 4
x + 9, x > 4 x + 9, x . 4
a Explain why f(x) is a function and g(x) is not. b Sketch y = f(x)
c Find the values of: i f(3) ii f(10) d Find the solution of f(a) = 90
20 CHAPTER 2 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

P 7 The function s is defined by

s(x) = {
x2 − 6, x , 0
10 − x, x > 0
a Sketch y = s(x) Problem-solving
b Find the value(s) of a such that s(a) = 43 The solutions of s(x) = x are the values in the
domain that get mapped to themselves in the range.
c Solve s(x) = x

E/P 8 The function p is defined by

p(x) = { 3
e−x, −5 < x , 0
x + 4, 0 < x < 4
a Sketch y = p(x) (3 marks)
b Find the values of a, to 2 decimal places, such that p(a) = 50 (4 marks)

E/P 9 The function h has domain −10 < x < 6, and is linear from (−10, 14) to (−4, 2)
and from (−4, 2) to (6, 27).
a Sketch y = h(x) (2 marks) Problem-solving
b Write down the range of h(x) (1 mark) The graph of y = h(x) will consist of two
c Find the values of a, such that h(a) = 12 (4 marks) line segments which meet at (−4, 2).

P 10 The function g is defined by g(x) = cx + d where c and d are constants to be found.

Given g(3) = 10 and g(8) = 12, find the values of c and d.

P 11 The function f is defined by f(x) = ax3 + bx − 5 where a and b are constants to be found.
Given that f(1) = −4 and f(2) = 9, find the values of the constants a and b.

E/P 12 The function h is defined by h(x) = x2 − 6x + 20 and has Hint First complete the square
domain x > a. Given that h(x) is a one-to-one function, for h(x).
find the smallest possible value of the constant a. (6 marks)

2.3 Composite functions

Two or more functions can be combined to make a new function. The new function is called a
composite function.
■ fg(x) means apply g first, then apply f.
■ fg(x) = f(g(x))
g f Watch out The order in which the
x g(x) fg(x) functions are combined is important:
fg(x) is not normally the same as gf(x).

fg

Example 10 SKILLS INTERPRETATION

Given f(x) = x2 and g(x) = x + 1, find:

a fg(1) b gf(3) c ff(−2)
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS CHAPTER 2 21

a fg(1) = f(1 + 1) g(1) = 1 + 1

= 22
=4 f(2) = 22
b gf(3) = g(32)
= g(9) f(3) = 32
=9+1
= 10 g(9) = 9 + 1
c ff(−2) = f((−2)2)
= f(4) f(−2) = (−2)2
= 42
= 16 f(4) = 42

Example 11

The functions f and g are defined by f(x) = 3x + 2 and g(x) = x2 + 4. Find:

a the function fg(x)
b the function gf(x)
c the function f 2(x) Notation f 2(x) is ff(x)

d the values of b such that fg(b) = 62.

a fg(x) = f(x2 + 4) g acts on x first, mapping it to x2 + 4

= 3(x2 + 4) + 2
= 3x2 + 14 f acts on the result.

b gf(x) = g(3x + 2) Simplify answer.

= (3x + 2)2 + 4
= 9x2 + 12x + 8 f acts on x first, mapping it to 3x + 2

c f2(x) = f(3x + 2) g acts on the result.

= 3(3x + 2) + 2
= 9x + 8 f maps x to 3x + 2

d fg(x) = 3x2 + 14 f acts on the result.

If fg(b) = 62
then 3b + 14 = 62
2
Set up and solve an equation in b.
b2 = 16
b = ±4

Example 12

The functions f and g are defined by:

f: x ↦ |2x − 8|
x+1
g: x ↦ _____
2
a Find fg(3). b Solve fg(x) = x.
22 CHAPTER 2 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

a fg(3) = f(_____) g(3) =(____)

3+1 3+1
2 2
= f(2)
= |2 × 2 − 8| f(2) = |2 × 2 − 8|
= |−4|
=4
b First find fg(x):
fg(x) = f( ____)
x+1 x+1
g acts on x first, mapping it to ____
2 2
= 2(| 2 ) |
+1
x____
−8 f acts on the result.
= |x − 7|
fg(x) = x Simplify the answer.
|x − 7| = x
y y =x
Draw a sketch of y = |x − 7| and y = x
7 The sketch shows there is only one solution to
y =|x – 7|
the equation |x − 7| = x and that it occurs on the
O 7 x reflected part of the graph.

When f(x) < 0, |f(x)| = –f(x). The solution is on the

−(x − 7) = x reflected part of the graph so use –(x − 7)
−x + 7 = x
2x = 7 This is the x-coordinate at the point of
x = 3.5 intersection marked on the graph.

Exercise 2C SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

x
1 Given the functions p(x) = 1 − 3x, q(x) = __ and r(x) = (x − 2) 2, find:
4
a pq(−8) b qr(5) c rq(6) d p2(−5) e pqr(8)
1
2 Given the functions f(x) = 4x + 1, g(x) = x2 − 4 and h(x) = __
x , find expressions for the functions:
a fg(x) b gf(x) c gh(x) d fh(x) e f 2(x)

E 3 The functions f and g are defined by:

f(x) = 3x − 2, x ∈ ℝ
g(x) = x 2, x ∈ ℝ
a Find an expression for fg(x). (2 marks)
b Solve fg(x) = gf(x). (4 marks)

E 4 The functions p and q are defined by:

1
p(x) = _____, x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ 2
x−2
q(x) = 3x + 4, x ∈ ℝ
ax + b
a Find an expression for qp(x) in the form ______ (3 marks)
cx + d
b Solve qp(x) = 16. (3 marks)
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS CHAPTER 2 23

E 5 The functions f and g are defined by:

f: x ↦ |9 − 4x|
3x − 2
g: x ↦ _____
2
a Find fg(6). (2 marks)
b Solve fg(x) = x. (5 marks)
1
P 6 Given f(x) = ____ , x ≠ −1
x+1
x+1
a Prove that f 2(x) = ____ b Find an expression for f 3(x).
x+2
7 The functions s and t are defined by
s(x) = 2x, x ∈ ℝ
t(x) = x + 3, x ∈ ℝ
a Find an expression for st(x).
b Find an expression for ts(x).

E 8 Given f(x) = e 5x and g(x) = 4 ln x, find in its simplest form:

a gf(x) (2 marks)
b fg(x) (2 marks)

E/P 9 The functions p and q are defined by Hint The range of p will be the set of
p: x ↦ ln (x + 3), x ∈ ℝ, x > −3
possible inputs for q in the function qp.
q: x ↦ e 3x − 1, x ∈ ℝ
a Find qp(x) and state its range. (3 marks)
b Find the value of qp(7). (1 mark)
c Solve qp(x) = 124 (3 marks)

E/P 10 The function t is defined by:

t: x ↦5 − 2x
Solve the equation t2(x) − (t(x))2 = 0 (5 marks)
Problem-solving
You need to work out the intermediate steps for this problem yourself, so plan
your answer before you start. You could start by finding an expression for tt(x).

y
E 11 The function g has domain −5 < x < 14 and is linear from
12
(−5, −8) to (0, 12) and from (0, 12) to (14, 5). y = g(x)
A sketch of the graph of y = g(x) is shown in the diagram.
a Write down the range of g. (1 mark)
b Find gg(0). (2 marks)
2x − 5 –5 O 14 x
_____
The function h is defined by h: x ↦
10 − x
c Find gh(7). (2 marks) –8
24 CHAPTER 2 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

2.4 Inverse functions

The inverse of a function performs the opposite operation y y = f(x)
to the original function. It takes the elements in the range 6
y=x
5
of the original function and maps them back into elements
4
of the domain of the original function. For this reason,
3
inverse functions exist only for one-to-one functions. 2 y = f –1(x)
■ Functions f(x) and f−1(x) are inverses of each other. 1
ff−1(x) = f−1f(x) = x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1O 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
■ The graphs of y = f(x) and y = f−1(x) are –1
–2
reflections of each other in the line y = x Notation
–3
■ The domain of f(x) is the range of f−1(x) –4 The inverse of
■ The range of f(x) is the domain of f−1(x) –5 f(x) is written
–6 as f −1(x).
Example 13

Find the inverse of the function h(x) = 2x2 − 7, x > 0

square ×2 −7
An inverse function
x x2 2x2 2x2 – 7
can o!en be found
x+7 x+7 x+7 x
2 2 using a flow diagram.
square root ÷2 +7
> −7, so domain of
Range of h(x) is h(x)______ h−1(x) is x > −7
The range of h(x) is
x
√
+7
Therefore, h−1(x) = ______ , x > −7
2 the domain of h−1(x).

Example 14 SKILLS ANALYSIS

3
Find the inverse of the function f(x) = _____, x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ 1, by changing the subject of the formula.
x−1
Let y = f(x) You can rearrange to find an inverse function.
3 Start by letting y = f(x)
y = _____
x−1
y(x − 1) = 3 Rearrange to make x the subject of the formula.
yx − y = 3
yx = 3 + y Define f−1(x) in terms of x.
3+y
x = ______
y Check to see that at least one element works. Try 4.
Range of f(x) is f(x) ≠ 0, so domain of f−1(x) is Note that f−1f(4) = 4
x≠0
3+x
Therefore f−1(x) = ______
x ,x≠ 0
3 3 f(x)
f(4) = _____ = __ = 1
4−1 3 4 1
3+1 4
f−1(1) = _____ = __ = 4
1 1 f –1(x)
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS CHAPTER 2 25

Example 15
_____
The function f(x) is defined by f(x) = √ x − 2 , x ∈ ℝ, x > 2
a State the range of f(x). b Find the function f−1(x) and state its domain and range.
c Sketch y = f(x) and y = f−1(x) and the line y = x

a The range of f(x) is y ∈ ℝ, y > 0 f(2) = 0. As x increases from 2, f(x) also increases
_____
without limit, so the range is f(x) > 0, or y > 0
b y = √x − 2
y2 = x − 2
x2 = y − 2
y = x2 + 2 Rearrange to make y the subject of the equation.
The inverse function is f −1(x) = x2 + 2
The domain of f −1(x) is x ∈ ℝ, x > 0 Always write your function in terms of x.
The range of f −1(x) is y ∈ ℝ, y > 2
c y = f −1(x) = x2 + 2 The range of f(x) is the same as the domain of f−1(x).
y
6 y=x
The range of f−1(x) is the same as the domain of f(x).
5
4
The graph of f−1(x) is a reflection of f(x) in the line
3
y = f(x) = x − 2 y = x. This is because the reflection transforms y
2 to x and x to y.
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x

Example 16

The function f(x) is defined by f(x) = x 2 − 3, x ∈ ℝ, x > 0

a Find f−1(x). b Sketch y = f−1(x) and state its domain. c Solve the equation f(x) = f−1(x)

a Let y = f(x)
y = x2 − 3
y + 3 = x_____
2
Change the subject of the formula.
x = √______
y+3
f (x) = √ x + 3
−1 y

Online
x

b y = f(x) Explore functions and their

y inverses using technology.
y=x

y = f −1(x) First sketch f(x). Then reflect f(x) in the line y = x

−3 O x

−3 The range of the original function is f(x) > −3

The domain of f−1(x) is x ∈ ℝ, x > −3.

26 CHAPTER 2 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

c When f(x) = f−1(x) Problem-solving

f(x) = x y = f(x) and y = f−1(x) intersect on the line y = x.
x −3=x
2 This means that the solution to f(x) = f−1(x) is the
x2 − x − 3 =___0 same as the solution to f(x) = x
√
1 + 13
So x = ________
2 From the graph you can see that the solution
must be positive, so ignore the negative solution
to the equation.
Exercise 2D SKILLS ANALYSIS

1 For each of the following functions f(x):

i state the range of f(x)
ii determine the equation of the inverse function f−1(x)
iii state the domain and range of f−1(x)
iv sketch the graphs of y = f(x) and y = f−1(x) on the same set of axes.
x+5
a f: x ↦ 2x + 3, x ∈ ℝ b f: x ↦ _____, x ∈ ℝ
2
c f: x ↦ 4 − 3x, x ∈ ℝ d f: x ↦ x3 − 7, x ∈ ℝ
2 Find the inverse of each function:
a f(x) = 10 − x, x ∈ ℝ
x Notation Two of these functions are
b g(x) = __, x ∈ ℝ
5 self-inverse. A function is self-inverse
3
__ if f−1(x) = f(x). In this case ff(x) = x
c h(x) = x , x ≠ 0, x ∈ ℝ
d k(x) = x − 8, x ∈ ℝ

P 3 Explain why the function g: x ↦ 4 − x, x ∈ ℝ, x > 0, is not identical to its inverse.

4 For each of the following functions g(x) with a restricted domain:

i state the range of g(x)
ii determine the equation of the inverse function g−1(x)
iii state the domain and range of g−1(x)
iv sketch the graphs of y = g(x) and y = g−1(x) on the same set of axes.
1
a g(x) = __
x , x ∈ ℝ, x > 3 b g(x) = 2x − 1, x ∈ ℝ, x > 0
3 _____
c g(x) = _____ , x ∈ ℝ, x > 2 d g(x) = √ x − 3 , x ∈ ℝ, x > 7
x−2
e g(x) = x2 + 2, x ∈ ℝ, x > 2 f g(x) = x3 − 8, x ∈ ℝ, x > 2

E 5 The function t(x) is defined by Hint First complete the square for the function t(x).
t(x) = x2 − 6x + 5, x ∈ ℝ, x > 5
Find t −1(x). (5 marks)
E/P 6 The function m(x) is defined by m(x) = x2 + 4x + 9, x ∈ ℝ, x > a, for some constant a.
a State the least value of a for which m−1(x) exists. (4 marks)
b Determine the equation of m−1(x). (3 marks)
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS CHAPTER 2 27

c State the domain of m−1(x). (1 mark)

2x + 1
7 The function h(x) is defined by h(x) = ______ , x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ 2
x−2
a What happens to the function as x approaches 2?
b Find h−1(3).
c Find h−1(x), stating clearly its domain.
d Find the elements of the domain that get mapped to themselves by the function.

8 The functions m and n are defined by:

m: x ↦ 2x + 3, x ∈ ℝ
x−3
n: x ↦ _____, x ∈ ℝ
2
a Find nm(x).
b What can you say about the functions m and n?

P 9 The functions s and t are defined by:

3
s(x) = ____ , x ≠ −1
x+1
3−x
t(x) = ____
x ,x≠0
Show that the functions are inverses of each other.

E/P 10 The function f(x) is defined by f(x) = 2x2 − 3, x ∈ ℝ, x < 0

Determine:
a f−1(x), clearly stating its domain (4 marks)
b the values of a for which f(a) = f−1(a). (4 marks)

E 11 The functions f and g are defined by:

f: x ↦ ex − 5, x ∈ ℝ
g: x ↦ ln(x − 4), x > 4
a State the range of f. (1 mark)
b Find f−1, the inverse function of f, stating its domain. (3 marks)
c On the same axes, sketch the curves with equation y = f(x) and y = f−1(x),
giving the coordinates of all the points where the curves cross the axes. (4 marks)
d Find g−1, the inverse function of g, stating its domain. (3 marks)
e Solve the equation g−1(x) = 11, giving your answer to 2 decimal places. (3 marks)

E/P 12 The function f is defined by:

3(x + 2) 2
f: x ↦ _________ − ____ , x > 4
x 2 + x − 20 x − 4
1
a Show that f: x ↦ ____ , x > 4 (4 marks)
x+5
b Find the range of f. (2 marks)
c Find f−1(x). State the domain of this inverse function. (4 marks)
28 CHAPTER 2 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

2.5 y = |f(x)| and y = f(|x|)

■ To sketch the graph of y = |f(x)|: y y = f(x) y y = |f(x)| y y = f(|x|)
6
• sketch the graph of y = f(x)
• reflect any parts where f(x) < 0
(parts below the x-axis) in the x-axis –2 –1 O 3 x –2 –1 O 3 x –3 O 3 x

• delete the parts below the x-axis. –6 –6

y y
■ To sketch the graph of y = f(|x|): (1.2, 2) (–1.2, 2) (1.2, 2)
y = f(x), x > 0 y = f(|x|)
• sketch the graph of y = f(x) for x > 0 1 1
3 –3 3
• reflect this in the y-axis. O x O x

Example 17 SKILLS INTERPRETATION

f(x) = x2 − 3x − 10
a Sketch the graph of y = f(x)
b Sketch the graph of y = |f(x)|
c Sketch the graph of y = f(|x|)

a f(x) = x2 − 3x − 10 = (x − 5)(x + 2)
f(x) = 0 implies (x − 5)(x + 2) = 0
The graph of y = x2 − 3x − 10 cuts the x-axis at
So x = 5 or x = −2
x = −2 and x = 5.
f(0) = −10
y
The graph cuts the y-axis at (0, −10).
y = f(x)

This is the sketch of y = x2 − 3x − 10

The sketch includes the points where the graph
−2 O 5 x intercepts the coordinate axes.
A sketch does not have to be to scale.
−10
y

b y = |f(x)| = |x2 − 3x − 10| Online

x

Explore graphs of modulus

y functions using technology.
y = |f(x)|
10

Reflect the part of the curve where y = f(x) < 0

−2 O 5 x (the negative values of y) in the x-axis.
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS CHAPTER 2 29

c y = f(|x|) = |x|2 − 3|x| − 10

y
y = f(|x|)
Reflect the part of the curve where x > 0
(the positive values of x) in the y-axis.

−5 O 5 x

−10

Example 18

g(x) = sin x, −360° < x < 360°

a Sketch the graph of y = g(x)
b Sketch the graph of y = |g(x)|
c Sketch the graph of y = g(|x|)

a y

The graph is periodic and passes through

1 y = sin x
the origin, (±180°, 0) and (±360°, 0).
← Pure 1 Section 6.5
−360° −180° O 180° 360° x

−1

b y

y = |sin x|
1
Reflect the part of the curve below the
x-axis in the x-axis.
−360° −180° O 180° 360° x

−1

c y

1 y = sin|x| Reflect the part of the curve where

x > 0 in the y-axis.
−360° −180° O 180° 360° x

−1
30 CHAPTER 2 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

Example 19
y
The diagram shows the graph of y = h(x), with five
points labelled. B (–2.5, 15)
C
Sketch each of the following graphs, labelling the 11
points corresponding to A, B, C, D and E, and any
A D y = h(x)
points of intersection with the coordinate axes. x
–7 O 3
a y = |h(x)|
E (6, –5)
b y = h(|x|)

a y

B (–2.5, 15) The parts of the curve below the x-axis are
C reflected in the x-axis.
11 E 9 (6, 5)
The points A, B, C and D are unchanged.
A
D y = |h(x)|
The point E was reflected, so the new
–7 O 3 x coordinates are E ’(6, 5).

b y
The part of the curve to the right of the y-axis
is reflected in the y-axis.
11 C
y = h(|x|) The old points A and B had negative x-values
so they are no longer part of the graph.
D9 D
–3 O 3 x The points C, D and E are unchanged.
There is a new point of intersection with the
E9 (–6, –5) E (6, –5)
x-axis at (−3, 0).
The point E was reflected, so the new
coordinates are E ’(−6, −5).

Exercise 2E SKILLS INTERPRETATION

1 f(x) = x2 − 7x − 8
a Sketch the graph of y = f(x) b Sketch the graph of y = |f(x)|
c Sketch the graph of y = f(|x|)

2 g: x ↦ cos x, −360° < x < 360°

a Sketch the graph of y = g(x) b Sketch the graph of y = |g(x)|
c Sketch the graph of y = g(|x|)

3 h: x ↦ (x − 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)
a Sketch the graph of y = h(x) b Sketch the graph of y = |h(x)|
c Sketch the graph of y = h(|x|)
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS CHAPTER 2 31

a
P 4 The function k is defined by k(x) = __2 , a > 0, x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ 0
x
a Sketch the graph of y = k(x)
b Explain why it is not necessary to sketch y = |k(x)| and y = k(|x|)
a
The function m is defined by m(x) = __2 , a < 0, x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ 0
x
c Sketch the graph of y = m(x)
d State with a reason whether the following statements are true or false:
i |k(x)| = |m(x)| ii k(|x|) = m(|x|) iii m(x) = m(|x|)

E 5 The diagram shows the graph of y = p(x) with five points y

y = p(x)
labelled.
Sketch each of the following graphs, labelling the points
corresponding to A, B, C, D and E, and any points of 3D
intersection with the coordinate axes. A C E (2, 1)
a y = |p(x)| (3 marks) –8 –2 O x

b y = p(|x|) (3 marks)
B (–4, –5)

E 6 The diagram shows the graph of y = q(x) with seven y

points labelled. y = q(x)
Sketch each of the following graphs, labelling the points
D (–4, 3)
corresponding to A, B, C, D, E, F and G, and any points
of intersection with the coordinate axes. A C D G
a y = |q(x)| (4 marks) –10 –5 –3 O 4 x

b y = q(|x|) (3 marks)
–4 F

a
7 k(x) = __
x , a > 0, x ≠ 0 B (–8, –9)
a Sketch the graph of y = k(x)
b Sketch the graph of y = |k(x)|
c Sketch the graph of y = k(|x|)
a
8 m(x) = __
x , a < 0, x ≠ 0
a Sketch the graph of y = m(x)
b Describe the relationship between y = |m(x)| and y = m(|x|)

9 f(x) = 2x and g(x) = 2−x

a Sketch the graphs of y = f(x) and y = g(x) on the same axes.
b Explain why it is not necessary to sketch y = |f(x)| and y = |g(x)|
c Sketch the graphs of y = f(|x|) and y = g(|x|) on the same axes.
32 CHAPTER 2 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

E/P 10 The function f(x) is defined by: Problem-solving

f(x) = {
−2x − 6, −5 < x , −1
(x + 1)2, −1 < x < 2
A piecewise function like this
does not have to be continuous.
a Sketch f(x), stating its range. (5 marks) Work out the value of both
b Sketch the graph of y = |f(x)| (3 marks) expressions when x = −1 to
help you with your sketch.
c Sketch the graph of y = f(|x|) (3 marks)

2.6 Combining transformations

You can use combinations of the following transformations of a function to sketch graphs of more
complicated transformations.
−a
■ f(x + a) is a translation by the vector ( 0 ) ■ f(ax) is a horizontal stretch of scale factor __1a
■ f(x) + a is a translation by the vector (0 )
a ■ af(x) is a vertical stretch of scale factor a
■ f(−x) reflects f(x) in the y-axis Links You can think of f(−x) and −f(x) as stretches
■ −f(x) reflects f(x) in the x-axis with scale factor −1. ← Pure 1 Sections 4.5, 4.6

y
Example 20

The diagram shows a sketch of the graph of y = f(x). B (6, 4)

The curve passes through the origin O, the point

A(2, −1) and the point B(6, 4). y = f(x)

Sketch the graphs of:

a y = 2f(x) − 1 b y = f(x + 2) + 2 O x
1 A (2, –1)
c y = __f(2x) d y = −f(x − 1)
4
In each case, find the coordinates of the images of the points O, A and B.

a y = 2f(x) − 1
y (6, 8)
Apply the stretch first. The dotted curve is the
graph of y = 2f(x), which is a vertical stretch with
(6, 7) scale factor 2.

Next apply the translation. The solid curve is

the graph of y = 2f(x) − 1, as required. This is a
translation of y = 2f(x) by vector ( )
0
O x −1
(0, –1) (2, –2)

Watch out The order is important.

(2, –3)
If you applied the transformations in
The images of O, A and B are (0, −1), the opposite order you would have the
(2, −3) and (6, 7) respectively. graph of y = 2(f(x) − 1) or y = 2f(x) − 2
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS CHAPTER 2 33

b y = f(x + 2) + 2
y
Apply the translation inside the brackets first.
(4, 6) The dotted curve is the graph of y = f(x + 2),
which is a translation of y = f(x) by vector ( )
−2
(4, 4) 0

(–2, 2)
Next apply the translation outside the brackets.
(0, 1) The solid curve is the graph of y = f(x + 2) + 2,
(–2, 0) O x as required. This is a translation of y = f(x + 2)
by vector ( )
0
(0, –1)
2

The images of O, A and B are (−2, 2),

(0, 1) and (4, 6) respectively.
1
c y = __f(2x)
4
y
(3, 4)
Apply the stretch inside the brackets first. The
dotted curve is the graph of y = f(2x), which is a
horizontal stretch with scale factor _12

(3, 1) Then apply the stretch outside the brackets. The

solid curve is the graph of y = _14 f(2x), as required.
(1, – 0.25) This is a vertical stretch of y = f(2x) with scale
(0, 0) x factor _14

(1, – 1)

The images of O, A and B are (0, 0),

(1, −0.25) and (3, 1) respectively.

d y = −f(x − 1)
y

(7, 4)
Apply the translation inside the brackets first.
The dotted curve is the graph of y = f(x − 1),
which is a translation of y = f(x) by vector ( )
(1, 0) 1
(3, 1) 0
O x
(3, – 1) Then apply the reflection outside the brackets.
The solid curve is the graph of y = −f(x − 1), as
required. This is a reflection of y = f(x − 1) in the
(7, – 4) x-axis.

The images of O, A and B are (1, 0),

(3, 1) and (7, −4) respectively.
34 CHAPTER 2 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

Exercise 2F SKILLS INTERPRETATION

1 The diagram shows a sketch of the graph y = f(x). y

The curve passes through the origin O, the point B (3, 4)
A(−2, −2) and the point B(3, 4).
On separate axes, sketch the graphs of:
a y = 3f(x) + 2 b y = f(x − 2) − 5
1
c y = __f(x + 1) d y = −f(2x)
2 O x
e y = |f(x)| f y = |f(−x)|
In each case, find the coordinates of the images of the A (–2, –2) y = f(x)
points O, A and B.

2 The diagram shows a sketch of the graph y = f(x). y

The curve has a maximum at the point A(−1, 4) and A (–1, 4)
crosses the axes at the points (0, 3) and (−2, 0).
On separate axes, sketch the graphs of: 3

b y = __f(__x)
1 1
a y = 3f(x − 2)
2 2 y = f(x)
c y = −f(x) + 4 d y = −2f(x + 1) –2 x
O
e y = 2f(|x|)
For each graph, find, where possible, the coordinates
of the maximum or minimum and the coordinates of
the intersection points with the axes.

3 The diagram shows a sketch of the graph y = f(x). y

y = f(x)
The lines x = 2 and y = 0 (the x-axis) are asymptotes
to the curve.
On separate axes, sketch the graphs of:
a y = 3f(x) − 1 b y =f(x + 2) + 4 1
A
c y = −f(2x) d y = f(|x|)
For each part, state the equations of the asymptotes O 2 x
and the new coordinates of the point A.

E 4 The function g is defined by g: x ↦ (x − 2)2 − 9, x ∈ ℝ

a Draw a sketch of the graph of y = g(x), labelling the turning points
and the x- and y-intercepts. (3 marks)
b Write down the coordinates of the turning point when the curve is transformed
as follows:
i 2g(x − 4) (2 marks)
ii g(2x) (2 marks)
iii |g(x)| (2 marks)
c Sketch the curve with equation y = g(|x|). On your sketch, show the coordinates
of all turning points and all x- and y-intercepts. (4 marks)
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS CHAPTER 2 35

5 h(x) = 2 sin x, −180° < x < 180°

a Sketch the graph of y = h(x)
b Write down the coordinates of the minimum, A, and the maximum, B.
c Sketch the graphs of:
ii __h(__x)
1 1 1
i h(x − 90°) + 1 iii __|h(−x)|
4 2 2
In each case, find the coordinates of the images of the points O, A and B, with O being the origin.

2.7 Solving modulus problems

You can use combinations of transformations together with |f(x)| and f(|x|) and an understanding of
domain and range to solve problems.

Example 21

Given the function t(x) = 3|x − 1| − 2, x ∈ ℝ:

a sketch the graph of the function
b state the range of the function
c solve the equation t(x) = _2 x + 3
1

a y
Problem-solving
y =|x| Use transformations to sketch
the graph of y = 3|x − 1| − 2

Sketch the graph of y = |x|

O x

y
y =|x – 1|

Step 1
Horizontal translation by vector ( )
1
0
1
O 1 x
36 CHAPTER 2 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

y
y = 3|x – 1|

3
Step 2
Vertical stretch, scale factor 3

O 1 x

y
y = 3|x – 1|– 2

Step 3
Vertical translation by vector ( )
1 0
−2
O x

(1, –2)

b The range of the function t(x) is y ∈ ℝ,

y > −2 The graph has a minimum at (1, −2).
c y

A First draw a sketch of y = 3|x − 1| − 2 and the line

3 1
B y = __x + 3
2
1
O x
The sketch shows there are two solutions, at A
(1, –2) and B, the points of intersection.

1
At A: 3(x − 1) − 2 = __x + 3
2
1
3x − 5 = __x + 3
2
5
__
x=8
2
16 This is the solution on the original part of the
x = ___ graph.
5
1
At B: −3(x − 1) − 2 = __x + 3
2 When f(x) < 0, |f(x)| = −f(x), so use –(3x − 1) − 2 to
1
−3x + 3 − 2 = __x + 3 find the solution on the reflected part of the graph.
2
7
− __x = 2
2
4 This is the solution corresponding to point B on
x = − __
7 the sketch.
16 4
The solutions are x = ___ and x = − __
5 7
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS CHAPTER 2 37

Example 22
y
The function f is defined by f: x ↦ 6 − 2|x + 3|
A sketch of the graph of the function is shown in the diagram.
a State the range of f.
b Give a reason why f −1 does not exist.
c Solve the inequality f(x) > 5 –6 O x

y = f(x)
a The range of f(x) is f(x) < 6
b f(x) is a many-to-one function.
Therefore, f −1 does not exist.
The greatest value f(x) can take is 6 (when x = −3).
c f(x) = 5 at the points A and B.
f(x) > 5 between the points A and B.
For example, f(0) = f(−6) = 0
y

B A Problem-solving
5 Only one-to-one functions have inverses.

–6 O x Add the line y = 5 to the graph of y = f(x)

y = f(x)
Between the points A and B, the graph of y = f(x)
is above the line y = 5
At A: 6 − 2(x + 3) = 5
−2(x + 3) = −1
1
x + 3 = __
2
5 This is the solution on the original part of the
x = − __
2 graph.
At B: 6 − (−2(x + 3)) = 5
2(x + 3) = −1 When f(x) < 0, |f(x)| = −f(x), so use the negative
1 argument, −2(x + 3)
x + 3 = − __
2
7 This is the solution on the reflected part of the
x = − __
2 graph.
The solution to the inequality f(x) > 5 is y

7 5
− __ < x < − __ Online
x

Explore the solution using

2 2
technology.
38 CHAPTER 2 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

Exercise 2G SKILLS INTERPRETATION

P 1 For each function:

i sketch the graph of y = f(x)
ii state the range of the function. Hint For part b, transform the graph of y = |x| by:
a f: x ↦ 4 |x| − 3, x ∈ ℝ
• a translation by vector ( )
−2
1 0
b f(x) = __ |x + 2| − 1, x ∈ ℝ 1
3 • a vertical stretch with scale factor __
3
c f(x) = −2 |x − 1| + 6, x ∈ ℝ
• a translation by vector ( )
0
5 −1
d f: x ↦ − __ |x| + 4, x ∈ ℝ
2
2 Given that p(x) = 2|x + 4| − 5, x ∈ ℝ:
a sketch the graph of y = p(x)
b shade the region of the graph that satisfies y > p(x)

3 Given that q(x) = −3|x| + 6, x ∈ ℝ:

a sketch the graph of y = q(x)
b shade the region of the graph that satisfies y < q(x)

4 The function f is defined as:

f: x ↦ 4|x + 6| + 1, x ∈ ℝ
a Sketch the graph of y = f(x)
b State the range of the function.
1
c Solve the equation f(x) = − __x + 1
2
5
5 Given that g(x) = − __|x − 2| + 7, x ∈ ℝ:
2
a sketch the graph of y = g(x)
b state the range of the function
c solve the equation g(x) = x + 1

E/P 6 The functions m and n are defined as:

m(x) = −2x + k, x ∈ ℝ Problem-solving

n(x) = 3|x − 4| + 6, x ∈ ℝ ‘m(x) = n(x) has no real roots’ means that

y = m(x) and y = n(x) do not intersect.
where k is a constant.
The equation m(x) = n(x) has no real roots.
Find the range of possible values for the constant k. (4 marks)
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS CHAPTER 2 39

E/P 7 The functions s and t are defined as:

s(x) = −10 − x, x ∈ ℝ
t(x) = 2|x + b| − 8, x ∈ ℝ
where b is a constant.
The equation s(x) = t(x) has exactly one real root. Find the value of b. (4 marks)

E/P 8 The function h is defined by:

y
2
h(x) = __ |x − 1| − 7, x ∈ ℝ
3
The diagram shows a sketch of the graph y = h(x)
a State the range of h. (1 mark) O x
b Give a reason why h−1 does not exist. (1 mark)
c Solve the inequality h(x) < −6 (4 marks)
y = h(x)
d State the range of values of k for which the
2
equation h(x) = __x + k has no solutions. (4 marks)
3
E/P 9 The diagram shows a sketch of part of the graph P y
y = h(x), where h(x) = a − 2|x + 3|, x ∈ ℝ
The graph crosses the y-axis at (0, 4). 4
Q
a Find the value of a. (2 marks)
O x
b Find the coordinates of P and Q. (3 marks)
1
c Solve h(x) = __x + 6 (5 marks) y = h(x)
3

y
E/P 10 The diagram shows a sketch of part of the graph y = m(x),
where m(x) = −4|x + 3| + 7, x ∈ ℝ
a State the range of m. (1 mark)
3
b Solve the equation m(x) = __ x + 2 (4 marks) O x
5
c Given that m(x) = k, where k is a constant,
–5
has two distinct roots, state the set of possible
y = m(x)
values for k. (4 marks)
 40 CHAPTER 2 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

Challenge

SKILLS 1 The functions f and g are defined by:

CREATIVITY
f(x) = 2 |x − 4| − 8, x ∈ ℝ
g(x) = x − 9, x ∈ ℝ

The diagram shows a sketch of the graphs of y = f(x) and y = g(x)

y
y = f(x)

y = g(x)
O x

R B
A

a Find the coordinates of the points A and B.

b Find the area of the region R.

2 The functions f and g are defined as: y y = g(x)

f(x) = −|x − 3| + 10, x ∈ ℝ

g(x) = 2|x − 3| + 2, x ∈ ℝ
64
Show that the area of the shaded region is ___
3

y = f(x)
O x

Chapter review 2

1 a On the same axes, sketch the graphs of y = 2 − x and y = 2|x + 1|

b Hence, or otherwise, find the values of x for which 2 − x = 2|x + 1|

1
E/P 2 The equation |2x − 11| = __ x + k has exactly two distinct solutions.
2
Find the range of possible values of k. (4 marks)

1
E/P 3 Solve |5x − 2| = − __x + 8 (4 marks)
4
E/P 4 a On the same set of axes, sketch y = |12 − 5x| and y = −2x + 3 (3 marks)
b State, with a reason, whether there are any solutions to the equation
|12 − 5x| = −2x + 3 (2 marks)
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS CHAPTER 2 41

5 For each of the following mappings:

i state whether the mapping is one-to-one, many-to-one or one-to-many
a y b y c y
ii state whether or not the mapping could represent a function.
a y b y c y

O x O x O x

O x O x O x

d y e y f y

d y e y f y

O x O x O x

O x O x O x

6 The function f(x) is defined by: f(x) = {

−x, x < 1
E
x − 2, x . 1
a Sketch the graph of f(x) for −2 < x < 6 (4 marks)
1
b Find the values of x for which f(x) = − __ (3 marks)
2
E 7 The functions p and q are defined by:
p: x ↦ x2 + 3x − 4, x ∈ ℝ
q: x ↦ 2x + 1, x ∈ ℝ
a Find an expression for pq(x). (2 marks)
b Solve pq(x) = qq(x) (3 marks)

E 8 The function g(x) is defined as g(x) = 2x + 7, x ∈ ℝ, x > 0

a Sketch y = g(x), and find the range. (3 marks)
b Determine y = g−1(x), stating its range. (3 marks)
c Sketch y = on the same axes as y = g(x), stating the relationship between
g−1(x)
the two graphs. (2 marks)

E 9 The function f is defined by:

2x + 3
f: x ↦ ______, x ∈ ℝ, x > 1
x−1
a Find f (x).
−1 (4 marks)
b Find: i the range of f −1(x)
ii the domain of f −1(x) (2 marks)
42 CHAPTER 2 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

E/P 10 The functions f and g are given by:

x 1
f: x ↦ ______ − _____, x ∈ ℝ, x > 1
x −1
2 x + 1
2
g : x ↦ __
x , x ∈ ℝ, x > 0
1
a Show that f(x) = ____________ (3 marks)
(x − 1)(x + 1)
b Find the range of f(x). (1 mark)
c Solve gf(x) = 70 (4 marks)

P 11 The following functions f(x), g(x) and h(x) are defined by:
f(x) = 4(x − 2), x ∈ ℝ, x > 0
g(x) = x3 + 1, x ∈ ℝ
h(x) = 3x, x ∈ ℝ
a Find f(7), g(3) and h(−2). b Find the range of f(x) and the range of g(x).
c Find g−1(x). d Find the composite function fg(x).
e Solve gh(a) = 244

E/P 12 The function f(x) is defined by f : x ↦ x2 + 6x − 4, x ∈ ℝ, x > a, for some constant a.

a State the least value of a for which f −1 exists. (4 marks)
b Given that a = 0, find f −1, stating its domain. (4 marks)

E/P 13 The functions f and g are given by: f : x ↦ 4x − 1, x ∈ ℝ

3 1
g : x ↦ ______ , x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ __
2x − 1 2
Find in its simplest form:
a the inverse function f −1 (2 marks)
b the composite function gf, stating its domain (3 marks)
c the values of x for which 2f(x) = g(x), giving your answers to 3 decimal places. (4 marks)

E 14 The functions f and g are given by

x
f : x ↦ _____, x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ 2
x−2
3
g : x ↦ __
x , x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ 0
a Find an expression for f −1(x) (2 marks)
b Write down the range of f −1(x) (1 mark)
c Calculate gf(1.5) (2 marks)
d Use algebra to find the values of x for which g(x) = f(x) + 4 (4 marks)

15 The function n(x) is defined by:

n(x) = {
5 − x, x < 0
x2, x . 0
a Find n(−3) and n(3). b Solve the equation n(x) = 50
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS CHAPTER 2 43

16 g(x) = tan x, −180° < x < 180°

a Sketch the graph of y = g(x)
b Sketch the graph of y = |g(x)|
c Sketch the graph of y = g(|x|)

E 17 The diagram shows the graph of f(x).

y
The points A(4, −3) and B(9, 3) are turning points B (9, 3)
on the graph. y = f(x)

Sketch, on separate diagrams, the graphs of:

a y = f(2x) + 1 (3 marks) x
O
b y = |f(x)| (3 marks)
c y = −f(x − 2) (3 marks) A (4, –3)

Indicate on each diagram the coordinates of any turning

points on your sketch.

E 18 Functions f and g are defined by:

f : x ↦ 4 − x, x ∈ ℝ
g : x ↦ 3x2, x ∈ ℝ
a Write down the range of g. (1 mark)
b Solve gf(x) = 48 (4 marks)
c Sketch the graph of y = |f(x)| and hence find the values of x for which |f(x)| = 2 (4 marks)

E/P 19 The function f is defined by f : x ↦ |2x − a|, x ∈ ℝ, where a is a positive constant.

a Sketch the graph of y = f(x), showing the coordinates of the points
where the graph cuts the axes. (3 marks)
b On a separate diagram, sketch the graph of y = f(2x), showing the
coordinates of the points where the graph cuts the axes. (2 marks)
1
c Given that a solution of the equation f(x) = __ x is x = 4, find the two possible
2
values of a. (4 marks)

E/P 20 a Sketch the graph of y = |x − 2a|, where a is a positive constant.

Show the coordinates of the points where the graph meets the axes. (3 marks)
1
b Using algebra, solve, for x in terms of a, |x − 2a| = __ x (4 marks)
3
c On a separate diagram, sketch the graph of y = a − |x − 2a|, where a is a positive constant.
Show the coordinates of the points where the graph cuts the axes. (4 marks)

E/P 21 a Sketch the graph of y = |2x + a|, a > 0, showing the coordinates of the points where
the graph meets the coordinate axes. (3 marks)
1
__
b On the same axes, sketch the graph of y = x (2 marks)
c Explain how your graphs show that there is only one solution of the equation
x|2x + a| − 1 = 0 (2 marks)
d Find, using algebra, the value of x for which x|2x + a| − 1 = 0. (3 marks)
 44 CHAPTER 2 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

E/P 22 The diagram shows part of the curve with equation y = f(x), where
f(x) = x2 − 7x + 5 ln x + 8, x > 0
The points A and B are the stationary points of the curve. y
a Using calculus and showing your working, find the y = f(x)
A
coordinates of the points A and B. (4 marks)
b Sketch the curve with equation y = −3f(x − 2) (3 marks)
c Find the coordinates of the stationary points of the B

curve with equation y = −3f(x − 2). State, without

O x
proof, which point is a maximum and which point
is a minimum. (3 marks)

E/P 23 The function f has domain −5 < x < 7 and is linear from y (7, 18)
(−5, 6) to (−3, −2) and from (−3, −2) to (7, 18).
y = f(x)
The diagram shows a sketch of the function.
a Write down the range of f. (1 mark) (–5, 6)
b Find ff(−3). (2 marks)
c Sketch the graph of y = |f(x)|, marking the points at O x
which the graph meets or cuts the axes. (3 marks) (–3, –2)

The function g is defined by g: x ↦ x2 − 7x + 10

d Solve the equation fg(x) = 2 (3 marks)

P 24 The function p is defined by: y

p: x ↦ −2|x + 4| + 10
The diagram shows a sketch of the graph.
a State the range of p. (1 mark)
2
b Give a reason why p −1 does not exist. (1 mark)
O x
c Solve the inequality p(x) > −4 (4 marks)
d State the range of values of k for which the equation
1
p(x) = − __ x + k has no solutions. (4 marks) y = p(x)
2

Challenge

SKILLS a Sketch, on a single diagram, the graphs of y = a2 − x2 and y = |x + a|, where a is

CREATIVITY a constant and a > 1.
b Write down the coordinates of the points where the graph of y = a2 − x2 cuts
the coordinate axes.
c Given that the two graphs intersect at x = 4, calculate the value of a.
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS CHAPTER 2 45

Summary of key points

1 A modulus function is, in general, a function of the type y = |f(x)|
● When f(x) > 0, |f(x)| = f(x)
● When f(x) , 0, |f(x)| = −f(x)
2 To sketch the graph of y = |ax + b|, sketch y = ax + b and then reflect the section of the
graph below the x-axis in the x-axis.
3 A mapping is a function if every input has A B A B A B
a distinct output. Functions can either be
one-to-one or many-to-one.
one-to-one many-to-one not a function
function function
4 fg(x) means apply g first, then apply f.
fg(x) = f(g(x))
g f
x g(x) fg(x)

fg

5 Functions f(x) and f −1(x) are inverses of each other. ff −1(x) = x and f −1f(x) = x
6 The graphs of y = f(x) and y = f −1(x) are reflections of each other in the line y = x
7 The domain of f(x) is the range of f −1(x).
8 The range of f(x) is the domain of f −1(x).
9 To sketch the graph of y = |f(x)|:
● sketch the graph of y = f(x)
● reflect any parts where f(x) , 0 (parts below the x-axis) in the x-axis
● delete the parts below the x-axis.
10 To sketch the graph of y = f(|x|):
● sketch the graph of y = f(x) for x > 0
● reflect this in the y-axis.
11 f(x + a) is a horizontal translation by −a.
12 f(x) + a is a vertical translation by +a.
1
13 f(ax) is a horizontal stretch of scale factor __
a
14 af(x) is a vertical stretch of scale factor a.
15 f(−x) reflects f(x) in the y-axis.
16 −f(x) reflects f(x) in the x-axis.
3 TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS 2.1
2.2

Learning objectives
A#er completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Understand the definitions of secant, cosecant and cotangent
and their relationship to cosine, sine and tangent → pages 47–49
● Understand the graphs of secant, cosecant and cotangent and
their domain and range → pages 49–53
● Simplify expressions, prove simple identities and solve equations
involving secant, cosecant and cotangent → pages 53–57
● Prove and use sec 2 x ≡ 1 + tan 2 x and cosec 2 x ≡ 1 + cot 2 x → pages 57–61
● Understand and use inverse trigonometric functions and
their domain and ranges → pages 62–65

Prior knowledge check

1 Sketch the graph of y = sin x for −180° ø x ø 180°.

Use your sketch to solve, for the given interval, the
equations:
a sin x = 0.8 b sin x = −0.4
← Pure 1 Section 6.5

1 1
2 Prove that __________ − _____ = tan x
sin x cos x tan x
← Pure 2 Section 6.3 Trigonometric functions can be used
to model oscillations and resonance in
3 Find all the solutions in the interval 0 ø x ø 2π bridges. You will use the functions in this
to the equation 3 sin 2(2x) = 1 chapter together with differentiation and
← Pure 2 Section 6.6 integration in chapters 6 and 7.
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS CHAPTER 3 47

3.1 Secant, cosecant and cotangent

Secant (sec), cosecant (cosec) and cotangent (cot) are known as the reciprocal trigonometric functions.
1
■ sec x = _____
cos x (undefined for values of x for which cos x = 0)

1
■ cosec x = _____ (undefined for values of x for which sin x = 0)
sin x
1
■ cot x = _____ (undefined for values of x for which tan x = 0)
tan x
You can also write cot x in terms of sin x and cos x.
cos x
■ cot x = _____
sin x

Example 1
Use your calculator to write down the values of:
a sec 280° b cot 115°

1
a sec 280° = _________ = 5.76 (3 s.f.) Make sure your calculator is in degrees mode.
cos 280°
1
b cot 115° = ________ = −0.466 (3 s.f.)
tan 115°

Example 2
Work out the exact values of:
3π
a sec 210° b cosec ___ Exact here means give in surd form.
4
1
a sec 210° = _________
cos 210°
y

S A

30°
30° O x

T C
210° is in the 3rd quadrant, so cos 210° = −cos 30°
__ __
√3 √3
cos 30° = ___ so −cos 30° = − ___
2 2 __
2__ 2√3
So sec 210° = − ___ Or sec 210° = − ____ if you rationalise the
√3 3
denominator.
48 CHAPTER 3 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

3π 1
b cosec ___ = _______
sin(___)
4 3π
4 3π
___ 3π π
is in the 2nd quadrant, so sin ___ = + sin __
y 4 4 4
3π
4
S A

π π
4 4
O x

T C

3π 1
So cosec ___ = ______π
4 sin(__)
4
π
sin(__) = ___
1__
4 √2

So cosec (___) = √ 2
__
3π
4

Exercise 3A SKILLS ANALYSIS

1 Without using your calculator, write down the sign of:

a sec 300° b cosec 190° c cot 110°
d cot 200° e sec 95°

2 Use your calculator to find, to 3 significant figures, the values of:

a sec 100° b cosec 260° c cosec 280°
4π
d cot 550° e cot ___ f sec 2.4 rad
3
11π
g cosec ____ h sec 6 rad
10

3 Find the exact value (as an integer, fraction or surd) of each of the following:
a cosec 90° b cot 135° c sec 180°
d sec 240° e cosec 300° f cot (−45°)
g sec 60° h cosec (−210°) i sec 225°

l cosec (− ___)
4π 11π 3π
j cot ___ k sec ____
3 6 4

P 4 Prove that cosec (π − x) ≡ cosec x

P 5 Show that cot 30° sec 30° = 2

2π 2π __
P 6 Show that cosec ___ + sec ___ = a + b√ 3 , where a and b are real numbers to be found.
3 3
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS CHAPTER 3 49

Challenge
SKILLS The point P lies on the unit circle, centre O. The radius OP makes an
CREATIVITY acute angle of θ with the positive x-axis. The tangent to the circle at P
intersects the coordinate axes at points A and B.
Prove that: y
a OB = sec θ
b OA = cosec θ
A
c AP = cot θ

θ
O B x

3.2 Graphs of sec x, cosec x and cot x

You can use the graphs of y = cos x, y = sin x and y = tan x to sketch the graphs of their reciprocal
functions.

Example 3 SKILLS INTERPRETATION

Sketch, in the interval −180° ø θ ø 180°, the graph of y = sec θ

y = sec θ First draw the graph y = cos θ

y
For each value of θ, the value of sec θ is the
reciprocal of the corresponding value of cos θ.
In particular: cos 0° = 1, so sec 0° = 1;
and cos 180° = −1, so sec 180° = −1

1 As θ approaches 90° from the le#, cos θ is +ve but

approaches zero, and so sec θ is +ve but becomes
–180° –90° O 90° 180° θ increasingly large.
–1 y = cos θ
At θ = 90°, sec θ is undefined and there is a
vertical asymptote. This is also true for θ = −90°

As θ approaches 90° from the right, cos θ is −ve

but approaches zero, and so sec θ is −ve but
becomes increasingly large negative.
50 CHAPTER 3 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

■ The graph of y = sec x, x ∈ R, has symmetry in the y-axis and has period 360° or 2π radians.
It has vertical asymptotes at all the values of x for which cos x = 0
y = sec x
y

1 Notation The domain can also be given as

–450° –270° –90° 90° 270° 450° (2n + 1)π
x ∈ R, x ≠ ________, n ∈ Z
5π 3π O 3π 5π x 2
– – –π π
2 2 2 2 2 2
–1 Z is the symbol used for integers, which are
the positive and negative whole numbers
including 0.

• The domain of y = sec x is x ∈ R, x ≠ 90°, 270°, 450°, … or any odd multiple of 90°
π 3π 5π π
• In radians the domain is x ∈ R, x ≠ __, ___, ___, … or any odd multiple of __
2 2 2 2
• The range of y = sec x is y ø −1 or y ù 1
■ The graph of y = cosec x, x ∈ R, has period 360° or 2π radians. It has vertical asymptotes at all
the values of x for which sin x = 0
y = cosec x
y

–360° –180° 180° 360°

–2π –π O π 2π x

–1 Notation The domain can also be given as

x ∈ R, x ≠ nπ, n ∈ Z

• The domain of y = cosec x is x ∈ R, x ≠ 0°, 180°, 360°, … or any multiple of 180°

• In radians the domain is x ∈ R, x ≠ 0, π, 2π, … or any multiple of π
• The range of y = cosec x is y ø −1 or y ù 1
■ The graph of y = cot x, x ∈ R, has period 180° or π radians. It has vertical asymptotes at all the
values of x for which tan x = 0
y = cot x
y

1
–360° –180° 180° 360°
–2π –π O π 2π x
–1
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS CHAPTER 3 51

• The domain of y = cot x is x ∈ R, x ≠ 0°, 180°, Notation The domain can also be given as
360°, … or any multiple of 180° x ∈ R, x ≠ nπ, n ∈ Z
• In radians the domain is x ∈ R, x ≠ 0, π, 2π, …
or any multiple of π
• The range of y = cot x is y ∈ R

Example 4

a Sketch the graph of y = 4 cosec x, −π ø x ø π

b On the same axes, sketch the line y = x
c State the number of solutions to the equation 4 cosec x − x = 0, −π ø x ø π

a, b
y y = 4 cosec x is a stretch of the graph of
y = 4 cosec x
8 y = cosec x, scale factor 4 in the y-direction.
6 You only need to draw the graph for −π < x < π
4
2 y=x

–π O x
–π –2
π π
2 2
–4
–6
–8

c 4 cosec x − x = 0
4 cosec x = x Problem-solving
y = 4 cosec x and y = x do not intersect The solutions to the equation f(x) = g(x)
for −π < x < π so the equation has no correspond to the points of intersection
solutions in the given range. of the graphs of y = f(x) and y = g(x)

Example 5

Sketch, in the interval 0° ø θ ø 360°, the graph of y = 1 + sec 2θ

y

Online
x

y Explore transformations
y = sec θ
of the graphs of reciprocal
trigonometric functions using technology.
1

Step 1
O 90° 180° 270° 360° θ
Draw the graph of y = sec θ
–1
52 CHAPTER 3 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

y = sec 2θ
y Step 2
Stretch in the θ-direction with scale factor _12
1

O 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360° θ

–1

y = 1 + sec 2θ
y Step 3
Translate by the vector ( )
0
1
2

O 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360° θ

Exercise 3B SKILLS INTERPRETATION

1 Sketch, in the interval −540° ø θ ø 540°, the graphs of:

a y = sec θ b y = cosec θ c y = cot θ

2 a Sketch, on the same set of axes, in the interval −π ø x ø π,

the graphs of y = cot x and y = −x
b Deduce the number of solutions of the equation cot x + x = 0 in the interval −π ø x ø π

3 a Sketch, on the same set of axes, in the interval 0° ø θ ø 360°,

the graphs of y = sec θ and y = −cos θ
b Explain how your graphs show that sec θ = −cos θ has no solutions.

4 a Sketch, on the same set of axes, in the interval 0° ø θ ø 360°,

the graphs of y = cot θ and y = sin 2θ
b Deduce the number of solutions of the equation cot θ = sin 2θ in the interval 0° ø θ ø 360°

5 a Sketch on separate axes, in the interval 0° ø θ ø 360°,

the graphs of y = tan θ and y = cot(θ + 90°)
b Hence, state a relationship between tan θ and cot(θ + 90°)
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS CHAPTER 3 53

P 6 a Describe the relationships between the graphs of:

π
i y = tan(θ + __) and y = tan θ ii y = cot(−θ) and y = cot θ
2
π π
iii y = cosec(θ + __) and y = cosec θ iv y = sec(θ − __) and y = sec θ
4 4
π π π
b By considering the graphs of y = tan(θ + __), y = cot(−θ), y = cosec(θ + __) and y = sec(θ − __),
2 4 4
state which pairs of functions are equal.

P 7 Sketch on separate axes, in the interval 0° ø θ ø 360°, the graphs of:

a y = sec 2θ b y = −cosec θ c y = 1 + sec θ
d y = cosec(θ − 30°) e y = 2 sec(θ – 60°) f y = cosec(2θ + 60°)
g y = –cot(2θ) h y = 1 – 2 sec θ
In each case, show the coordinates of any maximum and minimum points,
and of any points at which the curve meets the axes.

8 Write down the periods of the following functions. Give your answers in terms of π.
b cosec _2 θ
1
a sec 3θ c 2 cot θ d sec(−θ)

E/P 9 a Sketch, in the interval −2π ø x ø 2π, the graph of y = 3 + 5 cosec x (3 marks)
b Hence deduce the range of values of k for which the equation 3 + 5 cosec x = k
has no solutions. (2 marks)

E/P 10 a Sketch the graph of y = 1 + 2 sec θ in the interval −π ø θ ø 2π (3 marks)

b Write down the θ-coordinates of points at which the gradient is zero. (2 marks)
1
c Deduce the maximum and minimum values of _________ and give the smallest
1 + 2 sec θ
positive values of θ at which they occur. (4 marks)

3.3 Using sec x, cosec x and cot x

You need to be able to simplify expressions, prove identities and solve equations involving sec x,
cosec x and cot x.
■ sec x = k and cosec x = k have no solutions for −1 < k < 1

Example 6

Simplify:
a sin θ cot θ sec θ
b sin θ cos θ (sec θ + cosec θ )
54 CHAPTER 3 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

a sin θ cot θ sec θ Write the expression in terms of sin and cos,
1 cos θ 1
1 cos θ 1 using cot θ ≡ _____ and sec θ ≡ _____
≡ sin θ × _____ × _____ sin θ cos θ
sin θ 1 cos θ 1
≡1
1 1 Write the expression in terms of sin and cos,
b sec θ + cosec θ ≡ _____ + ____ 1 1
cos θ sin θ using sec θ ≡ _____ and cosec θ ≡ ____
cos θ sin θ
sin θ + cos θ
≡ ___________
sin θ cos θ
Put over a common denominator.
So sin θ cos θ (sec θ + cosec θ )
= sin θ + cos θ
Multiply both sides by sin θ cos θ.

Example 7

cot θ cosec θ
a Prove that ______________ ≡ cos 3 θ
sec 2 θ + cosec 2 θ
cot θ cosec θ
b Hence explain why the equation ______________ = 8 has no solutions.
sec 2 θ + cosec 2 θ

a Consider the LHS:

The numerator cot θ cosec θ
Write the expression in terms of sin and cos,
cos θ 1 cos θ
≡ _____ × ____ ≡ _____ cos θ 1
sin θ sin θ sin2 θ using cot θ ≡ _____ and cosec θ = ____
sin θ sin θ
The denominator sec2 θ + cosec2 θ
1 1
≡ ______ + _____ Write the expression in terms of sin and cos,
cos θ sin2 θ
2

using sec2 θ ≡ (_____) ≡ _____

1 2 1
and
sin2 θ + cos2 θ cos θ cos2 θ
≡ _____________
cos2 θ sin2 θ 1
cosec2 θ ≡ _____
1 sin2 θ
≡ ___________
cos2 θ sin2 θ
cot θ cosec θ Remember that sin2 θ + cos2 θ ≡ 1
So ________________
sec2 θ + cosec2 θ

≡ (_____
sin2 θ ) ( cos2 θ sin2 θ )
cos θ 1
÷ ___________

cos2 θ sin2 θ
cos θ ___________ Remember to invert the fraction when changing
≡ _____ ×
sin θ
2 1 from ÷ sign to ×.
≡ cos3 θ
cot θ cosec θ
b Since ________________ ≡ cos 3 θ we are
sec 2 θ + cosec 2 θ
Problem-solving
required to solve the equation cos 3 θ = 8
cos 3 θ = 8 ⇒ cos θ = 2 which has no Write down the equivalent equation, and state
solutions since −1 < cos θ < 1 the range of possible values for cos θ.
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS CHAPTER 3 55

Example 8

Solve the equations:

a sec θ = −2.5 b cot 2θ = 0.6
in the interval 0° < θ < 360°
1
1
_____ Substitute _____ for sec θ and then simplify to get
a = −2.5 cos θ
cos θ an equation in the form cos θ = k
1
cos θ = _____ = −0.4
−2.5
y
y = cos θ Sketch the graph of y = cos θ for the given interval.
1 The graph is symmetrical about θ = 180°
Find the principal value using your calculator then
subtract this from 360° to find the second solution.
113.6° 246.4°
O 90° 180° 270° 360° θ
–0.4
You could also find all the solutions using a CAST
diagram. This method is shown for part b below.
–1

θ = 113.6°, 246.4° = 114°, 246° (3 s.f.)

1
1
b ______ = 0.6 Substitute ______ for cot 2θ and then simplify to
tan 2θ tan 2θ
get an equation in the form tan 2θ = k
1 5
tan 2θ = ____ = __
0.6 3
Let X = 2θ, so that you are solving
5
tan X = __, in the interval 0° < X < 720°
3

S A
Draw the CAST diagram, with the acute angle
59.0° X = tan−1(_53 ) drawn to the horizontal in the
59.0° 1st and 3rd quadrants.

T C

X = 59.0°, 239.0°, 419.0°, 599.0° Remember that X = 2θ

so θ = 29.5°, 120°, 210°, 300° (3 s.f.)
56 CHAPTER 3 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Exercise 3C SKILLS ANALYSIS

1 Rewrite the following as powers of sec θ, cosec θ or cot θ.

1 4 1 1 − sin2 θ
a _____ b _____ c _______ d ________
sin θ
3 tan θ
6 2 cos2 θ sin2 θ
sec θ ________________
2 cosec2 θ tan2 θ
e _____ f √ cosec3 θ cot θ sec θ g ______
_____ h ____________
cos4 θ √ tan θ cos θ

2 Write down the value(s) of cot x in each of the following equations:

3 sin x cos x
a 5 sin x = 4 cos x b tan x = −2 c ______ = _____
cos x sin x

3 Using the definitions of sec, cosec, cot and tan, simplify the following expressions.
a sin θ cot θ b tan θ cot θ
c tan 2θ cosec 2θ d cos θ sin θ (cot θ + tan θ)
e sin3 x cosec x + cos3 x sec x f sec A − sec A sin2 A
g sec2 x cos5 x + cot x cosec x sin4 x

P 4 Prove that:
a cos θ + sin θ tan θ ≡ sec θ b cot θ + tan θ ≡ cosec θ sec θ
c cosec θ − sin θ ≡ cos θ cot θ d (1 − cos x)(1 + sec x) ≡ sin x tan x
cos x 1 − sin x cos θ sin θ
e ________ + _______ ≡ 2 sec x f ________ ≡ ________
1 − sin x cos x 1 + cot θ 1 + tan θ

P 5 Solve the following equations for values of θ in the interval 0° < θ < 360°
Give your answers to 3 significant figures where necessary.
__
a sec θ = √ 2 b cosec θ = −3 c 5 cot θ = −2 d cosec θ = 2
e 3 sec2 θ − 4 = 0 f 5 cos θ = 3 cot θ g cot2 θ − 8 tan θ = 0 h 2 sin θ = cosec θ

P 6 Solve the following equations for values of θ in the interval −180° < θ < 180°
a cosec θ = 1 b sec θ = −3 c cot θ = 3.45
d 2 cosec2 θ − 3 cosec θ = 0 e sec θ = 2 cos θ f 3 cot θ = 2 sin θ
g cosec 2θ = 4 h 2 cot2 θ − cot θ − 5 = 0

P 7 Solve the following equations for values of θ in the interval 0 < θ < 2π
Give your answers in terms of π.
__
a sec θ = −1 b cot θ = −√ 3
__
θ 2√ 3 __ π 3π
c cosec __ = ____ d sec θ = √ 2 tan θ, θ ≠ __ , θ ≠ ___
2 3 2 2
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS CHAPTER 3 57

E/P 8 In the diagram, AB = 6 cm is the diameter of the circle and BT is the T

tangent to the circle at B. The chord AC is extended to meet this D
tangent at D and ∠DAB = θ
a Show that CD = 6(sec θ − cos θ) cm. (4 marks)
b Given that CD = 16 cm, calculate the length of the
chord AC. (3 marks)
C

Problem-solving
A B
θ
AB is the diameter of the circle, 6 cm
so ∠ACB = 90°

cosec x − cot x
E/P 9 a Prove that _____________ ≡ cosec x (4 marks)
1 − cos x
cosec x − cot x
b Hence solve, in the interval −π < x < π, the equation _____________ = 2 (3 marks)
1 − cos x

sin x tan x
E/P 10 a Prove that _________ − 1 ≡ sec x (4 marks)
1 − cos x
sin x tan x 1
b Hence explain why the equation _________ − 1 = − __ has no solutions. (1 mark)
1 − cos x 2

1 + cot x
E/P 11 Solve, in the interval 0° < x < 360°, the equation ________ = 5 (8 marks)
1 + tan x

Problem-solving
1
Use the relationship cot x = _____ to form a quadratic
tan x
equation in tan x. ← Pure 1 Section 2.1

3.4 Trigonometric identities

You can use the identity sin2 x + cos2 x ≡ 1 to prove the following identities.
■ 1 + tan2 x ≡ sec2 x
■ 1 + cot2 x ≡ cosec2 x

Example 9 SKILLS ANALYSIS

a Prove that 1 + tan2 x ≡ sec2 x

b Prove that 1 + cot2 x ≡ cosec2 x
58 CHAPTER 3 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

a sin2 x + cos2 x ≡ 1 Unless otherwise stated, you can assume the

sin2 x
______ cos2 x ______
1 identity sin2 x + cos2 x ≡ 1 in proofs involving
+ ______ ≡ cosec, sec and cot in your exam.
cos2 x cos2 x cos2 x

( cos x ) + 1 ≡ ( cos x )
2 2
sin x
_____ 1
_____
Divide both sides of the identity by cos2 x.
so 1 + tan2 x ≡ sec2 x
sin x 1
Use tan x ≡ _____
cos x and sec x ≡ cos x
_____
b sin2 x + cos2 x ≡ 1
sin2 x
_____ cos2 x _____ 1
+ ______ ≡ Divide both sides of the identity by sin2 x.
sin2 x sin2 x sin2 x

1 + (_____) ≡ (____)
cos x 2 1 2 cos x 1
sin x sin x Use cot x ≡ _____ and cosec x ≡ ____
sin x sin x
so 1 + cot2 x ≡ cosec2 x

Example 10

Given that tan A = − __

5
12 , and that angle A is obtuse, find the exact values of:
a sec A b sin A

a Using 1 + tan2 A ≡ sec2 A tan2 A = ___

25
144
___
25 ___
169
sec2 A =1+ 144 = 144
__
13
sec A = 6 12

S A
Problem-solving
You are told that A is obtuse. This means it lies
in the second quadrant, so cos A is negative,
T C and sec A is also negative.

sec A = − __
13
12

sin A
b Using tan A ≡ ______
cos A
sin A ≡ tan A cos A

sin A = (− __
12 ) × (− 13 )
__ 1
So 5 12
cos A = − __
12 _____
13 , since cos A = sec A

= __
5
13
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS CHAPTER 3 59

Example 11

Prove the identities:

1 + cos2 θ
a cosec4 θ − cot4 θ ≡ _________
1 − cos2 θ
b sec2 θ − cos2 θ ≡ sin2 θ (1 + sec2 θ )

a LHS = cosec4 θ − cot4 θ This is the difference of two squares, so factorise.

≡ (cosec2 θ + cot2 θ)(cosec2 θ − cot2 θ)
≡ cosec2 θ + cot2 θ As 1 + cot2 θ ≡ cosec2 θ, so cosec2 θ − cot2 θ ≡ 1
1 cos2 θ
≡ _____ + ______
sin2 θ sin2 θ 1 cos θ
Using cosec θ ≡ ____ , cot θ ≡ _____
sin θ sin θ
1 + cos2 θ
≡ _________
sin2 θ
Using sin2 θ + cos2 θ ≡ 1
1 + cos2 θ
_________
≡ = RHS
1 − cos2 θ
b RHS = sin2 θ + sin2 θ sec2 θ Write in terms of sin θ and cos θ.
sin2 θ 1
≡ sin2 θ + ______ Use sec θ ≡ _____
cos2 θ cos θ
≡ sin2 θ + tan2 θ

( cos θ ) ≡ tan θ
(1 − cos2 θ) + (sec2 θ − 1) sin θ
2 sin θ 2
≡ _____ ≡ _____ 2
cos2 θ
≡ sec2 θ − cos2 θ
≡ LHS Look at LHS. It is in terms of cos2 θ and sec2 θ,
so use sin2 θ + cos2 θ ≡ 1 and 1 + tan2 θ ≡ sec2 θ

Problem-solving
You can start from either the LHS or the RHS when
proving an identity. Try starting with the LHS using
cos2 θ ≡ 1 − sin2 θ and sec2 θ ≡ 1 + tan2 θ

Example 12

Solve the equation 4 cosec2 θ − 9 = cot θ in the interval 0° < θ < 360°
This is a quadratic equation. You need to write it
The equation can be rewritten as in terms of one trigonometric function only,
4(1 + cot2 θ ) − 9 = cot θ so use 1 + cot2 θ = cosec2 θ
So 4 cot2 θ − cot θ − 5 = 0
(4 cot θ − 5)(cot θ + 1) = 0 Factorise, or solve using the quadratic formula.
So cot θ = __
4 or cot θ = −1
5

∴ tan θ = __
5 or tan θ = −1
4
60 CHAPTER 3 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

For tan θ = __
4
5

S A

As tan θ is +ve, θ is in the 1st and 3rd quadrants.

38.7° The acute angle to the horizontal is
38.7° tan−1(_45 ) = 38.7°

T C
If α is the value the calculator gives for tan−1(_45 ) ,
then the solutions are α and (180° + α)
θ = 38.7°, 219° (3 s.f.)
For tan θ = −1
As tan θ is −ve, θ is in the 2nd and 4th quadrants.
The acute angle to the horizontal is tan−1 1 = 45°
S A

45° If α is the value the calculator gives for tan−1 (−1),

45° then the solutions are (180° + α) and (360° + α),
as α is not in the given interval.
T C
y

Online
x

Solve this equation numerically

θ = 135°, 315° using your calculator.

Exercise 3D SKILLS ANALYSIS

Give answers to 3 significant figures where necessary.

1 Simplify each of the following expressions.
a 1 + tan2(_2 )
θ
b (sec θ − 1)(sec θ + 1) c tan2 θ (cosec2 θ − 1)
d (sec2 θ − 1) cot θ e (cosec2 θ − cot2 θ )2 f 2 − tan2 θ + sec2 θ
tan θ sec θ cosec θ cot θ
g _________ h (1 − sin2 θ )(1 + tan2 θ ) i ___________
1 + tan2 θ 1 + cot2 θ
j (sec4 θ − 2 sec2 θ tan2 θ + tan4 θ ) k 4 cosec2 2θ + 4 cosec2 2θ cot2 2θ

k
P 2 Given that cosec x = _______
cosec x , where k > 1, find, in terms of k, possible values of cot x.
__
3 Given that cot θ = −√ 3 , and that 90° < θ < 180°, find the exact values of:
a sin θ b cos θ

4 Given that tan θ = _4 , and that 180° < θ < 270°, find the exact values of:
3

a sec θ b cos θ c sin θ

5 Given that cos θ = __

24
25 , and that θ is a reflex angle, find the exact values of:
a tan θ b cosec θ
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS CHAPTER 3 61

P 6 Prove the following identities:

a sec4 θ − tan4 θ ≡ sec2 θ + tan2 θ b cosec2 x − sin2 x ≡ cot2 x + cos2 x
c sec2 A(cot2 A − cos2 A) ≡ cot2 A d 1 − cos2 θ ≡ (sec2 θ − 1)(1 − sin2 θ )
1 − tan2 A
e _________ ≡ 1 − 2 sin2 A f sec2 θ + cosec2 θ ≡ sec2 θ cosec2 θ
1 + tan2 A
g cosec A sec2 A ≡ cosec A + tan A sec A h (sec θ − sin θ )(sec θ + sin θ ) ≡ tan2 θ + cos2 θ

P 7 Given that 3 tan2 θ + 4 sec2 θ = 5, and that θ is obtuse, find the exact value of sin θ.

P 8 Solve the following equations in the given intervals:

a sec2 θ = 3 tan θ, 0° < θ < 360° b tan2 θ − 2 sec θ + 1 = 0, −π < θ < π
c cosec2 θ + 1 = 3 cot θ, −180° < θ < 180° d cot θ = 1 − cosec2 θ, 0 < θ < 2π
e 3 sec _2 θ = 2 tan2 _2 θ, 0° < θ < 360°
1 1
f (sec θ − cos θ )2 = tan θ − sin2 θ, 0 < θ < π
__ __
g tan2 2θ = sec 2θ − 1, 0° < θ < 180° h sec2 θ − (1 + √ 3 ) tan θ + √ 3 = 1, 0 < θ < 2π

E/P 9 Given that tan2 k = 2 sec k,

a find the value of sec k (4 marks)
__
b deduce that cos k = √ 2 − 1. (2 marks)
c Hence solve, in the interval 0° < k < 360°, tan2 k = 2 sec k,
giving your answers to 1 decimal place. (3 marks)

E/P 10 Given that a = 4 sec x, b = cos x and c = cot x,

a express b in terms of a (2 marks)
16
b show that c 2 = _______ (3 marks)
a2 − 16

E/P 11 Given that x = sec θ + tan θ,

1
a show that __
x = sec θ − tan θ (3 marks)
1
b Hence express x2 + __2 + 2 in terms of θ, in its simplest form. (5 marks)
x

p−1
E/P 12 Given that 2 sec2 θ − tan2 θ = p, show that cosec2 θ = _____ , p ≠ 2 (5 marks)
p−2
62 CHAPTER 3 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

3.5 Inverse trigonometric functions

You need to understand and use the inverse trigonometric functions arcsin x, arccos x and arctan x
and their graphs.

■ The inverse function of sin x is called arcsin x.

y
y = arcsin x
π
2
Hint The sin−1 function on your calculator will
give principal values in the same range as arcsin.
–1 O 1 x

–2
π

● The domain of y = arcsin x is −1 ø x ø 1

π π
● The range of y = arcsin x is − __ ø arcsin x ø __ or −90° ø arcsin x ø 90°
2 2

Example 13

Sketch the graph of y = arcsin x

π π
y = sin x, − __ < x < __
2 2 Step 1
y
Draw the graph of y = sin x, with the restricted
1 y = sin x π π
domain of − __ < x < __
2 2
O x Restricting the domain ensures that the inverse
– function exists since y = sin x is a one-to-one
π π
2 2
–1 function for the restricted domain. Only one-to-
one functions have inverses. ← Pure 1 Section 2.3
y = arcsin x
y Step 2
Reflect in the line y = x
π
2 y = arcsin x
The domain of arcsin x is −1 < x < 1; the range is
π π
− __ < arcsin x < __
2 2
–1 O 1 x
Remember that the x and y coordinates of points
interchange (swap) when reflecting in y = x
–
π For example:
2
π π
( 2 , 1) → (1, 2 )
__ __
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS CHAPTER 3 63

■ The inverse function of cos x is called arccos x.

y
π

π
2 y = arccos x

–1 O 1 x

● The domain of y = arccos x is −1 ø x ø 1

● The range of y = arccos x is 0 ø arccos x ø π or 0° ø arccos x ø 180°

■ The inverse function of tan x is called arctan x.

y
y = arctan x
π
2 Watch out Unlike arcsin x and
arccos x, the function arctan x is
O x defined for all real values of x.

–π
2

● The domain of y = arctan x is x ∈ ℝ

π π
● The range of y = arctan x is − __ ø arctan x ø __ or −90° ø arctan x ø 90°
2 2

Example 14

Work out, in radians, the values of:

__

a arcsin(−
2)
√2
___
__
b arccos(−1) c arctan(√ 3 )

a
π
2 π π
S A You need to solve, in the interval − __ < x < __ ,
__ 2 2
√2
___
the equation sin x = −
2
π
The angle to the horizontal is __ and, as sin is −ve,
π
4
4
it is in the 4th quadrant.
T C
–
π
2 y

Online
x

__ Use your calculator to evaluate

arcsin(−
2)
√2
___ π
= − __ inverse trigonometric functions in radians.
4
64 CHAPTER 3 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

b y
1 y = cos x
You need to solve, in the interval 0 < x < π,
O π π x the equation cos x = −1
2
–1
Draw the graph of y = cos x

arccos(−1) = π

c
π π
π
2 You need to solve, in the interval − __ < x < __ ,
S A __ 2 2
the equation tan x = √ 3
π
π
3 The angle to the horizontal is __ and, as tan is +ve,
3
it is in the 1st quadrant.

T C
–
π
2
__
π You can verify these results using the sin−1, cos−1
arctan(√ 3 ) = __
3 and tan−1 functions on your calculator.

Exercise 3E SKILLS INTERPRETATION

In this exercise, all angles are given in radians.

1 Without using a calculator, work out, giving your answer in terms of π:
d arcsin(− _2 )
1
a arccos (0) b arcsin(1) c arctan(−1)

h arcsin(sin ___)
( √2 )
π
g arcsin(sin __)
1__ 1__ 2π
e arccos − ___ f arctan− ___
√3 3 3

2 Find:
a arcsin(_2 ) + arcsin(− _2 ) b arccos(_2 ) − arccos(− _2 )
1 1 1 1
c arctan(1) − arctan(−1)

P 3 Without using a calculator, work out the values of:

a sin(arcsin(_2 )) b sin(arcsin(− _2 ))
1 1

c tan(arctan(−1)) d cos(arccos 0)

P 4 Without using a calculator, work out the exact values of:

__

c tan(arccos(−
2 ))
√2
a sin(arccos( ) 2 )
_1
b cos(arcsin( )
− _2 ) ___
1

__

f sin (2arcsin( ))
__ √2
___
d sec(arctan(√ 3 )) e cosec(arcsin(−1))
2
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS CHAPTER 3 65

P 5 Given that arcsin k = α, where 0 < k < 1, write down the first two positive values of x satisfying
the equation sin x = k

π
E/P 6 Given that x satisfies arcsin x = k, where 0 < k < __ ,
2
a state the range of possible values of x (1 mark)
b express, in terms of x,
i cos k ii tan k (4 marks)
π
Given, instead, that − __ < k < 0,
2
c how, if at all, are your answers to part b affected? (2 marks)

P 7 Sketch the graphs of:

π
a y = __ + 2 arcsin x b y = π − arctan x
2
c y = arccos (2x + 1) d y = −2 arcsin (−x)

E/P 8 The function f is defined as f : x ↦ arcsin x, −1 < x < 1,

and the function g is such that g(x) = f(2x)
a Sketch the graph of y = f(x) and state the range of f. (3 marks)
b Sketch the graph of y = g(x) (2 marks)
c Define g in the form g: x ↦ … and give the domain of g. (3 marks)
d Define g−1 in the form g−1: x ↦… (2 marks)
______
E/P 9 a Prove that for 0 < x < 1, arccos x = arcsin √ 1 − x2 (4 marks)

b Give a reason why this result is not true for −1 < x < 0 (2 marks)

Challenge
π
SKILLS a Sketch the graph of y = sec x, with the restricted domain 0 < x < π, x ≠ __
2
INTERPRETATION
π
b Given that arcsec x is the inverse function of sec x, 0 < x < π, x ≠ __,
2
sketch the graph of y = arcsec x and state the range of arcsec x.
66 CHAPTER 3 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Chapter review 3

Give any non-exact answers to equations to 1 decimal place.

E/P 1 Solve tan x = 2 cot x, in the interval −180° < x < 90° (4 marks)

E/P 2 Given that p = 2 sec θ and q = 4 cos θ, express p in terms of q. (4 marks)

E/P 3 Given that p = sin θ and q = 4 cot θ, show that p2q2 = 16(1 − p2) (4 marks)

P 4 a Solve, in the interval 0° < θ < 180°,

i cosec θ = 2 cot θ ii 2 cot2 θ = 7 cosec θ − 8
b Solve, in the interval 0° < θ < 360°,
i sec(2θ − 15°) = cosec 135° ii sec2 θ + tan θ = 3
c Solve, in the interval 0 < x < 2π,
π
i cosec(x + ___) = −√ 2
__
ii sec2 x = _3
4
15

E/P 5 Given that 5 sin x cos y + 4 cos x sin y = 0, and that cot x = 2, find the value of cot y. (5 marks)

P 6 Prove that:
cosec x
a (tan θ + cot θ )(sin θ + cos θ ) ≡ sec θ + cosec θ b _____________ ≡ sec2 x
cosec x − sin x
cot x cos x
c (1 − sin x)(1 + cosec x) ≡ cos x cot x d __________ − ________ ≡ 2 tan x
cosec x − 1 1 + sin x
1 1 (sec θ − tan θ )(sec θ + tan θ )
e __________ + __________ ≡ 2 sec θ tan θ f ________________________ ≡ cos2 θ
cosec θ − 1 cosec θ + 1 1 + tan2 θ

sin x 1 + cos x
E/P 7 a Prove that ________ + ________ ≡ 2 cosec x (4 marks)
1 + cos x sin x

sin x 1 + cos x 4__

b Hence solve, in the interval −2π < x < 2π, ________ + ________ = − ___ (4 marks)
1 + cos x sin x √3

1 + cos θ
E/P 8 Prove that ________ ≡ (cosec θ + cot θ )2 (4 marks)
1 − cos θ

π
E 9 Given that sec A = −3, where __ < A < π,
2
a calculate the exact value of tan A (3 marks)
__
3√ 2
b show that cosec A = ____ (3 marks)
4

10 Given that sec θ = k, |k| > 1, and that θ is obtuse, express in terms of k:
a cos θ b tan2 θ c cot θ d cosec θ
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS CHAPTER 3 67

π
E 11 Solve, in the interval 0 < x < 2π, the equation sec(x +__) = 2,
4
giving your answers in terms of π. (5 marks)

12 Find, in terms of π, the value of arcsin(_2 ) − arcsin(− _2 )

1 1
E/P (4 marks)
__
2√ 3
____
E/P 13 Solve, in the interval 0 < x < 2π, the equation sec2 x − tan x − 2 = 0,
3
giving your answers in terms of π. (5 marks)

E/P 14 a Factorise sec x cosec x − 2 sec x − cosec x + 2 (2 marks)

b Hence solve sec x cosec x − 2 sec x − cosec x + 2 = 0 in the interval 0° < x < 360° (4 marks)

π
E/P 15 Given that arctan(x − 2) = − __ , find the value of x. (3 marks)
3

E 16 On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = cos x, 0 < x < π, and y = arccos x,
−1 < x < 1, showing the coordinates of points at which the curves meet the axes. (4 marks)

E/P 17 a Given that sec x + tan x = −3, use the identity 1 + tan2 x ≡ sec2 x to find the value
of sec x − tan x (3 marks)
b Deduce the values of:
i sec x ii tan x (3 marks)
c Hence solve, in the interval −180° < x < 180°, sec x + tan x = −3 (3 marks)

1
E/P 18 Given that p = sec θ − tan θ and q = sec θ + tan θ, show that p = __
q (4 marks)

E/P 19 a Prove that sec4 θ − tan4 θ = sec2 θ + tan2 θ (3 marks)

b Hence solve, in the interval −180° < θ < 180°, sec4 θ = tan4 θ + 3 tan θ (4 marks)
π
_

20 a Sketch the graph of y = sin x and shade in the area representing ∫ sin x dx.
2
P
0

b Sketch the graph of y = arcsin x and shade in the area representing ∫ arcsin x dx.
1

π 0
π
_

c By considering the shaded areas, explain why ∫ sin x dx + ∫ arcsin x dx = __

2 1

0 0 2
__
2√ 3
____
P 21 Show that cot 60° sec 60° =
3

E/P 22 a Sketch, in the interval −2π < x < 2π, the graph of y = 2 − 3 sec x (3 marks)
b Hence deduce the range of values of k for which the equation 2 − 3 sec x = k
has no solutions. (2 marks)

π
P 23 a Sketch the graph of y = 3 arcsin x − __ , showing clearly the exact coordinates
2
of the end-points of the curve. (4 marks)
b Find the exact coordinates of the point where the curve crosses the x-axis. (3 marks)
68 CHAPTER 3 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

______
√ 1 − x2
24 a Prove that for 0 , x < 1, arccos x = arctan _______
x ______
√ 1 − x2
_______
b Prove that for −1 < x , 0, arccos x = k + arctan x , where k is a constant to be found.

Summary of key points

1
1 • sec x = _____
cos x (undefined for values of x for which cos x = 0)

1
• cosec x = ____ (undefined for values of x for which sin x = 0)
sin x
1
• cot x = _____ (undefined for values of x for which tan x = 0)
tan x
cos x
• cot x = _____
sin x

2 The graph of y = sec x, x ∈ R, has symmetry in the y-axis and has period 360° or 2π radians.
It has vertical asymptotes at all the values of x for which cos x = 0
y = sec x
y

1
–450° –270° –90° 90° 270° 450°
5π 3π O 3π 5π x
– – –π π
2 2 2 2 2 2
–1

3 The graph of y = cosec x, x ∈ R, has period 360° or 2π radians. It has vertical asymptotes at all
the values of x for which sin x = 0
y = cosec x
y

–360° –180° 180° 360°

–2π –π O π 2π x

–1
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS CHAPTER 3 69

4 The graph of y = cot x, x ∈ R, has period 180° or π radians. It has vertical asymptotes at all the
values of x for which tan x = 0
y = cot x
y

1
–360° –180° 180° 360°
–2π –π O π 2π x
–1

5 You can use the identity sin2 x + cos2 x ≡ 1 to prove the following identities:
• 1 + tan2 x ≡ sec2 x
• 1 + cot2 x ≡ cosec2 x

6 The inverse function of sin x is called arcsin x. y

• The domain of y = arcsin x is −1 < x < 1 y = arcsin x

π
2
π π
• The range of y = arcsin x is − __ < arcsin x < __ or
2 2
−90° < arcsin x < 90° –1 O 1 x

–2
π

7 The inverse function of cos x is called arccos x. y

• The domain of y = arccos x is −1 < x < 1

π

• The range of y = arccos x is 0 < arccos x < π or

0° < arccos x < 180° π
2 y = arccos x

–1 O 1 x

8 The inverse function of tan x is called arctan x. y

• The domain of y = arctan x is x ∈ R y = arctan x
π
2
π π
• The range of y = arctan x is − __ < arctan x < __
2 2 O x
or −90° < arctan x < 90°
–π
2
4 TRIGONOMETRIC
ADDITION
FORMULAE 2.3

Learning objectives
A"er completing this unit you should be able to:
● Prove and use the addition formulae → pages 71–77
● Understand and use the double-angle formulae → pages 78–81
● Solve trigonometric equations using the double-angle
and addition formulae → pages 81–85
● Write expressions of the form a cos θ ± b sin θ in the forms
R cos(θ ± α) or R sin(θ ± α) → pages 85–90
● Prove trigonometric identities using a variety of identities → pages 90–93

Prior knowledge check

1 Find the exact values of:

π π
a sin 45° b cos __ c tan __
6 3
← Pure 2 Section 6.2

2 Solve the following equations in the interval 0° < x , 360°:

a sin(x + 50°) = −0.9 b cos(2x − 30°) = _12
c 2 sin2 x − sin x − 3 = 0 ← Pure 2 Section 6.5

The strength of microwaves

3 Prove the following:
at different points within
a cos x + sin x tan x ≡ sec x b cot x sec x sin x ≡ 1 a microwave oven can
cos2 x+ sin2 x be modelled using
c ____________ ≡ sin2 x ← Pure 3 Section 3.3
1 + cot2 x trigonometric functions.
TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE CHAPTER 4 71

4.1 Addition formulae

The addition formulae for sine, cosine and Notation The addition formulae are sometimes
tangent are defined as follows: called the compound-angle formulae.

■ sin(A + B ) ≡ sin A cos B + cos A sin B sin(A − B ) ≡ sin A cos B − cos A sin B
■ cos(A + B ) ≡ cos A cos B − sin A sin B cos(A − B ) ≡ cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A + tan B tan A − tan B
■ tan(A + B )≡ ______________ tan(A − B ) ≡ ______________
1 − tan A tan B 1 + tan A tan B
You can prove these identities using geometric constructions.
G E
Example 1
In the diagram ∠BAC = α, ∠CAE = β and AE = 1.
Additionally, lines AB and BC are perpendicular,
lines AB and DE are perpendicular, lines AC and
EC are perpendicular and lines EF and FC are 1
perpendicular. F C
Use the diagram, together with known properties
of sine and cosine, to prove the following identities:
a sin(α + β) ≡ sin α cos β + cos α sin β β
α
b cos(α + β) ≡ cos α cos β − sin α sin β A B
D

∠ACF = α ⇒ ∠FCE = 90° − α. So ∠FEC = α

The diagram can be labelled with the following
lengths using the properties of sine and EC EC
In triangle ACE, sin β = ___ ⇒ sin β = ___
cosine. AE 1
So EC = sin β
G cos (α + β) E

FE FE
In triangle FEC, cos α = ___ ⇒ cos α = _____
α EC sin β
cos α sin β

sin β So FE = cos α sin β

sin α sin β
sin (α + β)

1 FC FC
In triangle FEC, sin α = ___ ⇒ sin α = _____
F C EC sin β
So FC = sin α sin β
cos
β
sin α cos β
BC BC
In triangle ABC, sin α = ____ ⇒ sin α = _____
β
α
AC cos β
A D B So BC = sin α cos β
cos α cos β
AB AB
In triangle ABC, cos α = ____ ⇒ cos α = _____
AC AC AC cos β
In triangle ACE, cos β = ____ ⇒ cos β = ____
AE 1 So AB = cos α cos β
So AC = cos β
72 CHAPTER 4 TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE

a Using triangle ADE Problem-solving

DE = sin (α + β) You are looking for a relationship involving
AD = cos (α + β) sin (α + β), so consider the right-angled triangle
DE = DF + FE ADE with angle (α + β). You can see these
relationships more easily on the diagram by
⇒ sin (α + β) ≡ sin α cos β + cos α sin β
looking at AG = DE and GE = AD
as required

b AD = AB − DB
Substitute the lengths from the diagram.
⇒ cos (α + β) ≡ cos α cos β − sin α sin β
as required
Online Explore the proof step by step
using GeoGebra.

Example 2
Use the results from Example 1 to show that
a cos (A − B) ≡ cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A + tan B
b tan (A + B) ≡ _____________
1 − tan A tan B

a Replace B by −B in
cos (A + B) ≡ cos A cos B − sin A sin B
cos (A + (−B)) ≡ cos A cos (−B) − sin A sin (−B)
cos (A − B) ≡ cos A cos B + sin A sin B cos(−B ) = cos B and sin (−B ) = −sin B
sin (A + B)
b tan (A + B) ≡ ___________
cos (A + B)
sin A cos B + cos A sin B
≡ ______________________
cos A cos B − sin A sin B
Divide the numerator and denominator by
cos A cos B

sin A cos B
___________ cos A sin B
+ ___________
cos A cos B cos A cos B
≡ __________________________ Cancel where possible.
cos A cos B
___________ sin A sin B
− ___________
cos A cos B cos A cos B
tan A + tan B
≡ _____________ as required
1 − tan A tan B

Example 3
Prove that
cos A _____
_____ cos (A + B)
sin A __________
− ≡
sin B cos B sin B cos B
TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE CHAPTER 4 73

cos A sin A Write both fractions with a common denominator.

LHS ≡ ______ − ______
sin B cos B
cos A cos B sin A sin B Problem-solving
≡ ___________ − __________
sin B cos B sin B cos B When proving an identity, always keep an eye
cos A cos B − sin A sin B on the final answer. This can act as a guide as to
≡ ______________________ what to do next.
sin B cos B
cos (A + B)
≡ ___________ ≡ RHS Use the addition formula in reverse:
sin B cos B
cos A cos B − sin A sin B ≡ cos (A + B)

Example 4
Given that 2 sin (x + y) = 3 cos (x − y), express tan x in terms of tan y.

Expanding sin (x + y) and cos (x − y) gives sin x

Remember tan x = _____
cos x
2 sin x cos y + 2 cos x sin y = 3 cos x cos y + 3 sin x sin y Dividing each term by cos x cos y
2 sin x cos y
___________ 2 cos x sin y
___________ 3 cos x cos y
____________ 3 sin x sin y
__________ will produce tan x and tan y terms.
so cos x cos y + cos x cos y = cos x cos y + cos x cos y

2 tan x + 2 tan y = 3 + 3 tan x tan y

2 tan x − 3 tan x tan y = 3 − 2 tan y Collect all tan x terms on one side
of the equation.
tan x(2 − 3 tan y) = 3 − 2 tan y
3 − 2 tan y
So tan x = __________ Factorise.
2 − 3 tan y

Exercise 4A

1 In the diagram ∠BAC = β, ∠CAF = α − β and AC = 1. F C E

Additionally lines AB and BC are perpendicular.
a Show each of the following:
i ∠FAB = α ii ∠ABD = α and ∠ECB = α
iii AB = cos β iv BC = sin β 1
b Use △ABD to write an expression for the lengths B
i AD ii BD
α–β
c Use △BEC to write an expression for the lengths
β
i CE ii BE
A D
d Use △FAC to write an expression for the lengths
i FC ii FA
e Use your completed diagram to show that:
i sin (α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β
ii cos (α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
74 CHAPTER 4 TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE

P 2 Use the formulae for sin (A − B) and cos (A − B) to show that

tan A − tan B
tan (A − B) ≡ _____________
1 + tan A tan B

P 3 By substituting A = P and B = −Q into the addition formula for sin (A + B), show that
sin (P − Q) ≡ sin P cos Q − cos P sin Q

P 4 A student makes the mistake of thinking that Watch out This is a common
sin (A + B) ≡ sin A + sin B mistake. One counter-example is
Choose non-zero values of A and B to show that sufficient to disprove the statement.
this identity is not true.

P 5 Using the expansion of cos (A − B) with A = B = θ, show that sin2 θ + cos2 θ ≡ 1

π
P 6 a Use the expansion of sin (A − B) to show that sin (__ − θ) = cos θ
2
π
b Use the expansion of cos (A − B) to show that cos (__ − θ) = sin θ
2

π
P 7 Write sin (x + __) in the form p sin x + q cos x, where p and q are constants to be found.
6

π
P 8 Write cos (x + __) in the form a cos x + b sin x, where a and b are constants to be found.
3

P 9 Express the following as a single sine, cosine or tangent:

a sin 15° cos 20° + cos 15° sin 20° b sin 58° cos 23° − cos 58° sin 23°
tan 76° − tan 45°
c cos 130° cos 80° − sin 130° sin 80° d ________________
1 + tan 76° tan 45°
e cos 2θ cos θ + sin 2θ sin θ f cos 4θ cos 3θ − sin 4θ sin 3θ

g sin (__) cos (___) + cos (__) sin (___)

θ 5θ θ 5θ tan 2θ + tan 3θ
h ______________
2 2 2 2 1 − tan 2θ tan 3θ
i sin (A + B) cos B − cos (A + B) sin B

j cos (_______) cos ( _______) − sin (_______) sin ( _______)

3x + 2y 3x − 2y 3x + 2y 3x − 2y
2 2 2 2

P 10 Use the addition formulae for sine or cosine to write each of the following as a single
π
trigonometric function in the form sin (x ± θ ) or cos (x ± θ ), where 0 < θ < __
2
1__ 1__ 1 __ 1__
a ___ (sin x + cos x) b ___ (cos x − sin x) c __ (sin x + √ 3 cos x) d ___ (sin x − cos x)
√2 √2 2 √2
TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE CHAPTER 4 75

P 11 Given that cos y = sin (x + y), show that tan y = sec x − tan x

P 12 Given that tan (x − y) = 3, express tan y in terms of tan x

P 13 Given that sin x (cos y + 2 sin y) = cos x (2 cos y − sin y), Hint First multiply
find the value of tan (x + y) out the brackets.

P 14 In each of the following, calculate the exact value of tan x:

a tan (x − 45°) = _4
1
b sin (x − 60°) = 3 cos (x + 30°) c tan (x − 60°) = 2

π
15 Given that tan (x + __) = __ , show that tan x = 8 − 5√ 3
1 __
E/P (3 marks)
3 2

E/P 16 Prove that

cos θ + cos (θ + ___) + cos (θ + ___) = 0

2π 4π
3 3
You must show each stage of your working. (4 marks)

Challenge
This triangle is constructed from two
right-angled triangles T1 and T2. Hint For part a your
a Find expressions involving x, y, expressions should all
A and B for: y involve all four variables.
i the area of T1 T2 You will need to use the
ii the area of T2 formula Area = _12 ab sin θ in
iii the area of the large triangle. T1 each case.
B
b Hence prove that A
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B x

4.2 Using the angle addition formulae

The addition formulae can be used to find exact values of trigonometric functions of different angles.

Example 5
__ __
√6 − √2
_______
Show, using the formula for sin (A − B), that sin 15° =
4
sin 15° = sin (45° − 30°) You know the exact values of sin and cos for
= sin 45° cos 30° − cos 45° sin 30° many angles, e.g. 30°, 45°, 60°, 90°, 180°, …, so
__ __ __
= (__
2 2 )( 2 3 ) − ( 2 2 )( 2 )
1
√ __1 √ __1 √ __1 write 15° using two of these angles. You could
__ __ __ also use sin (60° − 45°).
= __
1
(√ √
4 3 2 − 2
√ )
__ __
√6 − √2
________
=
4
76 CHAPTER 4 TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE

Example 6
Given that sin A = − _5 and 180° < A < 270°, and that cos B = − __
3 12
13 and B is obtuse, find the value of:

a cos (A − B) b tan (A + B) c cosec (A − B)

a cos (A − B) ≡ cos A cos B + sin A sin B You know sin A and cos B, but
need to find sin B and cos A.
cos2 A ≡ 1 − sin2 A sin2 B ≡ 1 − cos2
= 1 − (− __
5) = 1 − (−__
13 )
3 2 12 2
Use sin2 x + cos2 x ≡ 1 to
= 1 − ___
9
= 1 − ___
144 determine cos A and sin B.
25 169

= ___
16
= ___
25
25 169
Problem-solving
cos A = ± __
4
5 sin B = ± __
5
13 Remember there are two
180° < A < 270° so cos A = − __
4
5 B is obtuse so sin B = __
5
13 possible solutions to
cos2 A = __
16
25 . Use a CAST diagram
cos (A − B) = (− __
5 )(− 13 ) + (− 5 )(+ 13 )
4 __
12 __
3 __
5
to determine which one to use.
= ___
48 ___
15 ___
33
65 − 65 = 65
cos x is negative in the third
tan A + tan B quadrant, so choose the
b tan (A + B) ≡ _____________
1 − tan A tan B negative square root − _45 . sin x is

4 + (− 12 )
__
3 __
5 positive in the second quadrant
___________ (obtuse angle) so choose the
So tan (A + B) = 3
1 − ( 4 )(− 12 )
__ __
5
positive square root.
__1
= ___ = __ __ ___
3 1 16 16
__
21 3 × 21 = 63 Substitute the values for sin A,
16
sin B, cos A and cos B into the
1 formula and then simplify.
c cosec (A − B) ≡ __________
sin (A − B)
sin (A − B) ≡ sin A cos B − cos A sin B − _35 3
sin A ___
tan A = _____ = =_
cos A − _4 4
5 )( 13 ) − ( 5 )( 13 ) = 65
sin (A − B) = (__
−3 ___
−12 __
−4 __ 5 ___
56 5

__
5
sin B 13
1 tan B = _____ = ____ = − __
5
cosec (A − B) = ____ = ___
65 cos B 12
− __
12

( 65 )
___
56 56 13

1
Remember cosec x = ____
sin x

Exercise 4B

1 Without using your calculator, find the exact value of:

a cos 15° b sin 75° c sin (120° + 45°) d tan 165°
TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE CHAPTER 4 77

2 Without using your calculator, find the exact value of:

a sin 30° cos 60° + cos 30° sin 60° b cos 110° cos 20° + sin 110° sin 20°
π π π π
c sin 33° cos 27° + cos 33° sin 27° d cos __ cos __ − sin __ sin __
8 8 8 8
e sin 60° cos 15° − cos 60° sin 15° f cos 70° (cos 50° − tan 70° sin 50°)

tan 45° + tan 15° 1 − tan 15°

g ________________ h __________
1 − tan 45° tan 15° 1 + tan 15°
7π π
tan ___ − tan __
12 3 __
i ______________ j √ 3 cos 15° − sin 15°
7π π
1 + tan ___ tan __
12 3

E 3 a Express tan (45° + 30°) in terms of tan 45° and tan 30° (2 marks)
__
b Hence show that tan 75° = 2 + √ 3 (2 marks)

4 Given that cot A = _4 and cot (A + B) = 2, find the value of cot B.

1
P
__ __
√2 − √6
_______
E/P 5 a Using cos (θ + α) ≡ cos θ cos α − sin θ sin α, or otherwise, show that cos 105° =
4
(4 marks)
__ __
b Hence, or otherwise, show that sec 105° = −√ a (1 + √ b ), where a and b are constants
to be found. (3 marks)

6 Given that sin A = _5 and sin B = _2 , where A and B are both acute angles, calculate the exact
4 1
P
value of:
a sin (A + B) b cos (A − B) c sec (A − B)

7 Given that cos A = − _5 , and A is an obtuse angle measured in radians, find the exact value of:
4
P
π π
a sin A b cos (π + A) c sin (__ + A) d tan (__ + A)
3 4

8 Given that sin A = __ _

8 4
P 17 , where A is acute, and cos B = − 5 , where B is obtuse, calculate the exact
value of:
a sin (A − B) b cos (A − B) c cot (A − B)

9 Given that tan A = __ __

7 5
P 24 , where A is reflex, and sin B = 13 , where B is obtuse, calculate the exact
value of:
a sin (A + B) b tan (A − B) c cosec (A + B)

10 Given that tan A = _5 and tan B = _3 , calculate, without using your calculator, the value of A + B
1 2
P
in degrees, where:
a A and B are both acute
b A is reflex and B is acute.
78 CHAPTER 4 TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE

4.3 Double-angle formulae

You can use the addition formulae to derive the following double-angle formulae.
■ sin 2A ≡ 2 sin A cos A
■ cos 2A ≡ cos2 A − sin2 A ≡ 2 cos2 A − 1 ≡ 1 − 2 sin2 A
2 tan A
■ tan 2A ≡ __________
1 − tan2 A

Example 7

Use the double-angle formulae to write each of the following as a single trigonometric ratio:
π
2 tan(__)
6 4 sin 70°
a cos2 50° − sin2 50° b __________ π c ________
1 − tan ( )
2 __ sec 70°
6

a cos2 50° − sin2 50° = cos (2 × 50°) Use cos 2A ≡ cos2 A − sin2 A in reverse, with A = 50°
= cos 100°
π
2 tan(__)
6 π π
π = tan (2 × 6 )
___________ __ 2 tan A
b Use tan 2A ≡ _________ in reverse, with A = __
1 − tan ( )
2 __ 1 − tan2 A 6
6
π
= tan(__)
3

4 sin 70° 1 1
c ________ = 4 sin 70° cos 70° sec x = _____ _____
sec 70° cos x so cos x = sec x
= 2(2 sin 70° cos 70°)
Recognise this is a multiple of 2 sin A cos A.
= 2 sin (2 × 70°) = 2 sin 140°

Use sin 2A ≡ 2 sin A cos A in reverse with A = 70°

Example 8

Given that x = 3 sin θ and y = 3 − 4 cos 2θ, eliminate θ and express y in terms of x.

The equations can be written as Watch out Be careful with this manipulation.
x
__ 3−y
______ Many errors can occur in the early part of a
sin θ = cos 2θ =
3 4 solution.
As cos 2θ ≡ 1 − 2 sin2 θ for all values of θ,
3−y θ has been eliminated from this equation. We still
= 1 − 2(__)
______ x 2
4 3 need to solve for y.
y
= 2(__) − __
__ x 2 1
So
4 3 4

y = 8(__) − 1
x 2
or The final answer should be in the form y = …
3
TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE CHAPTER 4 79

Example 9

Given that cos x = _4 , and that 180° < x < 360°, find the exact value of:
3

a sin 2x b tan 2x

a sin2 A = 1 − cos2 A Use sin2 A + cos2 A = 1 to determine sin A.

= 1 − (__
4)
3 2

= __
7
16
__
√7
___ sin A is negative in the third and fourth quadrants,
180° < A < 360°, so sin A = −
4 so choose the negative square root.
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
__ __

= 2(− )( ) = −
√ 7 __
___ 3 3√ 7
____
4 4 8
__
− √7
_____
Find tan x in simplified surd form, then substitute
sin x
_____ 4
_____
b tan x = cos x = this value into the double-angle formula for
3
__
4 tan 2x.
__
√7
___
=−
3
__
2√ 7
− ____ Make sure you square all of tan x when working
2 tan x 3
tan 2x = _________ = ______ out tan2 x:
1 − tan2 x 7
__
1−
9 __ 2

(− 3 ) = 9
√7
___ 7
__
__
2√ 7 9
= − ____ × __
3 2
__
= −3√ 7

Exercise 4C

P 1 Use the expansion of sin (A + B) to show that sin 2A ≡ 2 sin A cos A Hint Set B = A

P 2 a Using the identity cos (A + B) ≡ cos A cos B − sin A sin B, show that cos 2A ≡ cos2 A − sin2 A
b Hence show that:
Problem-solving
i cos 2A ≡ 2 cos2 A − 1
Use sin2 A + cos2 A ≡ 1
ii cos 2A ≡ 1 − 2 sin2 A

P 3 Use the expansion of tan (A + B) to express tan 2A in terms of tan A.

80 CHAPTER 4 TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE

P 4 Write each of the following expressions as a single trigonometric ratio:

a 2 sin 10° cos 10° b 1 − 2 sin2 25° c cos2 40° − sin2 40°

2 tan 5° 1
d _________ e ____________________ f 6 cos2 30° − 3
1 − tan2 5° 2 sin (24.5°) cos (24.5°)

π π
h cos2 (___) − sin2 (___)
sin 8°
g _____
sec 8° 16 16

P 5 Without using your calculator, find the exact values of:

a 2 sin 22.5° cos 22.5° b 2 cos2 15° − 1

π
2 tan(__)
8
c (sin 75° − cos 75°)2 d __________π
1 − tan2(__)
8

E/P 6 a Show that (sin A + cos A)2 ≡ 1 + sin 2A (3 marks)

π π 2
b Hence find the exact value of (sin __ + cos __) (2 marks)
8 8

7 Write the following in their simplest form, involving only one trigonometric function:
2 tan(__)
θ
2
a cos2 3θ − sin2 3θ b 6 sin 2θ cos 2θ c __________
1 − tan2 (__)
θ
2
d 2 − 4 sin2 (__)
θ _________
e √ 1 + cos 2θ f sin2 θ cos2 θ
2
tan θ
g 4 sin θ cos θ cos 2θ h ________ i sin4 θ − 2 sin2 θ cos2 θ + cos4 θ
sec2 θ − 2

P 8 Given that p = 2 cos θ and q = cos 2θ, express q in terms of p.

P 9 Eliminate θ from the following pairs of equations:

a x = cos2 θ, y = 1 − cos 2θ b x = tan θ, y = cot 2θ
c x = sin θ, y = sin 2θ d x = 3 cos 2θ + 1, y = 2 sin θ

10 Given that cos x = _4 , find the exact value of cos 2x.

1
P

11 Find the possible values of sin θ when cos 2θ = __

23
P 25

12 Given that tan θ = _4 , and that θ is acute,

3
P

a find the exact value of: i tan 2θ ii sin 2θ iii cos 2θ

b deduce the value of sin 4θ.
TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE CHAPTER 4 81

13 Given that cos A = − _3 , and that A is obtuse,

1
P

a find the exact value of: i cos 2A ii sin A iii cosec 2A

__
4√ 2
b show that tan 2A = ____
7

14 Given that π < θ < ___ , find the value of tan (__) when tan θ = _4
3π θ 3
E/P (4 marks)
2 2

E/P 15 Given that cos x + sin x = m and cos x − sin x = n, where m and n are constants, write down,
in terms of m and n, the value of cos 2x. (4 marks)

E/P 16 In △PQR, PQ = 3 cm, PR = 6 cm, QR = 5 cm and ∠QPR = 2θ

a Use the cosine rule to show that cos 2θ = _9
5
(3 marks)
b Hence find the exact value of sin θ. (2 marks)

17 The line l, with equation y = _4 x, bisects the angle between the x-axis and the line y = mx, m > 0
3
E/P

Given that the scales on each axis are the same, and that l makes an angle θ with the x-axis,
a write down the value of tan θ (1 mark)
__
24
b show that m = 7 (3 marks)

E/P 18 a Use the identity cos (A + B) ≡ cos A cos B − sin A sin B to show that cos 2A ≡ 2 cos2 A − 1
(2 marks)
The curves C1 and C2 have equations
C1: y = 4 cos 2x
C2: y = 6 cos2 x − 3 sin 2x
b Show that the x-coordinates of the points where C1 and C2 intersect satisfy the equation
cos 2x + 3 sin 2x − 3 = 0 (3 marks)

sin 2A
P 19 Use the fact that tan 2A ≡ ______ to derive the Hint
cos 2A Use the identities for sin 2A
formula for tan 2A in terms of tan A. and cos 2A and then divide both the
numerator and denominator by cos2 A.

4.4 Solving trigonometric equations

You can use the addition and the double-angle formulae to help you solve trigonometric equations.
82 CHAPTER 4 TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE

Example 10
__
Solve 4 cos (θ − 30°) = 8√ 2 sin θ in the range 0° < θ < 360°. Round your answer to 1 decimal place.
__
4 cos (θ − 30°) = 8√ 2 sin θ
__
4 cos θ cos 30° + 4 sin θ sin 30° = 8√ 2 sin θ Use the formula for cos (A − B )
__

4 cos θ(___) + 4 sin θ(__) = 8√ 2 sin θ

√3 1 __
__
2 2 √3 1
Substitute cos 30° = ___ and sin 30° = __
__ __ 2 2
2√ 3 cos θ + 2 sin θ = 8√ 2 sin θ
__ __
2√ 3 cos θ = (8√ 2 − 2) sin θ
__
Gather cosine terms on the LHS and sine terms
2__√ 3
________ on the RHS of the equation.
= tan θ
8√ 2 − 2
__
tan θ = 0.3719… Divide both sides by cos θ and by (8√ 2 − 2)
θ = 20.4°, 200.4°

Use a CAST diagram or a sketch graph to find all

the solutions in the given range.
Example 11

Solve 3 cos 2x − cos x + 2 = 0 for 0° < x < 360°

Problem-solving
Using a double angle formula for cos 2x
Choose the double-angle formula for
3 cos 2x − cos x + 2 = 0
cos 2x which only involves cos x:
becomes cos 2x ≡ 2 cos2 x − 1
3(2 cos2 x − 1) − cos x + 2 = 0 This will give you a quadratic equation
6 cos2 x − 3 − cos x + 2 = 0 in cos x.
6 cos2 x − cos x − 1 = 0
So (3 cos x + 1)(2 cos x − 1) = 0 This quadratic equation factorises:
__1 __1 6X 2 − X − 1 = (3X + 1)(2X − 1)
Solving: cos x = − 3 or cos x = 2
y

y = cos x
y= 1
2

O 90° 180° 270° 360° x

y=– 1
3

cos−1(− __
3 ) = 109.5°
1
cos−1(__
2 ) = 60°
1

So x = 60°, 109.5°, 250.5°, 300°

TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE CHAPTER 4 83

Example 12

Solve 2 tan 2y tan y = 3 for 0 < y < 2π. Give your answers to 2 decimal places.

2 tan 2y tan y = 3

( 1 − tan2 y )
2 tan y
2 _________ tan y = 3 Use the double-angle identity for tan.

4 tan y
_________
2
=3
1 − tan2 y
This is a quadratic equation in tan y. Because
4 tan2 y = 3 − 3 tan2 y there is a tan2 y term but no tan y term you can
7 tan2 y = 3 solve it directly.
tan2 y = __
3
7
__
tan y = ±√ __
3
7 Watch out Remember to include the positive
y = 0.58, 2.56, 3.72, 5.70 and negative square roots.

Example 13

a By expanding sin (2A + A) show that sin 3A ≡ 3 sin A − 4 sin3 A

__
b Hence, or otherwise, for 0 < θ < 2π, solve 16 sin3 θ − 12 sin θ − 2√ 3 = 0 giving your answers in
terms of π.

a LHS ≡ sin 3A ≡ sin (2A + A)

≡ sin 2A cos A + cos 2A sin A Use the addition formula for sin (A + B)
≡ (2 sin A cos A) cos A
+ (1 − 2 sin2 A) sin A Subsitute for sin 2A and cos 2A. As the answer is
≡ 2 sin A cos2 A + sin A − 2 sin3 A in terms of sin A, cos 2A ≡ 1 − 2 sin2 A is the best
identity to use.
≡ 2 sin A(1 − sin2 A) + sin A − 2 sin3 A
≡ 2 sin A − 2 sin3 A + sin A − 2 sin3 A
Use sin2 A + cos2 A ≡ 1 to substitute for cos2 A.
≡ 3 sin A − 4 sin3 A ≡ RHS
__
b 16 sin3 θ − 12 sin θ − 2√ 3 = 0 Problem-solving
__
16 sin3 θ − 12 sin θ = 2√ 3 The question says ‘hence’ so look for an
__
−4 sin 3θ = 2√ 3 opportunity to use the identity you proved in
__
√3
part a. You need to multiply both sides of the
___
sin 3θ = − identity by −4.
2
4π ___
___ 5π ____
10π ___ 17π
16π ____
11π ____
3θ = , , , , ,
3 3 3 3 3 3 Use a CAST diagram or a sketch graph to find all
4π 5π 10π 11π 16π 17π answers for 3θ. 0 < θ < 2π so 0 < 3θ < 6π
θ = ___ , ___ , ____ , ___ , ____ , ____
9 9 9 9 9 9
84 CHAPTER 4 TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE

Exercise 4D

P 1 Solve, in the interval 0° < θ , 360°, the following equations. Give your answers to 1 d.p.
a 3 cos θ = 2 sin (θ + 60°) b sin (θ + 30°) + 2 sin θ = 0
c cos (θ + 25°) + sin (θ + 65°) = 1 d cos θ = cos (θ + 60°)

π
2 a Show that sin (θ + __) ≡ ___
1__
E/P (sin θ + cos θ) (2 marks)
4 √2
1__ 1__
b Hence, or otherwise, solve the equation ___ (sin θ + cos θ ) = ___ , 0 < θ < 2π (4 marks)
√2 √2

c Use your answer to part b to write down the solutions to sin θ + cos θ = 1
over the same interval. (2 marks)

P 3 a Solve the equation cos θ cos 30° − sin θ sin 30° = 0.5 for 0° < θ < 360°
__
b Hence write down, in the same interval, the solutions of √ 3 cos θ − sin θ = 1

P 4 a Given that 3 sin (x − y) − sin (x + y) = 0, show that tan x = 2 tan y

b Solve 3 sin (x − 45°) − sin (x + 45°) = 0 for 0° < x < 360°

P 5 Solve the following equations, in the intervals given:

a sin 2θ = sin θ, 0 < θ < 2π b cos 2θ = 1 − cos θ, −180° , θ < 180°
c 3 cos 2θ = 2 cos2 θ, 0° < θ , 360° d sin 4θ = cos 2θ, 0 < θ < π
θ
e 3 cos θ − sin __ − 1 = 0, 0° < θ , 720° f cos2 θ − sin 2θ = sin2 θ, 0 < θ < π
2
g 2 sin θ = sec θ, 0 < θ < 2π h 2 sin 2θ = 3 tan θ, 0° < θ , 360°
__
i 2 tan θ = √ 3 (1 − tan θ)(1 + tan θ), 0 < θ < 2π j sin2 θ = 2 sin 2θ, −180° , θ , 180°
k 4 tan θ = tan 2θ, 0° < θ < 360°

E/P 6 In △ABC, AB = 4 cm, AC = 5 cm, ∠ABC = 2θ and ∠ACB = θ

Find the value of θ, giving your answer, in degrees, to 1 decimal place. (4 marks)

E/P 7 a Show that 5 sin 2θ + 4 sin θ = 0 can be written in the form a sin θ (b cos θ + c) = 0,
stating the values of a, b and c. (2 marks)
b Hence solve, for 0° < θ , 360°, the equation 5 sin 2θ + 4 sin θ = 0 (4 marks)

E/P 8 a Given that sin 2θ + cos 2θ = 1, show that 2 sin θ (cos θ − sin θ) = 0 (2 marks)
b Hence, or otherwise, solve the equation sin 2θ + cos 2θ = 1 for 0° < θ , 360° (4 marks)

E/P 9 a Prove that (cos 2θ − sin 2θ)2 ≡ 1 − sin 4θ (4 marks)

1__
b Use the result to solve, for 0 < θ , π, the equation cos 2θ − sin 2θ = ___
√2
Give your answers in terms of π. (3 marks)
TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE CHAPTER 4 85

P 10 a Show that:

2 tan (__) 1 − tan2 (__)

θ θ
2 2
i sin θ ≡ __________ ii cos θ ≡ __________
1 + tan2 (__) 1 + tan2 (__)
θ θ
2 2

b By writing the following equations as quadratics in tan (__), solve, in the interval 0° < θ < 360°:
θ
2
i sin θ + 2 cos θ = 1 ii 3 cos θ − 4 sin θ = 2

E/P 11 a Show that 3 cos2 x − sin2 x ≡ 1 + 2 cos 2x (3 marks)

b Hence sketch, for −π < x < π, the graph of y = 3 cos2 x − sin2 x, showing the
coordinates of points where the curve meets the axes. (3 marks)

12 a Express 2 cos2 (__) − 4 sin2 (__) in the form a cos θ + b, where a and b are constants. (4 marks)
θ θ
E/P
2 2

b Hence solve 2 cos2 (__) − 4 sin2 (__) = −3 in the interval 0° < θ , 360°
θ θ
(3 marks)
2 2

13 a Use the identity sin2 A + cos2 A ≡ 1 to show that sin4 A + cos4 A ≡ _2 (2 − sin2 2A)
1
E/P (5 marks)
b Deduce that sin4 A + cos4 A ≡ _4 (3 + cos 4A)
1
(3 marks)
c Hence solve 8 sin4 θ + 8 cos4 θ = 7, for 0 , θ , π (3 marks)

Hint Start by squaring (sin2 A + cos2 A)

E/P 14 a By writing 3θ as 2θ + θ, show that cos 3θ ≡ 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ (4 marks)

b Hence, or otherwise, for 0 , θ , π, solve 6 cos θ − 8 cos3 θ + 1 = 0,
giving your answer in terms of π. (5 marks)

4.5 Simplifying a cos x ± b sin x

You can use the addition formulae to simplify some trigonometric expressions:
■ For positive values of a and b,
● a sin x ± b cos x can be expressed in the form R sin (x ± α) Notation The symbol ∓
● a cos x ± b sin x can be expressed in the form R cos (x α) means that a cos x + b sin x
π will be written in the
with R > 0 and 0° < α < 90° (or __) form R cos (x − α), and
2 ______
where R cos α = a, R sin α = b and R = √ a2 + b2 a cos x − b sin x will be
written in the form
Use the addition formulae to expand sin (x ± α) or cos (x ∓ α), R cos (x + α).
then equate coefficients.
86 CHAPTER 4 TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE

Example 14

Show that you can express 3 sin x + 4 cos x in the form:

a R sin (x + α)
b R cos (x − α)
where R > 0, 0° < α < 90°, 0° < β < 90°, giving your values of R,
α and β to 1 decimal place when appropriate.

a R sin (x + α) ≡ R sin x cos α + R cos x sin α Use sin (A + B) ≡ sin A cos B + cos A sin B and
multiply through by R.
Let 3 sin x + 4 cos x ≡ R sin x cos α
+ R cos x sin α
So R cos α = 3 and R sin α = 4 Equate the coefficients of the sin x and cos x terms.
R sin α
_______ 4
= tan α = __
R cos α 3 Divide the equations to eliminate R and use tan−1
to find α.
α = tan−1 (__)
4
3
So α = 53.1° (1 d.p.)
Square and add the equations to eliminate α and
R2 cos2 α + R2 sin2 α = 32 + 42
find R2.
R2 (cos2 α + sin2 α) = 25
R2 = 25, so R = 5 Use sin2 α + cos2 α ≡ 1
3 sin x + 4 cos x ≡ 5 sin (x + 53.1°)
Use cos (A − B) ≡ cos A cos B + sin A sin B and
b R cos (x − β) ≡ R cos x cos β + R sin x sin β
multiply through by R.
Let 3 sin x + 4 cos x ≡ R cos x cos β
+ R sin x sin β
So R cos β = 4 and R sin β = 3 Equate the coefficients of the cos x and sin x terms.
R sin β
_______ 3
= tan β = __
R cos β 4 Divide the equations to eliminate R.
So β = 36.9° (1 d.p.)
Square and add the equations to eliminate α and
R2 cos2 β + R2 sin2 β = 32 + 42
find R2.
R2 (cos2 β + sin2 β) = 25
R2 = 25, so R = 5 Remember sin2 α + cos2 α ≡ 1
3 sin x + 4 cos x ≡ 5 cos (x − 36.9°) y

Online
x

Explore how you can

transform the graphs of y = sin x and
y = cos x to obtain the graph of y = 3 sin x + 4 cos x
using technology.
TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE CHAPTER 4 87

Example 15
__ π
a Show that you can express sin x − √ 3 cos x in the form R sin (x − α), where R > 0, 0 < α < __
__ 2
b Hence sketch the graph of y = sin x − √ 3 cos
__
a Set sin x__− √ 3 cos x ≡ R sin (x − α)
sin x − √ 3 cos x ≡ R sin x cos α − R cos x sin α Expand sin (x − α) and multiply by R.
__
So R cos α = 1 and R sin α = √ 3
__
π
Dividing, tan α = √ 3 , so α = __ Equate the coefficients of sin x and cos x on
3 both sides of the identity.
Squaring and adding: R = 2
__
π
So sin x − √ 3 cos x ≡ 2 sin (x − __)
3
__
π
b y = sin x − √ 3 cos x ≡ 2 sin (x − __)
3
y
2

π
You can sketch y = 2 sin (x − __) by
3
π
translating y = sin x by __ to the right and
–
3π – π O π π π 4π 3π 2π 7π x 3
2 2 32 3 2 3 then stretching by a scale factor of 2 in the
y-direction.

–2

Example 16

a Express 2 cos θ + 5 sin θ in the form R cos (θ − α), where R > 0, 0° < α < 90°
b Hence solve, for 0° < θ < 360°, the equation 2 cos θ + 5 sin θ = 3

a Set 2 cos θ + 5 sin θ ≡ R cos θ cos α

+ R sin θ sin α
Equate the coefficients of sin x and cos x on both
So R cos α = 2 and R sin α = 5
sides of the identity.
5
Dividing tan α = __ , so α = 68.2°
2 ___
Squaring and adding: R = √ 29 Use the result from___part a:
___
So 2 cos θ + 5 sin θ ≡ √ 29 cos (θ − 68.2°) 2 cos θ + 5 sin θ ≡ √ 29 cos (θ − 68.2°)
___
b √ 29 cos (θ − 68.2°) = 3 ___
Divide both sides by √ 29 .
3
So cos (θ − 68.2°) = ____
___
√ 29
As 0° < θ < 360°, the interval for (θ − 68.2°) is
( √ 29 ) = 56.1…°
3
cos−1 ____
___
−68.2° < θ − 68.2° < 291.8°
3
___ is positive, so solutions for θ − 68.2° are in
____
So θ − 68.2° = −56.1…°, 56.1…° √ 29
θ = 12.1°, 124.3° (to the nearest 0.1°) the 1st and 4th quadrants.
88 CHAPTER 4 TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE

Example 17

f(θ) = 12 cos θ + 5 sin θ y

Online
x

a Write f(θ) in the form R cos (θ − α). Use technology to explore

maximums and minimums of curves
b Find the maximum value of f(θ) and the in the form R cos (θ − α).
smallest positive value of θ at which it occurs.

a Set 12 cos θ + 5 sin θ ≡ R cos (θ − α) Equate sin x and cos x terms and then solve for
R and α.
So 12 cos θ + 5 sin θ ≡ R cos θ cos α
+ R sin θ sin α
So R cos α = 12 and R sin α = 5
R = 13 and tan α = __
12 ⇒ α = 22.6°
5

So 12 cos θ + 5 sin θ ≡ 13 cos (θ − 22.6°)

The maximum value of cos x is 1 so the maximum
b The maximum value of 13 cos (θ − 22.6°)
value of cos (θ − 22.6°) is also 1.
is 13.
This occurs when cos (θ − 22.6°) = 1
θ − 22.6° = …, -360°, 0°, 360°, … Solve the equation to find the smallest positive
value of θ.
The smallest positive value of θ is 22.6°

Exercise 4E

Unless otherwise stated, give all angles to 1 decimal place and write non-integer values of R in surd form.
1 Given that 5 sin θ + 12 cos θ ≡ R sin (θ + α), find the value of R, R > 0, and the value of tan α.
__ __
2 Given that √ 3 sin θ + √ 6 cos θ ≡ 3 cos (θ − α), where 0° < α < 90°, find the value of α.
__
3 Given that 2 sin θ − √ 5 cos θ ≡ −3 cos (θ + α), where 0° < α < 90°, find the value of α.
__ π
4 a Show that cos θ − √ 3 sin θ can be written in the form R cos (θ + α), with R > 0 and 0 < α < __
2
__ π
__
b Hence sketch the graph of y = cos θ − 3 sin θ, 0 < θ < , giving the coordinates of points of
√
2
intersection with the axes.

P 5 a Express 7 cos θ − 24 sin θ in the form R cos (θ + α), with R > 0 and 0° < α < 90°
b The graph of y = 7 cos θ − 24 sin θ meets the y-axis at P. State the coordinates of P.
c Write down the maximum and minimum values of 7 cos θ − 24 sin θ
d Deduce the number of solutions, in the interval 0° < θ < 360°, of the following equations:
i 7 cos θ − 24 sin θ = 15 ii 7 cos θ − 24 sin θ = 26 iii 7 cos θ − 24 sin θ = −25

E 6 f(θ ) = sin θ + 3 cos θ

Given f(θ ) = R sin (θ + α), where R > 0 and 0° < α < 90°
a Find the value of R and the value of α. (4 marks)
b Hence, or otherwise, solve f(θ) = 2 for 0° < θ , 360° (3 marks)
TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE CHAPTER 4 89

π
E 7 a Express cos 2θ − 2 sin 2θ in the form R cos (2θ + α), where R > 0 and 0 < α < __
2
Give the value of α to 3 decimal places. (4 marks)
b Hence, or otherwise, solve for 0 < θ , π, cos 2θ − 2 sin 2θ = −1.5, rounding your
answers to 2 decimal places. (4 marks)

P 8 Solve the following equations, in the intervals given in brackets:

__
a 6 sin x + 8 cos x = 5√ 3 , [0°, 360°] b 2 cos 3θ − 3 sin 3θ = −1, [0°, 90°]
x x
c 8 cos θ + 15 sin θ = 10, [0°, 360°] d 5 sin __ − 12 cos __ = −6.5, [−360°, 360°]
2 2

E/P 9 a Express 3 sin 3θ − 4 cos 3θ in the form R sin (3θ − α), with R > 0 and 0° < α < 90° (3 marks)
b Hence write down the minimum value of 3 sin 3θ − 4 cos 3θ and the value of θ
at which it occurs. (3 marks)
c Solve, for 0° < θ , 180°, the equation 3 sin 3θ − 4 cos 3θ = 1 (3 marks)

E/P 10 a Express 5 sin2 θ − 3 cos2 θ + 6 sin θ cos θ in the form a sin 2θ + b cos 2θ + c,
where a, b and c are constants to be found. (3 marks)
b Hence find the maximum and minimum values of 5 sin2 θ − 3 cos2 θ + 6 sin θ cos θ (4 marks)
c Solve 5 sin2 θ
− 3 cos2 θ
+ 6 sin θ cos θ = −1 for 0° < θ , 180°, rounding your
answers to 1 decimal place. (4 marks)

P 11 A class were asked to solve 3 cos θ = 2 − sin θ for 0° < θ , 360°. One student expressed the
equation in the form R cos (θ − α) = 2, with R > 0 and 0° < α < 90°, and correctly solved the
equation.
a Find the values of R and α and hence find her solutions.
Another student decided to square both sides of the equation and then form a quadratic
equation in sin θ.
b Show that the correct quadratic equation is 10 sin2 θ − 4 sin θ − 5 = 0
c Solve this equation for 0° < θ , 360°
d Explain why not all of the answers satisfy 3 cos θ = 2 − sin θ

E/P 12 a Given cot θ + 2 = cosec θ, show that 2 sin θ + cos θ = 1 (4 marks)

b Solve cot θ + 2 = cosec θ for 0° < θ , 360° (3 marks)

π
13 a Given √ 2 cos (θ − __) + (√ 3 − 1) sin θ = 2, show that cos θ + √ 3 sin θ = 2
__ __ __
E/P (4 marks)
4
π
b Solve √ 2 cos (θ − ) + (√ 3 − 1) sin θ = 2 for 0 < θ < 2π
__ __
__
(2 marks)
4
90 CHAPTER 4 TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE

E/P 14 a Express 9 cos θ + 40 sin θ in the form R cos (θ − α), where R > 0 and 0° < α < 90°
Give the value of α to 3 decimal places. (4 marks)
18
b g(θ ) = __________________ , 0° < θ < 360°
50 + 9 cos θ + 40 sin θ
Calculate:
i the minimum value of g(θ ) (2 marks)
ii the smallest positive value of θ at which the minimum occurs. (2 marks)

E/P 15 p(θ ) = 12 cos 2θ − 5 sin 2θ

Given that p(θ ) = R cos (2θ + α), where R > 0 and 0° < α < 90°,
a find the value of R and the value of α. (3 marks)
b Hence solve the equation 12 cos 2θ − 5 sin 2θ = −6.5 for 0° < θ , 180° (5 marks)
c Express 24 cos2 θ
− 10 sin θ cos θ in the form a cos 2θ + b sin 2θ + c, where a, b
and c are constants to be found. (3 marks)
d Hence, or otherwise, find the minimum value of 24 cos2 θ − 10 sin θ cos θ (2 marks)

4.6 Proving trigonometric identities

You can use known trigonometric identities to prove other identities.

Example 18

a Show that 2 sin (__) cos (__) cos θ ≡ __ sin 2θ

θ θ 1
2 2 2
b Show that 1 + cos 4θ ≡ 2 cos2 2θ

a sin 2A ≡ 2 sin A cos A θ

Substitute A = __ into the formula for sin 2A.
2
sin θ ≡ 2 sin (__) cos (__)
θ θ
2 2
Problem-solving
LHS ≡ 2 sin (__) cos (__) cos θ
θ θ
2 2 Always be aware that the addition formulae can
≡ sin θ cos θ be altered by making a substitution.
1
≡ __ sin 2θ
Use the above result for 2 sin (__) cos (__)
2 θ θ
≡ RHS 2 2
b LHS ≡ 1 + cos 4θ
Remember sin 2θ ≡ 2 sin θ cos θ
≡ 1 + 2 cos2 2θ − 1
≡ 2 cos2 2θ Use cos 2A ≡ 2 cos2 A − 1 with A = 2θ
≡ RHS
TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE CHAPTER 4 91

Example 19
2
Prove the identity tan 2θ ≡ ___________
cot θ − tan θ

2 tan θ Problem-solving
LHS ≡ tan 2θ ≡ _________
1 − tan2 θ
Dividing the numerator and denominator by
Divide the numerator and denominator by
a common term can be helpful when trying to
tan θ.
rearrange an expression into a required form.
2
So tan 2θ ≡ ___________
1
_____
− tan θ
tan θ
2
≡ ___________
cot θ − tan θ

Example 20
π
Prove that √ 3 cos 4θ + sin 4θ ≡ 2 cos (4θ − __)
__

π
RHS ≡ 2 cos (4θ − __) Problem-solving
6
Sometimes it is easier to begin with the RHS of
π π
≡ 2 cos 4θ cos (__) + 2 sin 4θ sin (__) the identity.
6 6
__

≡ 2 cos 4θ (
2)
+ 2 sin 4θ (__)
√3
___ 1
2 Use the addition formulae.
__
≡ √ 3 cos 4θ + sin 4θ ≡ LHS π π
Write the exact values of cos (__) and sin (__)
6 6

Exercise 4F

P 1 Prove the following identities:

cos 2A sin B cos B
a ____________ ≡ cos A − sin A b _____ − _____ ≡ 2 cosec 2A sin (B − A)
cos A + sin A sin A cos A
1 − cos 2θ sec2 θ
c _________ ≡ tan θ d _________ ≡ sec 2θ
sin 2θ 1 − tan2 θ
sin 3θ cos 3θ
e 2(sin3 θ cos θ + cos3 θ sin θ ) ≡ sin 2θ f _____ − ______ ≡ 2
sin θ cos θ

h ________ ≡ tan2 (__)

sec θ − 1 θ
g cosec θ − 2 cot 2θ cos θ ≡ 2 sin θ
sec θ + 1 2
π
i tan (__ − x) ≡ _________
1 − sin 2x
4 cos 2x
92 CHAPTER 4 TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE

P 2 Prove the identities:

cos A sin A cos (A + B)
a sin (A + 60°) + sin (A − 60°) ≡ sin A b _____ − _____ ≡ __________
sin B cos B sin B cos B
sin (x + y) cos (x + y)
c _________
cos x cos y ≡ tan x + tan y d _________ + 1 ≡ cot x cot y
sin x sin y
π π
e cos (θ + __) + √ 3 sin θ ≡ sin (θ + __)
__ cot A cot B − 1
f cot (A + B) ≡ _____________
3 6 cot A + cot B

g sin2 (45° + θ ) + sin2 (45° − θ ) ≡ 1 h cos (A + B) cos (A − B) ≡ cos2 A − sin2 B

E/P 3 a Show that tan θ + cot θ ≡ 2 cosec 2θ (3 marks)

b Hence find the value of tan 75° + cot 75° (2 marks)

E/P 4 a Show that sin 3θ ≡ 3 sin θ cos2 θ − sin3 θ (3 marks)

b Show that cos 3θ ≡ cos3 θ − 3 sin2 θ cos θ (3 marks)
3 tan θ − tan3 θ
c Hence, or otherwise, show that tan 3θ ≡ _____________ (4 marks)
1 − 3 tan2 θ __
10√ 2
d Given that θ is acute and that cos θ = _3 , show that tan 3θ = _____
1
(3 marks)
23

5 a Using cos 2A ≡ 2 cos2 A − 1 ≡ 1 − 2 sin2 A, show that:

i cos2 (__) ≡ ________ ii sin2 (__) ≡ ________

x 1 + cos x x 1 − cos x
2 2 2 2
b Given that cos θ = 0.6, and that θ is acute, write down the values of:

i cos (__) ii sin (__) iii tan (__)

θ θ θ
2 2 2

c Show that cos4 (__) ≡ __ (3 + 4 cos A + cos 2A)

A 1
2 8

6 Show that cos4 θ ≡ _8 + _2 cos 2θ + _8 cos 4θ. You must show each stage of your
3 1 1
E/P
working. (6 marks)

E/P 7 Prove that sin2 (x + y) − sin2 (x − y) ≡ sin 2x sin 2y (5 marks)

π
8 Prove that cos 2θ − √ 3 sin 2θ ≡ 2 cos (2θ + __)
__
E/P (4 marks)
3

π
9 Prove that 4 cos (2θ − __) ≡ 2√ 3 − 4√ 3 sin2 θ + 4 sin θ cos θ
__ __
E/P (4 marks)
6

P 10 Show that:
π π
a cos θ + sin θ ≡ √ 2 sin (θ + __) b √ 3 sin 2θ − cos 2θ ≡ 2 sin (2θ − __)
__ __

4 6
TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE CHAPTER 4 93

Challenge
1 a Show that cos (A + B) − cos (A − B) ≡ −2 sin A sin B

b Hence show that cos P − cos Q ≡ −2 sin (______) sin (______)

P+Q P−Q
2 2
c Express 3 sin x sin 7x as the difference of cosines.

2 a Prove that sin P + sin Q ≡ 2 sin (______) cos (______)

P+Q P−Q
2 2
__ __

b Hence, or otherwise, show that 2 sin (____) cos (___) = _______

11π 5π √3 + √2
24 24 2

Chapter review 4

P 1 Without using a calculator, find the value of:

1__ 1__ 1 − tan 15°
a sin 40° cos 10° − cos 40° sin 10° b ___ cos 15° − ___ sin 15° c __________
√2 √2 1 + tan 15°
__
1__ √5 + 1
P 2 Given that sin x = ___ where x is acute and that cos (x − y) = sin y, show that tan y = ______
√5 2

P 3 The lines l1 and l2 , with equations y = 2x and 3y = x − 1 respectively, are drawn on the same set
of axes. Given that the scales are the same on both axes and that the angles l1 and l2 make with
the positive x-axis are A and B respectively,
a write down the value of tan A and the value of tan B
b without using your calculator, work out the acute angle between l1 and l2.

P 4 In △ABC, AB = 5 cm and AC = 4 cm, ∠ABC __

= (θ − 30°) and ∠ACB = (θ + 30°).
Using the sine rule, show that tan θ = 3 3
√

__
P 5 The first three terms of an arithmetic series are √ 3 cos θ, sin (θ − 30°) and sin θ, where θ is acute.
Find the value of θ.

6 Two of the angles, A and B, in △ABC are such that tan A = _4 , tan B = __
3 5
P 12
a Find the exact value of: i sin (A + B) ii tan 2B.
b By writing C as 180° − (A + B), show that cos C = − __
33
65

2__ 3
P 7 The angles x and y are acute angles such that sin x = ___ and cos y = ____
___
√5 √ 10
a Show that cos 2x = − _5
3

b Find the value of cos 2y.

c Show without using your calculator, that:
π
i tan (x + y) = 7 ii x − y = __
4
94 CHAPTER 4 TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE

8 Given that sin x cos y = _2 and cos x sin y = _3 ,

1 1
P

a show that sin (x + y) = 5 sin (x − y).

Given also that tan y = k, express in terms of k:
b tan x
c tan 2x
__ 1__
E/P 9 a Given that √ 3 sin 2θ + 2 sin2 θ = 1, show that tan 2θ = ___ (2 marks)
√3
__
b Hence solve, for 0 < θ < π, the equation √ 3 sin 2θ + 2 sin2 θ = 1 (4 marks)

E/P 10 a Show that cos 2θ = 5 sin θ may be written in the form a sin2 θ + b sin θ + c = 0,
where a, b and c are constants to be found. (3 marks)
b Hence solve, for −π < θ < π, the equation cos 2θ = 5 sin θ (4 marks)
1 __
E/P 11 a Given that 2 sin x = cos (x − 60°), show that tan x = ______ (4 marks)
4 − √3
b Hence solve, for 0° < x < 360°, 2 sin x = cos (x − 60°), giving your answers to
1 decimal place. (2 marks)

12 a Given that 4 sin (x + 70°) = cos (x + 20°), show that tan x = − _5 tan 70°
3
E/P (4 marks)
b Hence solve, for 0° < x < 180°, 4 sin (x + 70°) = cos (x + 20°), giving your answers
to 1 decimal place. (3 marks)

13 a Given that α is acute and tan α = _4 , prove that

3
P

3 sin (θ + α) + 4 cos (θ + α) ≡ 5 cos θ

b Given that sin x = 0.6 and cos x = −0.8, evaluate cos (x + 270°) and cos (x + 540°)

E/P 14 a Prove, by counter-example, that the statement

sec (A + B) ≡ sec A + sec B, for all A and B
is false. (2 marks)
nπ
b Prove that tan θ + cot θ ≡ 2 cosec 2θ, θ ≠ ___ , n ∈ 핑 (4 marks)
2

2 tan θ
P 15 Using tan 2θ ≡ _________ with an appropriate value of θ,
1 − tan2 θ
π
a show that tan (__) = √ 2 − 1
__

8
b Use the result in a to find the exact value of tan (___)
3π
8
__
E/P 16 a Express sin x − √ 3 cos x in the form R sin (x − α), with R > 0 and 0° < α < 90° (4 marks)
__
b Hence sketch the graph of y = sin x − √ 3 cos x, for −360° < x < 360°,
giving the coordinates of all points of intersection with the axes. (4 marks)
TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE CHAPTER 4 95

π
E/P 17 Given that 7 cos 2θ + 24 sin 2θ ≡ R cos (2θ − α), where R > 0 and 0 < α < __ , find:
2
a the value of R and the value of α, to 2 decimal places (4 marks)
b the maximum value of 14 cos2 θ + 48 sin θ cos θ (1 mark)
c Solve the equation 7 cos 2θ + 24 sin 2θ = 12.5, for 0 < θ < π, giving your answers to
2 decimal places. (5 marks)

π
18 a Express 1.5 sin 2x + 2 cos 2x in the form R sin (2x + α), where R > 0 and 0 < α < __ ,
2
giving your values of R and α to 3 decimal places where appropriate. (4 marks)
b Express 3 sin x cos x + 4 cos2 x in the form a sin 2x + b cos 2x + c, where a, b and c
are constants to be found. (3 marks)
c Hence, using your answer to part a, deduce the maximum value of
3 sin x cos x + 4 cos2 x (1 mark)

19 a Given that sin2 (__) = 2 sin θ, show that √ 17 sin (θ + α) = 1 and state the value of α, where
θ ___
E/P
2
π
0 < α < __ (3 marks)
2
b Hence, or otherwise, solve sin2 (__) = 2 sin θ for 0° < θ < 360°
θ
(4 marks)
2
E/P 20 a Given that 2 cos θ = 1 + 3 sin θ, show that R cos (θ + α) = 1, where R and α are constants
π
to be found, and 0 < α < __ (2 marks)
2
b Hence, or otherwise, solve 2 cos θ = 1 + 3 sin θ for 0° < θ < 360° (4 marks)

P 21 Using known trigonometric identities, prove the following:

π π
a sec θ cosec θ ≡ 2 cosec 2θ b tan (__ + x) − tan (__ − x) ≡ 2 tan 2x
4 4
c sin (x + y) sin (x − y) ≡ cos2 y − cos2 x d 1 + 2 cos 2θ + cos 4θ ≡ 4 cos2 θ cos 2θ

1 − cos 2x
E/P 22 a Use the double-angle formulae to prove that _________ ≡ tan2 x (4 marks)
1 + cos 2x
1 − cos 2x
b Hence find, for −π < x < π, all the solutions of _________ = 3, leaving your answers
1 + cos 2x
in terms of π. (2 marks)

E/P 23 a Prove that cos4 2θ − sin4 2θ ≡ cos 4θ (4 marks)

b Hence find, for 0° < θ < 180°, all the solutions of cos4 2θ − sin4 2θ = _2
1
(2 marks)

1 − cos 2θ
E/P 24 a Prove that _________ ≡ tan θ (4 marks)
sin 2θ
b Verify that θ = 180° is a solution of the equation sin 2θ = 2 − 2 cos 2θ (1 mark)
c Using the result in part a, or otherwise, find the two other solutions, 0° < θ < 360°,
of the equation sin 2θ = 2 − 2 cos 2θ (3 marks)
96 CHAPTER 4 TRIGONOMETRIC ADDITION FORMULAE

Challenge
1 Prove the identities:
cos 2θ + cos 4θ
a _____________ ≡ −cot θ
sin 2θ − sin 4θ
b cos x + 2 cos 3x + cos 5x ≡ 4 cos2 x cos 3x

2 The points A, B and C lie on a circle with centre O and radius 1. AC is a

diameter of the circle and point D lies on OC such that ∠ODB = 90°
B
Hint Find expressions
for ∠BOD and AB,
then consider the
lengths OD and DB.

A C
θ
1 O D

Use this construction to prove:

a sin 2θ ≡ 2 sin θ cos θ b cos 2θ ≡ 2 cos2 θ − 1

Summary of key points

1 The addition (or compound-angle) formulae are:
• sin (A + B) ≡ sin A cos B + cos A sin B sin (A − B) ≡ sin A cos B − cos A sin B
• cos (A + B) ≡ cos A cos B − sin A sin B cos (A − B) ≡ cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A + tan B tan A − tan B
• tan (A + B) ≡ _____________ tan (A − B) ≡ _____________
1 − tan A tan B 1 + tan A tan B
2 The double-angle formulae are:
• sin 2A ≡ 2 sin A cos A
• cos 2A ≡ cos2 A − sin2 A ≡ 2 cos2 A − 1 ≡ 1 − 2 sin2 A
2 tan A
• tan 2A ≡ _________
1 − tan2 A
3 For positive values of a and b,
• a sin x ± b cos x can be expressed in the form R sin (x ± α)
• a cos x ± b sin x can be expressed in the form R cos (x ∓ α)
π
with R > 0 and 0° < α < 90° (or __)
2 ______
where R cos α = a, R sin α = b and R = √ a2 + b2
REVIEW EXERCISE 1 97

E
Review exercise
4x
1 Express __________
x − 2x − 3 x + x
2 2
1
+ ______

fraction in its simplest form.

as a single

(4)
Let r(x) = qp(x)
c Find r−1(x), stating its domain.
1 (3)
← Pure 3 Sections 2.3, 2.4
← Pure 3 Section 1.1

3 3 E/P 7 The functions f and g are defined by:

E/P 2 f(x) = 1 − _____ + _______2 , x ≠ −2 x+2
x + 2 (x + 2) f : x ↦ _____
x , x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ 0
x2 + x + 1
a Show that f(x) = _________ , x ≠ −2 (2) g : x ↦ ln (2x − 5), x ∈ ℝ, x . _2
5
(x + 2)2
b Show that x2 + x + 1 > 0 for all a Sketch the graph of f. (3)
3x + 2
values of x, x ≠ −2 (2) b Show that f 2(x) = ______ (3)
x+2
c Find the exact value of gf (_4 )
c Show that f(x) > 0 for all values 1
(2)
of x, x ≠ −2 (2)
d Find g−1(x), stating its domain. (3)
← Pure 3 Section 1.1
← Pure 3 Sections 2.3, 2.4
3 x + 6x − 2
2 ex + f
E 3 Given that ___________ ; d + ______ E/P 8 The functions p and q are defined by:
x +4
2
x2 + 4
p(x) = 3x + b, x ∈ ℝ
find the values of d, e and f. (4)
q(x) = 1 − 2x, x ∈ ℝ
← Pure 3 Section 1.2
Given that pq(x) = qp(x),
4 Solve the inequality |4x + 3| . 7 − 2x a show that b = − _3
E (3) 2
(3)
← Pure 3 Section 2.1 b find p−1(x) and q−1(x) (3)
E/P 5 The function p(x) is defined by c show that
ax + b
p−1q−1(x) = q−1p−1(x) = ______
c , where
p:x ↦ { 2
4x + 5, x , − 2 a, b and c are integers to be found. (4)
− x + 4, x > − 2
← Pure 3 Sections 2.3, 2.4
a Sketch p(x), stating its range. (3)
E 9 y
b Find the exact values of a such that
p(a) = −20 (4) y = f(x)
M (2, 4)
← Pure 3 Section 2.2

E/P 6 The functions p and q are defined by

1
p(x) = _____ , x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ − 4
x+4 x
–5 O 5
q(x) = 2x − 5, x ∈ ℝ
a Find an expression for qp(x) in the The figure shows the graph of
ax + b y = f(x), −5 < x < 5
form ______ (3)
cx + d
The point M (2, 4) is the maximum
b Solve qp(x) = 15 (3) turning point of the graph.
98 1 REVIEW EXERCISE

Sketch, on separate diagrams, the graphs of: a Sketch, on separate axes, the graphs of:
a y = f(x) + 3 (2) i y = |f(x)| (2)
b y = |f(x)| (2) ii y = −f(x + 1) (2)
iii y = f(−2x) (2)
c y = f(|x|) (2)
in each case, showing the images of the
Show on each graph the coordinates of
points A, B and C.
any maximum turning points.
← Pure 3 Sections 2.5, 2.6
b State the number of solutions to each
equation:
E/P 10 The function h is defined by i 3|f(x)| = 2 (2)
h : x ↦ 2 (x + 3) 2 − 8, x ∈ ℝ ii 2|f(x)| = 3 (2)
a Draw a sketch of y = h(x), labelling ← Pure 3 Sections 2.6, 2.7
the turning points and the x- and
y-intercepts. (4)
E/P 12 The diagram shows a sketch of part of
the graph y = q(x), where
b Write down the coordinates of the
q(x) = _2 |x + b| − 3 , b , 0
1
turning points on the graphs with
equations: y

i y = 3h(x + 2) (2)
y = q(x)
ii y = h(−x) (2) (0, 32 )
iii y = |h(x)| (2) x
O B
c Sketch the curve with equation
y = h(−|x|). On your sketch, show the A
coordinates of all turning points and
all x- and y-intercepts. (4) The graph cuts the y-axis at (0, _2 ).
3

← Pure 3 Sections 2.5, 2.6 a Find the value of b. (2)

E 11 y b Find the coordinates of A and B. (3)
_1
c Solve q(x) = − 3 x + 5 (5)
← Pure 3 Section 2.7
2

B C E/P 13 The function f is defined by

x
f(x) = − _3 |x + 4| + 8, x ∈ ℝ
O A 2 3 5 5
(1, –1)
The diagram shows a sketch of the graph
y = f(x) y = f(x).
y

The diagram shows a sketch of the graph

of y = f(x).
O x
The curve has a minimum at the point
y = f(x)
A (1, −1), passes through the x-axis at
the origin, and the points B (2, 0) and
C (5, 0); the asymptotes have equations a State the range of f. (1)
x = 3 and y = 2. b Give a reason why f −1(x) does not
exist. (1)
_2
c Solve the inequality f(x) . 3 x + 4 (5)
REVIEW EXERCISE 1 99

d State the range of values of k for which E/P 17 a Prove that

_5 sin θ _____
cos θ
the equation f(x) = 3 x + k has no _____
+ = 2 cosec 2θ, θ ≠ 90n° (3)
solutions. (2) cos θ sin θ
← Pure 3 Section 2.7 b Sketch the graph of y = 2 cosec 2θ for
0° , θ , 360°. (3)
E/P 14 a Sketch, in the interval −2π < x < 2π,
c Solve, for 0° , θ , 360°, the equation
the graph of y = 4 − 2 cosec x.
sin θ _____
_____ cos θ
Mark any asymptotes on your graph. + = 3, giving your answer to
cos θ sin θ
(3)
1 decimal place. (4)
b Hence deduce the range of values of k
← Pure 3 Section 3.3
for which the equation 4 − 2cosec x = k
has no solutions. (2) E/P 18
← Pure 3 Sections 3.1, 3.2

E/P 15 The diagram shows the graph of 10 cm

B A
y = k sec (θ − α)
θ

The curve crosses the y-axis at the point

(0, 4), and the θ-coordinate of its C
π
minimum point is __ D
3
y In the diagram, AB = 10 cm is the
diameter of the circle and BD is the
tangent to the circle at B. The chord AC
4 is extended to meet this tangent at D and
∠ABC = θ

–π – π6 O π 5π
a Show that BD = 10 cot θ (4)
3 6
10
π θ
b Given that BD = ___
__ cm, calculate the
–4 √3
y = k sec (θ – α) exact length of DC. (3)
← Pure 3 Section 3.4
a State, as a multiple of π, the value of α.
(1) E/P 19 a Given that sin2 θ + cos2 θ ≡ 1,
b Find the value of k. (2) show that 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ (2)
c Find the exact values of θ at the points b Solve, for 0° < θ , 360°, the equation
where the
__
graph crosses the line 2 tan2 θ + sec θ = 1
y = −2√ 2 (3) giving your answers to 1 decimal place.
← Pure 3 Section 3.2 (6)
← Pure 3 Section 3.3
E/P 16 a Show that
cos x
________ 1 − sin x E/P 20 Given that a = cosec x and b = 2 sin x,
+ _______ ≡ 2 sec x
1 − sin x cos x a express a in terms of b (2)
(4)
4−b 2
b Hence solve, in the interval 0 < x < 4π, b find the value of ______ in terms of b.
a2 − 1
cos x
________ 1 − sin x __ (2)
+ _______ = − 2√ 2
1 − sin x cos x ← Pure 3 Section 3.4
(4)
← Pure 3 Section 3.3
100 1 REVIEW EXERCISE

E/P 21 Given that E/P 28 Solve, in the interval −180° < x < 180°,
π
__ π
__ the equations
y = arcsin x, −1 < x < 1, − < y <
2 2
a express arccos x in terms of y. (2) a cos 2x + sin x = 1 (3)
b Hence find, in terms of π, the value of b sin x(cos x + cosec x) = 2 cos x
2 (3)
arcsin x + arccos x (1) giving your answers to 1 decimal place.
← Pure 3 Section 3.5 ← Pure 3 Section 4.4

E 22 a Prove that, for x > 1, _____ E 29 f(x) = 3 sin x + 2 cos x

1 √_______
x2 − 1 Given f(x) = R sin (x + α), where R . 0
arccos __ = arcsin (4) π
x x and 0 , α , __,
2
b Explain why this identity is not true for a find the value of R and the value of α. (4)
0<x,1 (2)
b Hence, find the greatest value
← Pure 3 Section 3.5 of (3 sin x + 2 cos x) 4 (2)
π
E 23 a Sketch the graph of y = 2 arccos x − __ , c Hence, or otherwise, solve for
2
showing clearly the exact endpoints 0 < θ , 2π, f(x) = 1, rounding your
of the curve. (4) answers to 3 decimal places. (3)
← Pure 3 Section 4.5
b Find the exact coordinates of the point
where the curve crosses the x-axis. (3) E 30 a Prove that
← Pure 3 Section 3.5 nπ
cot θ − tan θ ≡ 2 cot 2θ, θ ≠ ___ (3)
π 2
24 Given that tan (x + __) = __ , show that
1
E
6 __ 6 b Solve, for −π , θ , π, the equation
72 − 111√ 3 cot θ − tan θ = 5
tan x = __________ (5)
321 giving your answers to 3 significant
← Pure 3 Section 4.1
figures. (3)
← Pure 3 Sections 3.3, 4.6
E/P 25 Given that sin (x + 30°) = 2 sin (x − 60°)
__
a show that tan x = 8 + 5√ 3 (4) E 31 a By writing cos 3θ as cos(2θ + θ),
b Hence, express tan__(x + 60°) show that
in the form a + b√ 3 (3) cos 3θ ≡ 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ (4)
← Pure 3 Section 4.1 __
√2
b Given that cos θ = ___, find the exact
E/P 26 a Use sin (θ + α) = sin θ cos α + cos θ sin α, 3
or otherwise, to show that value of sec__3θ. Give your answer in
__
√6 − √2
__
the form k√ 2 where k is a rational
_______
sin 165° = (4) constant to be found. (3)
4
b Hence, or otherwise, show that ← Pure 3 Sections 3.3, 4.1
__ __
cosec 165° = √ a + √ b , where a and b
32 Show that sin 4 θ ≡ _8 − _2 cos 2θ + _8 cos 4θ
3 1 1
E
are constants to be found. (3)
← Pure 3 ections 4.1, 4.2
You must show each stage of your
working. (6)
27 Given that cos A = _4 where 270° , A , 360°,
3
E/P ← Pure 3 Section 4.6

a find the exact value of sin 2A (3)

__
b show that tan 2A = −3√ 7 (3)
← Pure 3 Section 4.3
REVIEW EXERCISE 1 101

Challenge 2 The diagram shows a sketch of the functions

1 The functions f and g are defined by p(x) = |x2 − 8x + 12| and q(x) = |x2 − 11x + 28|
SKILLS
INNOVATION f(x) = −3|x + 3| + 15, x ∈ ℝ y
g(x) = − _34 x + _32 , x ∈ ℝ y = p(x) y = q(x)

The diagram shows a sketch of the graphs

A
y = f(x) and y = g(x), which intersect at
B
points A and B. M is the midpoint of AB.
The circle C, with centre M, passes through C
points A and B, and meets y = f(x) at point P
as shown in the diagram. x
O
y
y = f(x) Find the exact values of the x-coordinates of
the points A, B and C. ← Pure 3 Section 2.5
3 The diagram shows a circle, centre O.
A C The radius of the circle, OC, is 1,
and ∠CDO = 90°
P A
B C
O x
y = g(x) 1

x
a Find the equation of the circle. O D B
b Find the area of the triangle APB.
← Pure 3 Sections 2.2, 2.6

Given that ∠COD = x, express the following

lengths as single trigonometric functions of x
a CD b OD c OA
d AC e CB f OB
← Pure 3 Section 3.1
 Algebraic expressions
5 EXPONENTIALS
AND LOGARITHMS
Learning objectives
1 3.1
3.2
3.3

A!er completing this unit you should be able to:

● Sketch graphs of the form y = ax, y = ex, y = eax+b + c,
and transformations of these graphs → pages 103–105
x
● Differentiate e and understand why this result is important
→ pages 105–108
● Describe and use the natural logarithm function → pages 108–110
● Use logarithms to estimate the values of constants in
non-linear models → pages 110–116
● Use and interpret models that use exponential functions
→ pages 116–118

Prior knowledge check

1 Given that x = 3 and y = −1, evaluate these expressions without

using a calculator:
a 5x b 3y c 22x−1 d 71−y e 11x+3y
← International GCSE Mathematics

2 Simplify these expressions, writing each answer as a single power:

___
25 × 29 Radioactive atoms contain
( 9)2 c ______
a 68 ÷ 62 b y3 × (y d √x 8
28 an excess of energy in their
← International GCSE Mathematics
nucleus (i.e. more energy than
3 Plot the following data on a scatter graph is needed). To become stable,
and draw a line of best fit. they release this excess energy
as alpha, beta or gamma
x 1.2 2.1 3.5 4 5.8
radiation. The time it takes a
y 5.8 7.4 9.4 10.3 12.8
radioactive atom to decrease
Determine the gradient and y-intercept of your line of best fit, to half its original value is
giving your answers to 1 decimal place. called the half-life. This is an
← International GCSE Mathematics exponential decay.

102
EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS CHAPTER 5 103

5.1 Exponential functions

Functions of the form f(x) = a x, where a is a constant, are called exponential functions.
You should become familiar with these functions and the shapes of their graphs.
For example, look at a table of values of y = 2x Notation In the expression 2x,
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x can be called an index, a power
y _1 _1 _1
1 2 4 8 or an exponent
8 4 2

The value of 2x tends toward 0 as x decreases,

Links Recall that 20 = 1 and that
and grows without limit as x increases.
1 1
The graph of y = 2x is a smooth curve that looks like this: 2 −3 = __3 = __ ← Pure 1 Section 1.4
2 8
y
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 The x-axis is an asymptote
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 x to the curve.
–1

Example 1

a On the same axes, sketch the graphs of y = 3x, y = 2x and y = 1.5x

b On another set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = (_2 ) and y = 2x
1 x

a For all three graphs, y = 1 when x = 0 a0 = 1

When x > 0, 3x > 2x > 1.5x
When x < 0, 3x < 2x < 1.5x Work out the relative positions of the three
y graphs.
y = 3x
y = 2x
Whenever a > 1, f(x) = ax is an increasing function.
In this case, the value of ax grows without limit as
y = 1.5x x increases, and tends toward 0 as x decreases.

–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3x
b The graph of y = (__
2 ) is a reflection in the
1 x

Since _12 = 2−1, y = (_12 ) is the same as y = (2−1)x = 2−x

x

y-axis of the graph of y = 2x

y
y = ( 21 )x y = 2x

Whenever 0 < a < 1, f(x) = ax is a decreasing

function. In this case, the value of ax tends toward
0 as x increases, and grows without limit as x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3x decreases.
104 CHAPTER 5 EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS

Example 2

Sketch the graph of y = (_2 )

1 x−3
and give the coordinates of the point where the graph crosses the y-axis.

If f(x) = (_
2 ) then y = f(x − 3)
Problem-solving
1 x

The graph is a translation of the graph If you have to sketch the graph of an unfamiliar
y = ( 2 ) by the vector (0)
function, try writing it as a transformation of a
_1 x 3
familiar function. ← Pure 1 Section 4.4
The graph crosses the y-axis when x = 0
y = (_
2)
1 0−3

y=8 You can also consider this graph as a stretch of

the graph y = (_12 )
x
The graph crosses the y-axis at (0, 8)
y = (_12 )
y x−3
10
= (_12 ) × (_12 )
x −3
8
6
= (_12 ) × 8
x
4
= 8(_12 ) = 8f(x)
x
2

So the graph of y = (_12 )

x−3
O 2 4 6 8 10 x is a vertical stretch of
the graph of y = (_12 ) with scale factor 8.
x

Exercise 5A SKILLS INTERPRETATION

1 a Draw an accurate graph of y = (1.7)x for −4 < x < 4

b Use your graph to solve the equation (1.7)x = 4

2 a Draw an accurate graph of y = (0.6)x for −4 < x < 4

b Use your graph to solve the equation (0.6)x = 2

3 Sketch the graph of y = 1x

P 4 For each of these statements, decide whether it is true or false, justifying your answer or offering
a counter-example.
a The graph of y = a x passes through (0, 1) for all positive real numbers a.
b The function f(x) = ax is always an increasing function for a > 0
c The graph of y = a x, where a is a positive real number, never crosses the x-axis.

5 The function f(x) is defined as f(x) = 3x, x ∈ ℝ. On the same axes, sketch the graphs of:
d y = f(_2 x)
1
a y = f(x) b y = 2f(x) c y = f(x) − 4
Write down the coordinates of the point where each graph crosses the y-axis, and give the
equations of any asymptotes.

P 6 The graph of y = kax passes through the Hint Substitute the coordinates into y = ka x to
points (1, 6) and (4, 48). Find the values create two simultaneous equations. Use division
of the constants k and a. to eliminate one of the two unknowns.
EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS CHAPTER 5 105

7 The graph of y = pqx passes through the points (−3, 150) and (2, 0.048)
a By drawing a sketch or otherwise, explain why 0 < q < 1
b Find the values of the constants p and q.

Challenge
SKILLS Sketch the graph of y = 2x − 2 + 5, giving the coordinates of the point
CREATIVITY where the graph crosses the y-axis.

5.2 y = e ax+b + c
Exponential functions of the form f(x) = ax have a special mathematical property. The graphs of their
gradient functions are a similar shape to the graphs of the functions themselves.
y dy y dy = 1.099… × 3x y dy = 1.386… × 4x
y = 2x = 0.693… × 2x dx dx
dx y = 3x y = 4x

O x O x O x

In each case f9(x) = kf(x), where k is a constant. As the value of a increases, so does the value of k.
Something unique happens between a = 2 and Function Gradient function
a = 3. There is going to be a value of a where the
f(x) = 1x f9(x) = 0 × 1x
gradient function is exactly the same as the
original function. This occurs when a is f(x) = 2x f9(x) = 0.693… × 2x
approximately equal to 2.71828. The exact value f(x) = 3x f9(x) = 1.099… × 3x
is represented by the letter e. Like π, e is both an f(x) = 4x f9(x) = 1.386… × 4x
important mathematical constant and an
irrational number.
y

Online
x

Explore the relationship

■ For all real values of x: between exponential functions and
• If f(x) = e x then f’(x) = e x their derivatives using technology.
dy
• If y = e x then ___ = e x
dx
_1
A similar result holds for functions such as e5x, e−x and e 2 x
■ For all real values of x and for any constant k:
• If f(x) = e kx then f’(x) = ke kx
dy
• If y = e kx then ___ = ke kx
dx
106 CHAPTER 5 EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS

Example 3

Differentiate with respect to x.

_1
a e4x b e−2x c 3e2x

a y = e4x
dy
___ Use the rule for differentiating ekx with k = 4
= 4e4x
dx
__1
b y = e−2x
dy
___
= − __
1 − __1 x
2e
2
dx
c y = 3e2x
To differentiate aekx, multiply the whole function
dy
___
= 2 × 3e2x = 6e2x by k. The derivative is kaekx
dx

Example 4

Sketch the graphs of the following equations. Give the coordinates of any points where the graphs
cross the axes, and state the equations of any asymptotes.
_1
a y = e2x b y = 10e−x c y = 3 + 4e 2 x

a y = e2x
When x = 0, y = e2 × 0 = 1 so the graph
crosses the y-axis at (0, 1).
The x-axis ( y = 0) is an asymptote.
y y = e2x
y = ex

The graph of y = ex has been shown in purple on

this sketch.

1
This is a stretch of the graph of y = ex, parallel to
O x the x-axis and with scale factor _12
b y = 10e−x ← Pure 1 Section 4.6

When x = 0, y = 10e−0. So the graph

crosses the y-axis at (0, 10).
The x-axis ( y = 0) is an asymptote.
y
Negative powers of e x, such as e−x or e−4x, give
rise to decreasing functions.

10 The graph of y = e x has been reflected in the

y= e–x y-axis and stretched parallel to the y-axis with
y = 10e–x
scale factor 10.
1
O x
EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS CHAPTER 5 107

__1
c y = 3 + 4e 2 x Problem-solving
__1
When x = 0, y = 3 + 4e 2 × 0 = 7 so
If you have to sketch a transformed graph with
the graph crosses the y-axis at (0, 7).
an asymptote, it is o!en easier to sketch the
The line y = 3 is an asymptote. asymptote first.
y 1
y = 3 + 4e 2 x
_1
The graph of y = e 2 x has been stretched parallel to
the y-axis with scale factor 4 and then translated
by ( )
0
7
3
3

O x
y

Online
x

Use technology to draw

transformations of y = ex

We can develop Example 4c above into a general case: y

y = e(x + 0.5) + 1
y = eax+b + c
A little calculation will show that the asymptote is y = c
(0, eb + c)
This will help to sketch the curve.
y=c

O x

Exercise 5B SKILLS INTERPRETATION

1 Use a calculator to find the value of ex to 5 decimal places when:

a x=1 b x=4 c x = −10 d x = 0.2

2 a Draw an accurate graph of y = ex for −4 < x < 4

b By drawing appropriate tangent lines, estimate the gradient at x = 1 and x = 3
c Compare your answers to the actual values of e and e3.

3 Sketch the graphs of:

a y = ex + 1 b y = 4e−2x c y = 2ex − 3
_1
d y = 4 − ex e y = 6 + 10e 2 x f y = 100e−x + 10

4 Each of the sketch graphs below is of the form y = Aebx + C, where A, b and C are constants.
Find the values of A and C for each graph, and state whether b is positive or negative.
a y b y c y Hint You do not have
8 enough information
4 to work out the value
6
of b, so simply state
5 2
whether it is positive
O x O x O x or negative.
108 CHAPTER 5 EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS

5 Rearrange f(x) = e3x + 2 into the form f(x) = Aebx, where A and b
Hint e m + n = em × en
are constants whose values are to be found. Hence, or otherwise,
sketch the graph of y = f(x).

6 Differentiate the following with respect to x: Hint For part f, start

a e6x b e−3x
_1
c 7e2x by expanding the
bracket.
d 5e0.4x e e3x + 2ex f e x(e x + 1)

7 Find the gradient of the curve with equation y = e3x at the point where:
a x=2 b x=0 c x = −0.5

8 The function f is defined as f(x) = e0.2x, x ∈ ℝ. Show that the tangent to the curve
at the point (5, e) goes through the origin.

5.3 Natural logarithms

■ The graph of y = ln x is a reflection of the graph y = ex in the line y = x
The graph of y = ln x passes through (1, 0) and does not y
y = ex y=x
cross the y-axis.
The y-axis is an asymptote of the graph y = ln x.
This means that ln x is defined only for positive values of x. y = ln x

As x increases, ln x grows without limit, but relatively slowly. 1

You can also use the fact that logarithms are the inverses of
exponential functions to solve equations involving powers O 1 x
and logarithms.
■ eln x = ln (ex) = x Notation ln x = log ex

Example 5

Solve these equations, giving your answers in exact form.

a ex = 5 b ln x = 3
The inverse operation of raising e to the power x is
taking natural logarithms (logarithms to the base e)
a When e x = 5 and vice versa.
ln (e x) = ln 5
x = ln 5 You can write the natural logarithm on both sides.
ln (e x) = x
b When ln x = 3
eln x = e3
Leave your answer as a logarithm or a power of e
x = e3
so that it is exact.
EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS CHAPTER 5 109

Example 6

Solve these equations, giving your answers in exact form.

a e2x + 3 = 7 b 2 ln x + 1 = 5 c e2x + 5e x = 14

a e2x + 3 = 7
2x + 3 = ln 7 Take natural logarithms of both sides and use the
fact that the inverse of ex is ln x.
2x = ln 7 − 3
x = __
1 __
3
2 ln 7 − 2

b 2 ln x + 1 = 5
2 ln x = 4 Rearrange to make ln x the subject.
ln x = 2
x = e2 The inverse of ln x is ex

c e2x + 5ex = 14 e2x = (ex)2, so this is a quadratic function of ex

e2x + 5ex − 14 = 0 Start by setting the equation equal to 0 and
factorise. You could also use the substitution
(ex + 7)(ex − 2) = 0
u = ex and write the equation as u2 + 5u − 14 = 0
ex = −7 or ex = 2
ex = 2 Watch out ex is always positive, so you can’t
x = ln 2 have ex = −7. You need to discard this solution.

Exercise 5C

1 Solve these equations, giving your answers in exact form.

a ex = 6 b e2x = 11 c e−x + 3 = 20
d 3e4x = 1 e e2x + 6 = 3 f e5 − x = 19

2 Solve these equations, giving your answers in exact form.

a ln x = 2 b ln (4x) = 1 c ln (2x + 3) = 4
_1
d 2 ln (6x − 2) = 5 e ln (18 − x) = 2 f ln (x2 − 7x + 11) = 0

3 Solve these equations, giving your answers in exact form. Hint All of the equations in
a e2x − 8ex + 12 = 0 b e4x − 3e2x = −2 question 3 are quadratic equations
in a function of x.
c (ln x)2 + 2 ln x − 15 = 0 d ex − 5 + 4e−x = 0
e 3e2x + 5 = 16ex f (ln x)2 = 4(ln x + 3)
Hint First in part d
multiply each term by ex

E/P 4 Find the exact solutions to the equation e x + 12e−x = 7 (4 marks)

5 Solve these equations, giving your answers in exact form.

a ln (8x − 3) = 2 b e5(x − 8) = 3 c e10x − 8e5x + 7 = 0 d (ln x − 1)2 = 4
110 CHAPTER 5 EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS

a + ln b
E/P 6 Solve 3xe4x − 1 = 5, giving your answer in the form _______ Hint Take natural logarithms
c + ln d
of both sides and then apply
(5 marks) the laws of logarithms.

P 7 Officials are testing athletes for banned medicines at a sporting event. They model the __
−t
concentration of a particular substance in an athlete’s bloodstream using the equation D = 6e 10
where D is the concentration of the substance in mg/l, and t is the time in hours since the athlete
took the substance.
a Interpret the meaning of the constant 6 in this model.
b Find the concentration of the substance in the bloodstream after 2 hours.
c It is impossible to detect this substance in the bloodstream if the concentration is lower than
3 mg/l. Show that this happens after t = −10 ln (_2 ) and convert this result into hours and minutes.
1

E/P 8 The graph of y = 3 + ln (4 − x) is shown to the right. y

a State the exact coordinates of point A. (1 mark) y = 3 + ln (4 – x)

A

b Calculate the exact coordinates of point B. (3 marks)

O B x

Challenge
The graph of the function g(x) = AeBx + C passes through (0, 5) and (6, 10).
Given that the line y = 2 is an asymptote to the graph, show that B = _16 ln (_83 )

5.4 Logarithms and non-linear data

Logarithms can also be used to manage and explore non-linear trends in data.

Case 1: y = ax n
Start with a non-linear relationship y = axn
Take logs of both sides (log = log10) log y = log axn
Use the multiplication law log y = log a + log xn
Use the power law log y = log a + n log x
Compare this equation to the common form of a straight line, Y = MX + C

log y n log x log a

variable = constant variable + constant
(gradient) (intercept)

Y M X C
variable = constant variable + constant
(gradient) (intercept)
EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS CHAPTER 5 111

■ If y = axn then the graph of log y against log x will be a straight line with gradient n
and vertical intercept log a
log y

log a

O log x

Example 7

The table below gives the rank (by size) and population of the UK’s largest cities and districts
(London is ranked number 1 but has been excluded as an outlier).
City Birmingham Leeds Glasgow Sheffield Bradford
Rank, R 2 3 4 5 6
Population, P (2 s.f.) 1 000 000 730 000 620 000 530 000 480 000

The relationship between the rank and population can be modelled by the formula
P = aR n where a and n are constants.
a Draw a table giving values of log R and log P to 2 decimal places.
b Plot a graph of log R against log P using the values from your table and draw a line of best fit.
c Use your graph to estimate the values of a and n to 2 significant figures.

a log R 0.30 0.48 0.60 0.70 0.78

log P 6 5.86 5.79 5.72 5.68
b log P
6.4

6.2

6.0

5.8

5.6

5.4

5.2

5.0

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 log R
112 CHAPTER 5 EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS

c P = aR n Start with the formula given in the question.

log P = log aR n Take logs of both sides and use the laws
= log a + log R n of logarithms to rearrange it into a linear
= log a + n log R relationship between log P and log R.
so the gradient is n and the intercept is log a
Reading the gradient from the graph, The gradient of the line of best fit will give
5.68 − 6.16
____________ −0.48
______ you your value for n.
n= = = −0.67
0.77 − 0.05 0.72
Reading the intercept from the graph, The vertical intercept will give you the value
log a = 6.2 of log a. You need to raise 10 to this power to
a = 106.2 = 1 600 000 (2 s.f.) find the value of a.

Case 2: y = ab x
Start with a non-linear relationship y = ab x
Take logs of both sides (log = log10) log y = log ab x
Use the multiplication law log y = log a + log b x
Use the power law log y = log a + x log b
Compare this equation to the common form of a straight line, Y = MX + C

log y log b x log a

variable = constant variable + constant
(gradient) (intercept)

Y M X C
variable = constant variable + constant
(gradient) (intercept)

■ If y = ab x then the graph of log y against x will be a straight line with gradient log b and vertical
intercept log a
log y
Watch out For y = ab x you need to plot
log y against x to obtain a linear graph.
If you plot log y against log x you will not
log a
get a linear relationship.

O x
EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS CHAPTER 5 113

Example 8

The graph represents the growth of a population of bacteria, log P

P, over t hours. The graph has a gradient of 0.6 and meets
the vertical axis at (0, 2) as shown.
2
A scientist suggests that this growth can be modelled by
the equation P = abt, where a and b are constants to be found.
a Write down an equation for the line. O t
b Using your answer to part a or otherwise, find the values
of a and b, giving them to 3 significant figures where necessary.
c Interpret the meaning of the constant a in this model.

a log P = 0.6t + 2 log P = (gradient) × t + ( y-intercept)

b P= 100.6t + 2
Rewrite the logarithm as a power. An alternative
= 100.6t × 102
method would be to start with P = abt and take
= 102 × (100.6)t
logs of both sides, as in Example 7.
= 100 × 3.98t
a= 100, b = 3.98 (3 s.f.)
Rearrange the equation into the form abt. You can
c The value of a gives the initial size of the use xmn = (xm)n to write 100.6t in the form bt
bacteria population.

Exercise 5D SKILLS INTERPRETATION

1 Two variables, S and x, satisfy the formula S = 4 × 7x

a Show that log S = log 4 + x log 7
b The straight line graph of log S against x is plotted. Write down the gradient and the value
of the intercept on the vertical axis.

2 Two variables, A and x, satisfy the formula A = 6x 4

a Show that log A = log 6 + 4 log x
b The straight line graph of log A against log x is plotted. Write down the gradient and the
value of the intercept on the vertical axis.

3 The data below follows a trend of the form y = axn, where a and n are constants.
x 3 5 8 10 15
y 16.3 33.3 64.3 87.9 155.1

a Copy and complete the table of values of log x and log y, giving your answers to 2 decimal places.
log x 0.48 0.70 0.90 1 1.18
log y 1.21 2.19

b Plot a graph of log y against log x and draw in a line of best fit.
c Use your graph to estimate the values of a and n to 1 decimal place.
114 CHAPTER 5 EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS

4 The data below follows a trend of the form y = abx, where a and b are constants.
x 2 3 5 6.5 9
y 124.8 424.4 4097.0 30 763.6 655 743.5

a Copy and complete the table of values of x and log y, giving your answers to 2 decimal places.
x 2 3 5 6.5 9
log y 2.10

b Plot a graph of log y against x and draw in a line of best fit.

c Use your graph to estimate the values of a and b to 1 decimal place.

E 5 Kleiber’s law is an empirical law in biology which connects the mass of an animal, m, to its
resting metabolic rate, R. The law follows the form R = amb, where a and b are constants.
The table below contains data on five animals.
Animal Mouse Guinea pig Rabbit Goat Cow
Mass, m (kg) 0.030 0.408 4.19 34.6 650
Metabolic rate,
4.2 32.3 195 760 7637
R (kcal per day)

a Copy and complete this table giving values of log R and log m to 2 decimal places. (1 mark)
log m −1.52
log R 0.62 1.51 2.29 2.88 3.88

b Plot a graph of log R against log m using the values from your table and draw in a
line of best fit. (2 marks)
c Use your graph to estimate the values of a and b to 2 significant figures. (4 marks)
d Using your values of a and b, estimate the resting metabolic rate of a human male
with a mass of 80 kg. (1 mark)

6 Zipf’s law is an empirical law which relates how frequently a word is used, f, to its ranking in
a list of the most common words of a language, R. The law follows the form f = ARb, where A
and b are constants to be found.
The table below contains data on four words.
Word ‘the’ ‘it’ ‘well’ ‘detail’
Rank, R 1 10 100 1000
Frequency per
4897 861 92 9
100 000 words, f

a Copy and complete this table giving values of log f to 2 decimal places.
log R 0 1 2 3
log f 3.69

b Plot a graph of log f against log R using the values from your table and draw in a line of best fit.
EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS CHAPTER 5 115

c Use your graph to estimate the value of A to 2 significant figures and the value of b to
1 significant figure.
d The word ‘when’ is the 57th most commonly used word in the English language. A series of
three novels contains 455 125 words. Use your values of A and b to estimate the number of
times the word ‘when’ appears in the trilogy.

P 7 The table below shows the population of Mozambique between 1960 and 2010.
Year 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Population,
7.6 9.5 12.1 13.6 18.3 23.4
P (millions)

This data can be modelled using an exponential function of the form P = abt,
where t is the time in years since 1960 and a and b are constants.
a Copy and complete the table below.
Time in years
0 10 20 30 40 50
since 1960, t
log P 0.88

b Show that P = abt can be rearranged into the form log P = log a + t log b
c Plot a graph of log P against t using the values from your table and
draw in a line of best fit.
d Use your graph to estimate the values of a and b. Hint For part e, think about the
dP
e Explain why an exponential model is often appropriate relationship between P and ___
dt
for modelling population growth.

E/P 8 A scientist is modelling the number of people, N, who have fallen sick with a virus after t days.
log N
(10, 2.55)

1.6

O t

From looking at this graph, the scientist suggests that the number of sick people can be
modelled by the equation N = abt, where a and b are constants to be found.
The graph passes through the points (0, 1.6) and (10, 2.55).
a Write down the equation of the line. (2 marks)
b Using your answer to part a or otherwise, find the values of a and b,
giving them to 2 significant figures. (4 marks)
c Interpret the meaning of the constant a in this model. (1 mark)
d Use your model to predict the number of sick people to the nearest 100 after 30 days.
Give one reason why this might be an overestimate. (2 marks)
116 CHAPTER 5 EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS

P 9 A student is investigating a family of similar shapes. She measures the width, w,

and the area, A, of each shape. She suspects there is a formula of the form A = pw q,
so she plots the logarithms of her results.
log A

O log w

–0.1049

The graph has a gradient of 2 and passes through −0.1049 on the vertical axis.
a Write down an equation for the line.
b Starting with your answer to part a, or otherwise, find the exact value of q and the value of p
to 4 decimal places.
c Suggest the name of the family of shapes that the Hint Multiply p by 4 and think about
student is investigating, and justify your answer.
another name for ‘half the width’.

5.5 Exponential modelling

You can use ex to model situations such as population growth, where the rate of increase is
proportional to the size of the population at any given moment. Similarly, e−x can be used to model
situations such as radioactive decay (the process of being destroyed by radioactivity), where the rate
of decrease is proportional to the number of atoms remaining.

Example 9

The density of a pesticide (a chemical used for killing insects) in a given section of field, P mg/m2,
can be modelled by the equation
P = 160e−0.006t
where t is the time in days since the pesticide was first applied.
a Use this model to estimate the density of pesticide after 15 days.
b Interpret the meaning of the value 160 in this model.
dP
c Show that ___ = kP, where k is a constant, and state the value of k.
dt
d Interpret the significance of the sign of your answer to part c.
e Sketch the graph of P against t.
EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS CHAPTER 5 117

a After 15 days, t = 15
P = 160e−0.006 × 15 Substitute t = 15 into the model.
= 146.2 mg/m2
b When t = 0, P = 160e0 = 160, so 160 mg/m2
y

Online
x

is the initial density of pesticide in the field. Work this out in one go using the
!x button on your calculator.
c P = 160e−0.006t
dP
___
= −0.96e−0.006t , so k = −0.96
dt Notation The value given by a model when
d As k is negative, the density of pesticide t = 0 is called the initial value.
is decreasing (there is exponential decay).
e P
dy
160 If y = ekx then ___ = kekx
dx

Use your answers to parts a and d to help you

draw the graph. To check what happens to P in the
O t long term, substitute in a very large value of t.

Exercise 5E SKILLS INTERPRETATION

1 The value of a car is modelled by the formula

t
− __
V = 20 000e 12

where V is the value in euros and t is its age in years from new.
a State its value when new.
b Find its value (to the nearest euro) after 4 years.
c Sketch the graph of V against t.

P 2 The population of a country is modelled using the formula

__
t
P = 20 + 10e 50
where P is the population in thousands and t is the time in years after the year 2000.
a State the population in the year 2000.
b Use the model to predict the population in the year 2030.
c Sketch the graph of P against t for the years 2000 to 2100.
d Do you think that it would be valid to use this model to predict the population
in the year 2500? Explain your answer.

P 3 The number of people infected with a disease is modelled by the formula

N = 300 − 100e−0.5t
where N is the number of people infected with the disease and t is the time in years
after it was first seen.
118 CHAPTER 5 EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS

a How many people were initially diagnosed with the disease?

b What is the long term prediction of how this disease will spread?
c Sketch the graph of N against t, for t > 0

P 4 The number of rabbits, R, in a population after m months is modelled by the formula

R = 12e 0.2m
Problem-solving
a Use this model to estimate the number of rabbits after
i 1 month ii 1 year Your answer to part b must refer
to the context of the model.
b Interpret the meaning of the constant 12 in this model.
c Show that after 6 months, the rabbit population is increasing by almost 8 rabbits per month.
d Suggest one reason why this model will stop giving valid results for large enough values of t.

E/P 5 On Earth, the atmospheric pressure, p, in bars can be modelled approximately by the formula
p = e−0.13h where h is the height above sea level in kilometres.
a Use this model to estimate the pressure at the top of Mount Rainier,
which has an altitude (height above sea level) of 4.394 km. (1 mark)
dp
b Demonstrate that ___ = kp, where k is a constant to be found. (2 marks)
dh
c Interpret the significance of the sign of k in part b. (1 mark)
d This model predicts that the atmospheric pressure will change by s % for every
kilometre gained in height. Calculate the value of s. (3 marks)

E/P 6 Fadi has bought a car for 20 000 Dirhams. He wants to model the value, V Dirhams,
of his car after t years. His friend suggests two models:
Model 1: V = 20 000e −0.24t
Model 2: V = 19 000e −0.255t + 1000
a Use both models to predict the value of the car after one year.
Compare your results. (2 marks)
b Use both models to predict the value of the car after ten years.
Compare your results. (2 marks)
c Sketch a graph of V against t for both models. (2 marks)
d Interpret the meaning of the 1000 in Model 2, and suggest why this might make
Model 2 more realistic. (1 mark)

Chapter review 5
1 Sketch each of the following graphs, labelling all intersections and Hint Recall that
asymptotes.
2 = (2−1)x = (_12 )
−x x

a y = 2−x b y = 5ex − 1 c y = ln x

P 2 a Express ln ( p2q) in terms of ln p and ln q

b Given that ln ( pq) = 5 and ln ( p2q) = 9, find the values of ln p and ln q

3 Differentiate each of the following expressions with respect to x.

a e−x b e11x c 6e5x
EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS CHAPTER 5 119

4 Solve the following equations, giving exact solutions.

a ln (2x − 5) = 8 b e4x = 5 c 24 − e−2x = 10
d ln x + ln (x − 3) = 0 e ex + e−x = 2 f ln 2 + ln x = 4

P 5 The price of a computer system can be modelled by the formula

− _2t
P = 100 + 850 e
where P is the price of the system in euros and t is the age of the computer
in years after being purchased.
a Calculate the price of the system when new.
b Calculate its price after 3 years, giving your answer to the nearest euro.
c When will it be worth less than €200?
d Find its price as t → ∞.
e Sketch the graph showing P against t.
f Comment on the appropriateness of this model.
_1
P 6 The points P and Q lie on the curve with equation y = e 2 x
The x-coordinates of P and Q are ln 4 and ln 16 respectively.
a Find an equation for the line PQ.
b Show that this line passes through the origin O.
c Calculate the length, to 3 significant figures, of the line segment PQ.
− _8t
E/P 7 The temperature, T °C, of a cup of tea is given by T = 55e + 20, t > 0,
where t is the time in minutes since measurements began.
a Briefly explain why t > 0 (1 mark)
b State the starting temperature of the cup of tea. (1 mark)
c Find the time at which the temperature of the tea is 50 °C, giving your answer
to the nearest minute. (3 marks)
d By sketching a graph or otherwise, explain why the temperature of the tea will
never fall below 20 °C. (2 marks)

E 8 The table below gives the surface area, S, and the volume, V of five different spheres,
rounded to 1 decimal place.
S 18.1 50.3 113.1 221.7 314.2
V 7.2 33.5 113.1 310.3 523.6

Given that S = aV b, where a and b are constants,

a show that log S = log a + b log V (2 marks)
b Copy and complete the table of values of log S and log V,
giving your answers to 2 decimal places. (1 mark)
log S
log V 0.86
 120 CHAPTER 5 EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS

c Plot a graph of log V against log S and draw in a line of best fit. (2 marks)
d Use your graph to confirm that b = 1.5 and estimate the value of a
to 1 significant figure. (4 marks)

E/P 9 A student is asked to solve the equation

_____
log2 x − _2 log2 √ x + 1 = 1
1

The student’s attempt is shown below.

_____
log2 x − log2√ x + 1 = 1
_____
x − √ x + 1 = 21
_____
x − 2 = √x + 1
(x − 2)2 = x + 1
x2 − 5x + 3 = 0
___ ___
5 + √ 13
________ 5 − √ 13
________
x= x=
2 2

a Identify the error made by the student. (1 mark)

b Solve the equation correctly. (3 marks)

10 The population, P, of a colony of endangered Sumatran ground-cuckoos can be

modelled by the equation P = abt where a and b are constants and t is the time,
in months, since the population was first recorded.
log10 P

l (20, 2.2)
(0, 2)

O t

The line l shows the relationship between t and log10 P for the population over
a period of 20 years.
a Write down the equation of line l. (3 marks)
b Work out the value of a and interpret this value in the context of the model. (3 marks)
c Work out the value of b, giving your answer correct to 3 decimal places. (2 marks)
d Find the population predicted by the model when t = 30. (1 mark)

Challenge Hint Sketch the graphs of log y

SKILLS Find a formula to describe the relationship between the data in against log x, and log y against x.
PROBLEM- this table. This will help you determine if the
SOLVING relationship is of the form
x 1 2 3 4 y = axn or y = abx
y 5.22 4.698 4.2282 3.805 38
EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS CHAPTER 5 121

Summary of key points

1 For all real values of x:
• If f(x) = ex then f9(x) = ex
dy
• If y = ex then ___ = ex
dx
2 For all real values of x and for any constant k:
• If f(x) = ekx then f9(x) = kekx
dy
• If y = ekx then ___ = kekx
dx
3 If y = ax then the graph of log y against log x will be a
n log y
straight line with gradient n and vertical intercept log a

log a

log x
4 If y =abx then the graph of log y against x will be a log y
straight line with gradient log b and vertical intercept log a

log a

O x
6 DIFFERENTIATION
Learning objectives 4.1
A"er completing this chapter you should be able to: 4.2
4.3
● Differentiate trigonometric functions → pages 123–125, 137–142
4.4
● Differentiate exponentials and logarithms → pages 126–128
● Differentiate functions using the chain, product and
quotient rules → pages 128–136

Prior knowledge check

1 Differentiate:
__
2
a 3x2 − 5x b _x_ − √x
c 4x2 (1 − x2) ← Pure 1 Section 8.3

2 Find the equation of the tangent

to the curve with equation
y = 8 − x2 at the point (3, −1). ← Pure 1 Section 8.6 You can use differentiation to find rates of
change in trigonometric and exponential
3 Solve 2 cosec x − 3 sec x = 0 in the interval models. The velocity of a tennis ball could be
0 < x < 2π, giving your answers correct to estimated by modelling its displacement
3 significant figures. ← Pure 2 Section 6.4 and then differentiating.

122
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 6 123

6.1 Differentiating sin x and cos x

To differentiate sin x and cos x from first principles, we can use the following small angle
approximations for sin and cos when the angle is measured in radians:
■ sin x ≈ x Watch out You will always need
■ cos x ≈ 1 − _12 x2 to use radians when differentiating
sin h h trigonometric functions.
This means that lim ____ = lim __ = 1, and
h→0 h h→0 h

cos h − 1 1 − __12 h 2 − 1
lim ________ = lim __________ = lim (− __21 h) = 0
h→0 h h→0 h h→0

You will need to use these two limits when you differentiate sin and cos from first principles, but note
that this technique is not required by the examination syllabus.

Example 1 SKILLS ANALYSIS

Prove, from first principles, that the derivative of sin x is cos x

sin h cos h − 1
You may assume that as h → 0, ____ → 1 and ________ → 0
h h

Let f(x) = sin x Problem-solving

f(x + h) − f(x) Use the rule for differentiating from first
f′(x) = lim ____________
h→0 h principles. This is provided in the formula booklet.
sin(x + h) − sin x If you don’t want to use limit notation, you could
= lim _______________
h→0 h write an expression for the gradient of the chord
sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x joining (x, sin x) to (x + h, sin (x + h)) and show
= lim ____________________________ that as h → 0 the gradient of the chord tends to
h→0 h
cos x ← Pure 1 Section 8.2
= lim ((_________)sin x + (____)cos x)
cos h − 1 sin h
h→0 h h
cos h − 1 sin h Use the formula for sin(A + B) to expand
Since _________ → 0 and ____ → 1 sin (x + h), then write the resulting expression in
h h
the expression inside the limit tends to cos h − 1 sin h
terms of ________ and ____ ← Pure 3 Section 4.1
(0 × sin x + 1 × cos x) h h

sin (x + h) − sin x
So lim _______________ = cos x Make sure you state where you are using the two
h→0 h limits given in the question.
Hence the derivative of sin x is cos x
Write down what you have proved.
dy
■ If y = sin kx, then ___ = k cos kx y

dx Online
x

Explore the relationship

You can use a similar technique to find the between sin and cos and their
derivative of cos x derivatives using technology.
dy
■ If y = cos kx, then ___ = −k sin kx
dx
124 CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION

Example 2
dy
Find ___ given that:
dx
a y = sin 2x b y = cos 5x c y = 3 cos x + 2 sin 4x

a y = sin 2x
dy
___
= 2 cos 2x Use the standard result for sin kx with k = 2
dx
b y = cos 5x
dy
___
= −5 sin 5x Use the standard result for cos kx with k = 5
dx
c y = 3 cos x + 2 sin 4x
dy
___
= 3 × (−sin x) + 2 × (4 cos 4x) Differentiate each term separately.
dx
= −3 sin x + 8 cos 4x

Example 3

A curve has equation y = _2 x − cos 2x. Find the stationary points on the curve
1

in the interval 0 < x < π

dy
___
= __
1
( ) __1
2 − −2 sin 2x = 2 + 2 sin 2x Start by differentiating _12 x − cos 2x
dx
dy
Let ___ = 0 and solve for x: dy
dx Stationary points occur when ___ = 0
dx
__1 ← Pure 2 Section 7.2
2 + 2 sin 2x = 0
__1
2 sin 2x = − 2
sin 2x = − __
1
4

2x = 3.394..., 6.030... 0 < x < π so the range for 2x is 0 < 2x < 2π

x = 1.70, 3.02 (3 s.f.)
Watch out Whenever you are using calculus,
When x = 1.70:
you must work in radians.
y = __
1
( )
2 1.70 − cos (2 × 1.70) = 1.82 (3 s.f.)

When x = 3.02: Substitute x values into y = _12 x − cos 2x to find

the corresponding y values.
y = __
1
( )
2 3.02 − cos (2 × 3.02) = 0.539 (3 s.f.)

The stationary points of y = __

1
2 x − cos 2x in
the interval 0 < x < π are (1.70, 1.82) and
(3.02, 0.539).
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 6 125

Exercise 6A SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

1 Differentiate:
b y = 2 sin _2 x d y = 6 sin _3 x
1 2
a y = 2 cos x c y = sin 8x

2 Find f9(x) given that:

b f(x) = 6 cos _6 x c f(x) = 4 cos _2 x
5 1
a f(x) = 2 cos x d f(x) = 3 cos 2x

dy
3 Find ___ given that:
dx
a y = sin 2x + cos 3x b y = 2 cos 4x − 4cosx + 2cos7x
1 + 2x sin 5x
c y = x2 + 4 cos 3x d y = ___________
x
4 A curve has equation y = x − sin 3x. Find the stationary points of the curve
in the interval 0 < x < π

π
5 Find the gradient of the curve y = 2 sin 4x − 4 cos 2x at the point where x = __
2

P 6 A curve has the equation y = 2 sin 2x + cos 2x. Find the stationary points of the curve
in the interval 0 < x < π

E/P 7 A curve has the equation y = sin 5x + cos 3x. Find the equation of the tangent
to the curve at the point (π, −1). (4 marks)

E/P 8 A curve has the equation y = 2x2 − sin x. Show that the equation of the normal
to the curve at the point with x-coordinate π is:
x + (4π + 1)y − π(8π2 + 2π + 1) = 0 (7 marks)

E 9 Prove, from first principles, that the derivative of sin x is cos x.

sin h cos h − 1
You may assume the formula for sin(A + B) and that as h → 0, ____ → 1 and ________ → 0
h h
(5 marks)

Challenge
SKILLS Prove, from first principles, that the derivative of sin kx is k cos kx
CREATIVITY sin kh
You may assume the formula for sin (A + B) and that as h → 0, _____ → k
h
cos kh − 1
_________
and →0
h
126 CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION

6.2 Differentiating exponentials and logarithms

You need to be able to differentiate expressions involving exponentials and logarithms.
dy
■ If y = ekx, then ___ = kekx Watch out For any real constant, k,
dx
ln kx = ln k + ln x. Since ln k is also a
d y 1 1
■ If y = ln x, then ___ = __ constant, the derivative of ln kx is __ x
dx x
You can use the derivative of ekx to find the derivative of akx where a is any positive real number.

Example 4 y

Online
x

Show that the derivative of ax is ax ln a Explore the function ax

and its derivative using technology.
Let y = ax
= e ln (a x) You could also use the laws of logs like this:
= e x ln a ln y = ln ax = x ln a ⇒ y = ex ln a
dy
___ ← Pure 2 Section 3.3
= ln a e x ln a
dx
= ln a e ln (a x) ln a is just a constant so use the standard result
= a x ln a for the derivative of ekx with k = ln a

dy
■ If y = a kx, where k is a real constant and a > 0, then ___ = akxk ln a
dx

Example 5
dy
Find ___ given that:
dx
2 − 3e 7x
a y = e3x + 23x b y = ln (x3) + ln 7x c y = _______
4e 3x
a y = e3x + 23x
Differentiate each term separately using the
dy
___
= 3e 3x + 2 3x(3 ln 2) standard results for ekx with k = 3, and akx with
dx
a = 2 and k = 3
b y = ln (x3) + ln 7x
= 3 ln x + ln 7 + ln x = 4 ln x + ln 7 Rewrite y using the laws of logs.
dy
___ 1 4
= 4 × __
x+0= x
__
dx Use the standard result for ln x. ln 7 is a constant,
2− 3e 7x so it disappears when you differentiate.
c y = _________
4e 3x
1 3 Divide each term in the numerator by the
= __ e −3x − __ e 4x
2 4 denominator.
dy __
___ 1 3
= × (−3e −3x) − __ × 4e 4x
dx 2 4
3 Differentiate each term separately using the
= − __ e −3x − 3e 4x
2 standard result for ekx
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 6 127

Exercise 6B SKILLS ANALYSIS

dy
1 a Find ___ for each of the following:
dx
c y=( )
x
1
__
a y= 4e7x b y= 3x d y = ln 5x
2
e y = 4(__)
x
1 (1 + e x) 2
f y = ln (2x3) g y = e3x − e−3x h y = _______
3 ex

2 Find f9(x) given that:

b f(x) = (__)
2x
3
a f(x) = 34x Hint In parts c and d, rewrite the terms so that they
2
all have the same base and hence can be simplified.
2 7x + 8 x
c f(x) = 24x + 42x d f(x) = ________
4 2x
3 Find the gradient of the curve y = (e2x − e−2x)2 at the point where x = ln 3

4 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 2x + 2−x at the point (2, __
4)
17
E (6 marks)

E/P 5 A curve has the equation y = e2x − ln x. Show that the equation of the tangent
at the point with x-coordinate 1 is:
y = (2e2 − 1)x − e2 + 1 (6 marks)

6 A particular radioactive isotope has an activity, R millicuries at time t days, given by the
dR
equation R = 200 × 0.9t. Find the value of ___ when t = 8
dt

P 7 The population of Cambridge was 37 000 in 1900, and was about 109 000 in 2000. Given that
the population, P, at a time t years after 1900 can be modelled using the equation P = P0 kt
a find the values of P0 and k
dP
b evaluate ___ in the year 2000
dt
c interpret your answer to part b in the context of the model.

P 8 A student is attempting to differentiate ln kx. The student writes:

dy
y = ln kx, so ___= k ln kx
dx

Explain the mistake made by the student and state the correct derivative.

E/P 9 Prove that the derivative of akx is akx k ln a. You may assume that the derivative of ekx is kekx.
(4 marks)

E/P 10 f(x) = e2x − ln (x2) + 4, x > 0

a Find f9(x). (3 marks)
The curve with equation y = f(x) has a gradient of 2 at point P. The x-coordinate of P is a.
b Show that a(e2a − 1) = 1 (2 marks)
 128 CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION

E/P 11 A curve C has equation:

y = 5 sin 3x + 2 cos 3x, π < x < π
a Show that the point P (0, 2) lies on C. (1 mark)
b Find an equation of the normal to the curve C at P. (5 marks)

E/P 12 The point P lies on the curve with equation y = 2(34x). The x-coordinate of P is 1.
Find an equation of the normal to the curve at the point P in the form y = ax + b,
where a and b are constants to be found in exact form. (5 marks)

Challenge
SKILLS A curve C has the equation y = e4x − 5x. Find the equation
CREATIVITY of the tangent to C that is parallel to the line y = 3x + 4

6.3 The chain rule

You can use the chain rule to differentiate composite functions, or functions of another function.
■ The chain rule is:
dy ___
___ du
dy ___
= ×
dx du dx
where y is a function of u, and u is another function of x.

Example 6 SKILLS INTERPRETATION

dy
Given that y = (3x4 + x)5, find ___ using the chain rule.
dx

Let u = 3x4 + x:
du
___ du
= 12x 3 + 1 Differentiate u with respect to x to get ___
dx dx

y = u5
Substitute u into the equation for y and
dy
___ dy
du
= 5u 4 differentiate with respect to u to get ___
du
Using the chain rule,
dy ___
___ dy ___du
= ×
dx du dx
= 5u 4 (12x 3 + 1)
Use u = 3x4 + x to write your final answer in
= 5(3x 4 + x) 4(12x 3 + 1)
terms of x only.
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 6 129

Example 7
dy
Given that y = sin4 x, find ___
dx

y = sin4 x = (sin x)4

Let u = sin x:
du
___ du
= cos x Differentiate u with respect to x to get ___
dx dx
y = u4
Substitute u into the equation for y and
dy
___ dy
= 4u 3 differentiate with respect to u to get ___
du du
Using the chain rule,
dy ___
___ dy ___du
= ×
dx du dx
= 4u 3 (cos x)
dy
Substitute u = sin x back into ___ to get an answer
= 4 sin3x cos x dx
in terms of x only.

You can write the chain rule using function notation:

■ The chain rule enables you to differentiate a function of a function. In general,
dy
● if y = (f(x))n then ___ = n(f(x))n − 1 f9(x)
dx
dy
● if y = f(g(x)) then ___ = f9(g(x))g9(x)
dx

Example 8
_______ dy
Given that y = √ 5x2 + 1 , find ___ at (4, 9).
dx
_______
y = √ 5x2 + 1 This is y = (f(x))n with f(x) = 5x2 + 1 and n = _12
Let f(x) = 5x2 + 1 dy
So ___ = _12 (f(x)) −2 f9(x)
_1

Then f9(x) = 10x dx

Using the chain rule:
dy
___
= __
1 − __
1

2 (5x + 1)
2 2 × 10x
dx
__1
= 5x(5x2 + 1) − 2
dy 20 dy
At (4, 9), ___ = 5(4)(5(4)2 + 1)− 2 = ___
__1
Substitute x = 4 into ___ to find the required
dx 9 dx
value.
130 CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION

The following particular case of the chain rule is useful for

differentiating functions that are in the form x = f(y)
dy ___
___ 1
■ =
dx ___dx
dy

Example 9
dy
Find the value of ___ at the point (2, 1) on the curve with equation y3 + y = x
dx

dx
___ Start with x = y3 + y and differentiate with
= 3y2 + 1
dy respect to y.
dy 1
∴ ___ = _______ dy 1
dx 3y2 + 1 Use ___ = ____
dx ___ dx
1 dy
= __
4
Substitute y = 1

Exercise 6C SKILLS ANALYSIS

1 Differentiate:
_1
a (1 + 2x)4 b (3 − 2x2)−5 c (3 + 4x) 2 d (6x + x2)7
1 _____
e ______ f √7 − x g 4(2 + 8x)4 h 3(8 − x)−6
3 + 2x

2 Differentiate:
____
a ecos x b cos (2x − 1) c √ ln x d (sin x + cos x)5
e sin (3x2 − 2x + 1) f ln (sin x) g 2ecos 4x h cos (e2x + 3)

3 Given that y = ________2 , find the value of ___ at (__, __)

1 dy 1 1
(4x + 1) dx 4 4

E 4 A curve C has equation y = (5 − 2x)3. Find the tangent to the curve

at the point P with x-coordinate 1. (7 marks)

dy 1
5 Given that y = (1 + ln 4x) 2, find the value of ___ at x = __ e 3
_3
E (5 marks)
dx 4

dy
P 6 Find ___ for the following curves, giving your answers in terms of y:
dx
a x = y2 + y b x = e y + 4y c x = sin 2y d 4x = ln y + y3
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 6 131

dy
P 7 Find the value of ___ at the point (8, 2) Problem-solving
dx dy
on the curve with equation 3y2 − 2y = x Your expression for ___ will be in terms of y.
dx
Remember to substitute the y-coordinate into
the expression to find the gradient.

dy
8 Find the value of ___ at the point (_2 , 4) on the curve with equation y 2 + y − 2 = x
5 _1 _1
P
dx

9 a Differentiate e y = x with respect to y.

dy 1
b Hence, prove that if y = ln x, then ___ = __
dx x

E/P 10 The curve C has equation x = 4 cos 2y

π
a Show that the point Q (2, __) lies on C. (1 mark)
6
dy 1
b Show that ___ = − ____
__ at Q. (4 marks)
dx 4 √3
c Find an equation of the normal to C at Q. Give your answer in the form
ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are exact constants. (4 marks)

11 Differentiate:
a sin2 3x b e (x + 1) 2 c ln (cos x)2

e sin (__
x)
1 1
d _________
3 + cos 2x

4 1
E/P 12 The curve C has equation y = ________2 , x ≠ __
(2 − 4x) 2
The point A on C has x-coordinate 3.
Find an equation of the normal to C at A in the form ax + by + c = 0,
where a, b and c are integers. (7 marks)

E/P 13 Find the exact value of the gradient of the curve with equation y = 3 x3
at the point with coordinates (1, 3). (4 marks)

Challenge
SKILLS dy
Find ___ given that:
INNOVATION dx
______
__
a y = √ sin √ x b ln y = sin3 (3x + 4)
132 CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION

6.4 The product rule

You need to be able to differentiate the product of two functions.
dy
dv du
■ If y = uv then ___ = u ___ + v ___ Watch out Make sure you can spot
dx dx dx
the difference between a product
where u and v are functions of x. of two functions and a function of a
The product rule in function notation is: function. A product is two separate
functions multiplied together.
■ If f(x) = g(x)h(x) then f9(x) = g(x)h9(x) + h(x)g9(x)

Example 10
______
Given that f(x) = x2√ 3x − 1 , find f9(x).
______ du dv
Let u = x2 and v = √ 3x − 1 = (3x − 1) 2
1 __
Write out your functions u, v, ___ and ___ before
dx dx
du dv substituting into the product rule. Use the chain
Then ___ = 2x and ___ = 3 × __
1 __1
2 (3x − 1) − 2
dx dx _1
rule to differentiate (3x − 1) 2
dy
___ dv
___ du
Using =u + v ___
dx dx dx
______
du dv
f9(x) = x2 × __
3 − __
2 + √ 3x − 1 × 2x Substitute u, v, ___ and ___
1

2 (3x − 1)
dx dx
3x2 + ______
12x2 − 4x
= ________________
√
2 3x − 1
2 − 4x
15x______
= __________
√
2 3x − 1
x(15x − 4)
= __________
______
2√ 3x − 1

Example 11
dy
Given that y = e4x sin2 3x, show that ___ = e4x sin 3x (A cos 3x + B sin 3x), where A and B are
dx
constants to be determined.

Let u = e4x and v = sin2 3x = (sin 3x)2

du dv
Write out u and v and find ___ and ___
du
___ dv
___ dx dx
= 4e 4x and = 2(sin 3x ) × (3 cos 3x)
dx dx dv
Use the chain rule to find ___
dy
___ dv du dx
= u ___ + v ___
dx dx dx
dy Write out the product rule before substituting.
___
= e 4x × (6 sin 3x cos 3x) + sin 2 3x × 4e 4x
dx
= 6e4x sin 3x cos 3x + 4e4x sin2 3x Problem-solving
= e4x sin 3x (6 cos 3x + 4 sin 3x) Write the value of any constants you have determined
This is in the required form with A = 6 and at the end of your working. You can use this to check
B=4 that your answer is in the required form.
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 6 133

Exercise 6D SKILLS ANALYSIS

1 Differentiate:
a x(1 + 3x)5 b 2x(1 + 3x2)3 c x3(2x + 6)4 d 3x2(5x − 1)−1

2 Differentiate:
a e−2x(2x − 1)5 b sin 2x cos 3x c ex sin x d sin (5x) ln (cos x)

dy
3 a Find the value of ___ at the point (1, 8) on the curve with equation y = x2 (3x − 1)3
dx
dy
b Find the value of ___ at the point (4, 36) on the curve with equation y = 3x(2x + 1) 2
_1

dx
dy
c Find the value of ___ at the point (2, _5 ) on the curve with equation y = (x − 1)(2x + 1)−1
1
dx

4 Find the stationary points of the curve C with the equation y = (x − 2)2(2x + 3)

π 5
5 A curve C has equation y = (x − __) sin 2x, 0 < x < π. Find the gradient of the curve at the
2
π
__
point with x-coordinate
4
E/P 6 A curve C has equation y = x2 cos (x2). Find the equation of the tangent to the curve C at the
__

point P ( ,
8 )
__
√π π √2
___ _____
in the form ax + by + c = 0 where a, b and c are exact constants. (7 marks)
2
E/P 7 Given that y = 3x2(5x − 3)3, show that
dy
___
= Ax (5x − 3) n(Bx + C )
dx
where n, A, B and C are constants to be determined. (4 marks)

E 8 A curve C has equation y = (x + 3)2 e3x

dy
a Find ___, using the product rule for differentiation. (3 marks)
dx

b Find the gradient of C at the point where x = 2 (3 marks)

E 9 Differentiate with respect to x:

a (2sin x − 3cos x) ln 3x (3 marks)
b x4 e7x − 3 (3 marks)

dy
E 10 Find the value of ___ at the point where x = 1 on the curve with equation
dx
______
y = x 5 √ 10x + 6 (6 marks)
 134 CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION

Challenge
SKILLS dy
ANALYSIS
Find ___ for the following functions:
dx
a y = ex sin2 x cos x b y = x(4x − 3)6(1 − 4x)9

6.5 The quotient rule

You need to be able to differentiate the quotient of two functions.
du dv
d y v ___ − u ___
u d x dx
■ If y = __ then ___ = __________ where u and v are functions of x.
v dx v2

The quotient rule in function notation is: Watch out There is a minus sign
g(x) h(x)g9(x) − g(x)h9(x) in the numerator, so the order of
■ If f(x) = ____ then f9(x) =___________________ the functions is important.
h(x) (h(x))
2

Example 12

x dy
Given that y = ______, find ___
2x + 5 dx
Let u be the numerator and let v be the
Let u = x and v = 2x + 5
denominator.
du
___ dv
= 1 and ___ = 2
dx dx
du dv Recognise that y is a quotient and use the
v ___ − u ___
dy __________
___ dx dx quotient rule.
Using =
dx v2
(2x + 5) × 1 − x × 2
= ___________________
(2x + 5)2
5
= _________ Simplify the numerator of the fraction.
(2x + 5)2

Example 13

sin x
A curve C with equation y = _____ , 0 < x < π, y

e 2x Online
x

Explore the graph of this

has a stationary point at P. Find the coordinates
function using technology.
of P. Give your answer to 3 significant figures.

Let u = sin x and v = e2x du dv

Write out u and v and find ___ and ___ before
du
___ dv dx dx
= cos x and ___ = 2e 2x using the quotient rule.
dx dx
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 6 135

Using the quotient rule,

du dv
v ___ − u ___
dy ___________
___ dx dx Write out the rule before substituting.
=
dx v2
e 2x cos x − sin x(2e 2x)
= ____________________
(e 2x) 2
e 2x cos x − 2e 2x sin x
= ___________________
e 4x
e 2x(cos x − 2 sin x)
= _________________
e 4x dy
Simplify your expression for ___ as much as
= e −2x(cos x − 2 sin x) dx
possible.
dy
When ___ = 0:
dx
dy
e −2x(cos x − 2 sin x) = 0 P is a stationary point so ___ = 0
dx
e−2x = 0 or cos x − 2 sin x = 0
e−2x = 0 has no solution. Problem-solving
cos x − 2 sin x = 0 If the product of two factors is equal to 0 then
one of the factors must be equal to 0.
cos x = 2 sin x
__1
2 = tan x

x = 0.464 (3 s.f.) This is the only solution in the range 0 < x < π
sin x
y = ____
e 2x
sin (0.464) Substitute x into y to find the y-coordinate of the
= __________ = 0.177 (3 s.f.)
e2 × 0.464 stationary point.
So the coordinates of P are (0.464, 0.177).

Exercise 6E SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

1 Differentiate with respect to x:

5x 2x x+3 3x2 6x
a _____ b ______ c ______ d ________2 e _________1
x+1 3x − 2 2x + 1 (2x − 1) (5x + 3) 2

2 Differentiate with respect to x:

e 4x ln x e −2x + e 2x (e x + 3) 3 sin 2 x
a _____
cos x b _____ c _________ d ________
cos x e _____
x+1 ln x ln x

dy
3 Find the value of ___ at the point (1, _4 ) on the curve with equation y = ______
1 x
dx 3x + 1

dy x+3
4 Find the value of ___ at the point (12, 3) on the curve with equation y = _________1
dx (2x + 1) 2
136 CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION

e 2x + 3
5 Find the stationary points of the curve C with equation y = _____
x ,x≠0

x at the point (3, 3 e)

_1
ex
6 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = ___ _1
3

E (7 marks)

dy π ln x
7 Find the exact value of ___ at the point x = __ on the curve with equation y = ______
dx 9 sin 3x

ey
E/P 8 The curve C has equation x = ______
3 + 2y
a Find the coordinates of the point P where the curve cuts the x-axis. (1 mark)
b Find an equation of the normal to the curve at P, giving your answer in
the form y = mx + c, where m and c are integers to be found. (6 marks)

x4
E 9 Differentiate ______ with respect to x. (4 marks)
cos 3x

e 2x
E/P 10 A curve C has equation y = _______2 , x ≠ 2
(x − 2)
a Show that
dy
___ Ae 2x(Bx − C )
= ____________
dx (x − 2)3

where A, B and C are integers to be found. (4 marks)

b Find the equation of the tangent of C at the point x = 1 (3 marks)

E/P 11 Given that

2x 6x
f(x) = _____ + ___________ ,x>0
x + 5 x 2 + 7x + 10
2x
a show that f(x) = _____ (4 marks)
x+2
b Hence find f9(3). (3 marks)

E/P 12 The diagram shows a sketch of the curve with equation y

y = f(x), where
2 cos 2x
f(x) = _______ ,0<x<π
e2−x
The curve has a maximum turning point at A and a
A
minimum turning point at B as shown in the diagram.
a Show that the x-coordinates of point A and point B O x
are solutions to the equation tan 2x = _2
1
(4 marks) B
b Find the range of f(x). (2 marks)
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 6 137

6.6 Differentiating trigonometric functions

You can combine all the aforementioned rules and apply them to trigonometric functions
to obtain standard results.

Example 14

dy
If y = tan x, find ___
dx
sin x
sin x You can write tan x as _____
cos x and then use the
y = tan x = _____
cos x quotient rule.
Let u = sin x and v = cos x
du
___ dv
= cos x and ___ = − sin x
dx dx
du dv
v ___ − u ___
dy ___________
___ dx dx
=
dx v2
cos x × cos x − sin x(− sin x)
= _________________________
cos 2 x
cos 2 x + sin 2 x
= _____________ Use the identity cos 2 x + sin 2 x ≡ 1
cos 2 x
1
= ______ = sec 2 x
cos 2 x

You can generalise this method to differentiate tan kx:

dy
■ If y = tan kx, then ___ = k sec2 kx
dx

Example 15

Differentiate: a y = x tan 2x b y = tan4 x

a y = x tan 2x This is a product. Use u = x and v = tan 2x,

dy together with the product rule.
___
= x × 2 sec2 2x + tan 2x
dx
= 2x sec2 2x + tan 2x

b y = tan4 x = (tan x)4

dy
___
= 4(tan x)3(sec2 x) Use the chain rule with u = tan x
dx
= 4 tan3 x sec2 x
138 CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION

Example 16 SKILLS ANALYSIS

dy
Show that if y = cosec x, then ___ = − cosecx cot x
dx

1
y = cosec x = ____
sin x
Let u = 1 and v = sin x Use the quotient rule with u = 1 and v = sin x
du
___ dv du
= 0 and ___ = cos x u = 1 is a constant so ___ = 0
dx dx dx
du dv
v ___ − u ___
dy ___________
___ dx dx
=
dx v2
sin x × 0 − 1 × cos x
= ___________________
sin 2 x
cos x
= − _____
sin 2 x
1 cos x Rearrange your answer into the desired form
= − ____ × _____ = − cosec x cot x using the definitions of cosec and cot.
sin x sin x
← Pure 3 Section 3.1

You can use similar techniques to differentiate sec x and cot x giving you the following general results:
dy
■ If y = cosec kx, then ___ = −k cosec kx cot kx Watch out While the standard
dx
results for tan, cosec, sec and cot
dy
■ If y = sec kx, then ___ = k sec kx tan kx are given in the formulae booklet,
dx learning these results will enable
dy you to differentiate a wide range of
■ If y = cot kx, then ___ = −k cosec2 kx
dx functions quickly and confidently.

Example 17
cosec 2x
Differentiate: a y = ________ b y = sec3 x
x2

cosec 2x
a y = _________
x2
dy x2(−2cosec 2x cot 2x) − cosec 2x × 2x Use the quotient rule with u = cosec 2x
So ___ = ____________________________________
dx x4 and v = x2
−2cosec 2x(x cot 2x + 1)
= _______________________
x3
b y = sec3 x = (sec x)3 Use the chain rule with u = sec x
dy
___
= 3(sec x)2 (sec x tan x)
dx
= 3 sec3 x tan x
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 6 139

dy 1
You can use the rule ___ = ___ to differentiate arcsin x, arccos x and arctan x
dx ___dx
dy

Example 18 SKILLS ANALYSIS

1
Show that the derivative of arcsin x is _______
____
√1 − x 2
arcsin is the inverse function of sin, so if
Let y = arcsin x y = arcsin x then x = sin y ← Pure 3 Section 3.5
So x = sin y
dx
___
= cos y Differentiate x with respect to y.
dy
dy
___ 1
= _____
cos y
dy 1
Use ___ = ___. This gives you an expression
dx
dx ___ dx
sin2y + cos2y ≡ 1 dy
______ ____
dy
cos y = √ 1 − sin 2 y = √ 1 − x 2 for ___ in terms of y.
dx
dy 1
So ___ = _______
____
dx √ 1 − x 2 Problem-solving
Use the identity sin2 θ + cos2 θ ≡ 1 to write cos y
in terms of sin y. This will enable you to find an
You can use similar techniques to differentiate dy
arccos x and arctan x giving you the following expression for ___ in terms of x.
dx
results:
dy1 Since x = sin y, x2 = sin2 y
■ If y = arcsin x, then ___ = _______
______
dx √ 1 − x2
dy 1
■ If y = arccos x, then ___ = − _______
______
dx √ 1 − x2
dy
1
■ If y = arctan x, then ___ = ______
dx 2 1+x

Example 19
dy
Given y = arcsin x2, find ___
dx
Substitute t = x2 to get arcsin x2 in the form
Let t = x2, then y = arcsin t
arcsin t and use the chain rule.
dt dy 1
Then ___ = 2x ___
= _______
______
dx dt √ 1 − t2 Problem-solving
dy
___ dy dt
= ___ × ___ You could
____
also write x2 = sin y and therefore
dx dt dx
x = √ sin y . Then you could use the chain rule to
2x dy
= _______
______ find ___ in terms of y and use sin2x + cos2x ≡ 1 to
√ 1 − x4 dx
write the answer in terms of x.
140 CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION

Example 20

Given that y = arctan(_____), find ___

1−x dy
1+x dx

y = arctan(______)
1−x
1+x

Let u = (______)
1−x
1+x
du
___ (1 + x) × (− 1) − (1 − x) × 1 Use the quotient rule, and simplify your answer
= _______________________
dx (1 + x) 2 as much as possible.
−1 − x − 1 + x 2
= _______________ = − _______2
(1 + x) 2 (1 + x)
y = arctan u
dy
___ 1 Differentiate with respect to u using the standard
= ______2
du 1+u result for y = arctan x
dy dy ___
___ ___ du
= × dy
dx du dx Use the chain rule with your expressions for ___
du
= ______2 × (− _______2 ) = − _____________
1 2 2 du
and ___
1+u (1 + x) (1 + u 2) (1 + x) 2 dx
2
= − ____________________
Substitute u = (_____) back into ___ , to get your
dy
(1 + ( 1 + x ) ) (1 + x)
1−x 2
______
1−x
2
1+x dx
answer in terms of x only.
2
= − ________________
(1 + x) 2 + (1 − x) 2
2
= − ________________________ Expand the brackets in the denominator and
1 + 2x + x + 1 − 2x + x 2
2
collect like terms to simplify your final answer as
2
= − ________2 much as possible.
2 + 2x
1
= − ______2
1+x

Exercise 6F SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

1 Differentiate with respect to x:

d y = x2 tan _2 x + tan (x − _2 )
1 1
a y = tan 3x b y = 4 tan3 x c y = tan (x − 1)

2 Differentiate with respect to x:

a cot 4x b sec 5x c cosec 4x d sec2 3x
sec2 x
e x cot 3x f _____
x g cosec3 2x h cot2(2x − 1)

3 Find the function f9(x) where f(x) is:

_1 _____
a (sec x) 2 b √ cot x c cosec2 x d tan2 x
e sec3 x f cot3 x
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 6 141

4 Find f9(x) where f(x) is:

tan 2x x2
a x2 sec 3x b ______x c _____ d ex sec 3x
tan x
ln x e x
tan
e _____ f _____
cos x
tan x

E/P 5 The curve C has equation

1
y = _________, 0 , x < π
cos x sin x
dy
a Find ___ (4 marks)
dx
b Determine the number of stationary points of the curve C. (2 marks)
π
c Find the equation of the tangent at the point where x = __, giving your answer in
3
the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are exact constants to be determined. (3 marks)

dy
E/P 6 Show that if y = sec x then ___ = sec x tan x (5 marks)
dx
dy
E/P 7 Show that if y = cot x then ___ = −cosec2 x (5 marks)
dx

P 8 Assuming standard results for sin x and cos x, prove that:

1
a the derivative of arccos x is − _______
______
√1 − x 2

1
b the derivative of arctan x is ______2
1+x

9 Differentiate with respect to x:

b arctan (__)
x
a arccos 2x c arcsin 3x
2
d arccot x e arcsec x f arccosec x
g arcsin (_____)
x
h arccos x2 i ex arccos x
x−1
j arcsin x cos x k x2 arccos x l earctan x

E/P 10 Given that the curve C has equation

arctan 2x
y = _________
x __ __
dy
___ √3
___ 3√3 − 4π
________
a show that the value of when x = is (4 marks)
dx 2 9 __
√3
b find the equation of the normal to the curve C at x = ___ (3 marks)
2
E/P 11 A curve C has equation x = (arccos y)2. Show that
__________
__
dy
___ √ 1 − cos2 √ x
= − ___________
__ (5 marks)
dx 2 √x
142 CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION

E/P 12 Given that x = cosec 5y

dy
a find ___ in terms of y. (2 marks)
dx
dy
b Hence find ___ in terms of x. (4 marks)
dx

Chapter review 6

E 1 Differentiate with respect to x:

a ln x2 (3 marks)
b x2 sin 3x (4 marks)
dy
E/P 2 a Given that 2y = x − sin x cos x, 0 < x < 2π, show that ___ = sin2 x (4 marks)
dx
b Find the coordinates of the points of inflection of the curve. (4 marks)

E 3 Differentiate, with respect to x:

sin x
a _____
x ,x>0 (4 marks)

1
b ln ______ (4 marks)
x2 + 9

x
E/P 4 f(x) = ______ ,x∈ℝ
x +2
2

a Given that f(x) is increasing on the interval [−k, k], find the largest
possible value of k. (4 marks)
b Find the exact coordinates of the points of inflection of f(x). (5 marks)

E/P 5 The function f is defined for positive real values of x by:

_3
f(x) = 12 ln x + x 2
a Find the set of values of x for which f(x) is an increasing function of x. (4 marks)
b Find the coordinates of the point of inflection of the function f. (4 marks)

E/P 6 Given that a curve has equation y = cos2 x + sin x, 0 < x < 2π, find the coordinates
of the stationary points of the curve. (6 marks)
_____
E/P 7 The maximum point on the curve with equation y = x√ sin x , 0 < x < π, is the point A.
Show that the x-coordinate of point A satisfies the equation 2 tan x + x = 0 (5 marks)

E 8 f(x) = e0.5x − x2, x ∈ ℝ

a Find f 9(x). (3 marks)
b By evaluating f 9(6) and f 9(7), show that the curve with equation y = f(x)
has a stationary point at x = p, where 6 < p < 7 (2 marks)
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 6 143

E/P 9 f(x) = e2x sin 2x, 0 < x < π

a Use calculus to find the coordinates of the turning points on the graph of y = f(x) (6 marks)
b Show that f 0(x) = 8e2x cos 2x (4 marks)
c Hence, or otherwise, determine which turning point is a maximum
and which is a minimum. (3 marks)
d Find the points of inflection of f(x). (2 marks)

E 10 The curve C has equation y = 2ex + 3x2 + 2. Find the equation of the normal
to C at the point where the curve intercepts the y-axis. Give your answer in the
form ax + by + c = 0 where a, b and c are integers to be found. (5 marks)

E 11 The curve C has equation y = f(x), where

1
f(x) = 3 ln x + __
x, x > 0
The point P is a stationary point on C.
a Calculate the x-coordinate of P. (4 marks)
The point Q on C has x-coordinate 1.
b Find an equation for the normal to C at Q. (4 marks)

E 12 The curve C has equation y = e2x cos x

a Show that the turning points on C occur when tan x = 2 (4 marks)
b Find an equation of the tangent to C at the point where x = 0 (4 marks)

E 13 Given that x = y2 ln y, y > 0

dx
a find ___ (4 marks)
dy
dy
b Use your answer to part a to find, in terms of e, the value of ___ at y = e (2 marks)
dx
E 14 A curve has equation f(x) = (x3 − 2x)e−x
a Find f 9(x). (4 marks)
The normal to C at the origin O intersects C again at P.
b Show that the x-coordinate of P is the solution to the equation 2x2 = ex + 4 (6 marks)

Challenge y
SKILLS The diagram shows part of the curve with equation y = f(x) where
CREATIVITY f(x) = x(1 + x) ln x, x > 0
The point A is the minimum point of the curve. y = f(x)
a Find f 9(x).
b Hence show that the x-coordinate of A is
____
1+x
the solution to the equation x = e − 1 + 2x

O x
A
144 CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION

Summary of key points

1 For small angles, measured in radians:
• sin x ≈ x
• cos x ≈ 1 − _12 x2

dy
2 • If y = sin kx then ____ = k cos kx
dx
dy
• If y = cos kx then ____ = − k sin kx
dx
dy
3 • If y = ekx then ____ = ke kx
dx
dy 1
• If y = ln x then ____ = ___
dx x
dy
4 If y = akx, where k is a real constant and a > 0, then ____ = a kxk ln a
dx
dy dy du
5 The chain rule is: ____ = ____ × ____
dx du dx
where y is a function of u, and u is another function of x.

6 The chain rule enables you to differentiate a function of a function. In general,

dy
• if y = (f(x))n then ___ = n(f(x))n − 1 f9(x)
dx
dy
• if y = f(g(x)) then ___ = f9(g(x))g9(x)
dx
dy 1
7 ____ = ___
dx ____dx
dy

8 The product rule:

dy dv du
• If y = uv then ___ = u ___ + v ___ , where u and v are functions of x.
dx dx dx
• If f(x) = g(x)h(x) then f9(x) = g(x)h9(x) + h(x)g9(x)

9 The quotient rule:

du dv
v ____ − u ____
u dy dx dx
____ _______________
• If y = __
v then dx = where u and v are functions of x.
v 2

g(x) h(x)g′(x) − g(x)h′(x)

• If f(x) = _____ then f′(x) =________________
h(x) (h(x)) 2
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 6 145

dy
10 • If y = tan kx then ____ = k sec 2 kx
dx
dy
• If y = cosec kx then ____ = − k cosec kx cot kx
dx
dy
• If y = sec kx then ____ = k sec kx tan kx
dx
dy
• If y = cot kx then ____ = − k cosec 2 kx
dx

dy 1
11 • If y = arcsin x then ____ = _______
______
dx √ 1 − x 2
dy 1
• If y = arccos x then ____ = − _______
______
dx √1 − x 2
dy 1
• If y = arctan x then ____ = _________2
dx 1 + x
7 INTEGRATION 5.1
5.2

Learning objectives
A"er completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Integrate standard mathematical functions including
trigonometric and exponential functions and use
the reverse of the chain rule to integrate functions
of the form f(ax + b) → pages 147–151
● Use trigonometric identities in integration
→ pages 151–153
● Use the reverse of the chain rule to integrate
more complex functions → pages 153–156

Prior knowledge check

1 Differentiate:
_
x
a (2x − 7) 6 b sin 5x c e3
← Pure 3 Sections 6.1, 6.2, 6.3
_1 −_21
2 Given f(x) = 8x − 6x2

a find ∫ f(x) dx ← Pure 1 Sections 9.1, 9.2

b find ∫4 f(x) dx
9
← Pure 2 Section 8.1

3 Find the area of the region R bounded by the curve

y = x2 + 1, the x-axis and the lines x = −1 and x = 2
y
5
4 Archaeologists use carbon
3 dating to estimate the age
2 of fossilised plants and
1 animals. This estimation is
R based on the principle of
–2 –1 O 1 2 x ← Pure 2 Section 8.2 exponential decay.

146
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 7 147

7.1 Integrating standard functions

Integration is the inverse of differentiation. You can use your knowledge of derivatives to integrate
familiar functions.

∫ xn dx = _____
x n+1
1 +c Watch out This is true for
n+1
∫ ex dx = ex + c
all values of n except −1.
2
3 ∫ __x1 dx = ln|x| + c Notation When finding ∫ __ 1 dx, it is usual to
∫ cos x dx = sin x + c
x
4 write the answer as ln |x| + c. The modulus

∫ sin x dx = −cos x + c
sign removes difficulties that could arise when
5 evaluating the integral for negative values of x.
6 ∫ sec2 x dx = tan x + c
Links dy
7 ∫ cosec x cot x dx = −cosec x + c For example, if y = cos x then ___ = −sin x
dx
This means that ∫ (−sin x) dx = cos x + c and
8 ∫ cosec2 x dx = −cot x + c
hence ∫ sin x dx = −cos x + c
9 ∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x + c ← Pure 3 Section 6.1

Example 1

Find the following integrals:

a ∫ (2 cos x + __
x − x ) dx ∫ (_____ − 2ex) dx
3 √__ cos x
b
sin2 x

a ∫ 2 cos x dx = 2 sin x + c Integrate each term separately.

4
∫ __3x dx = 3 ln|x| + c
Use
Use 3
∫ √x dx = ∫ x
__ __1
2 __32
2
dx = __
3x + c Use 1

So ∫ (2 cos x + __
x − x)
3 √__ dx
2 __32
= 2 sin x + 3 ln|x| − __
3x + c
This is an indefinite integral so don’t forget the + c

cos x _____
cos x ____
1
b _____ = × = cot x cosec x Look at the list of integrals of standard functions
sin2 x sin x sin x
and express the integrand in terms of these
∫ (cot x cosec x) dx = −cosec x + c standard functions.

∫ 2ex dx = 2ex + c Remember the minus sign.

So ∫ (_____ − 2ex) dx
cos x
sin2 x
= −cosec x − 2ex + c
148 CHAPTER 7 INTEGRATION

Example 2
Problem-solving
Given that a is a positive constant and
∫a (______
x ) dx = ln 12, find the exact value of a.
3a 2x + 1 Integrate as normal and write the limits as a and
3a. Substitute these limits into your integral to
get an expression in a and set this equal to ln 12.
∫a ( ) dx
3a 2x + 1
______ Solve the resulting equation to find the value of a.
x
∫a (2 + __x1 ) dx
3a
= Separate the terms by dividing by x, then
= [2x + ln x] 3a
a
integrate term by term.
= (6a + ln 3a) − (2a + ln a)
4a + ln (___
a)
3a Remember the limits are a and 3a.
=
= 4a + ln 3
Substitute 3a and a into the integrated expression.
So, 4a + ln 3 = ln 12
Use the laws of logarithms: ln a − ln b = ln (__)
4a = ln 12 − ln 3 a
4a = ln 4 b
1
a = __ ln 4
ln 12 − ln 3 = ln (___) = ln 4
4 12
3
y

Online
x

Use your calculator to check

Exercise 7A SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING
your value of a using numerical integration.
1 Integrate the following with respect to x:
5 2
a 3 sec2 x + __ + __2 b 5ex − 4 sin x + 2x3
x x
2
c 2(sin x − cos x + x) d 3 sec x tan x − __
x
2 1
e 5ex + 4 cos x − __2 f ___ + 2 cosec2 x
x 2x
1 1 1
g __ + __2 + __3 h ex + sin x + cos x
x x x
1
i 2 cosec x cot x − sec2 x j ex + __
x − cosec x
2

2 Find the following integrals:

a ∫ (______
cos2 x x2 )
1 1
+ __ dx b ∫ (______
sin x
cos2 x
+ 2ex) dx

c ∫ (________ + 2 ) dx ∫ (_____
sin2x x )
1 + cos x _____
1+x 1 1
d + __ dx
sin2x x
e ∫ sin x(1 + sec2 x) dx f ∫ cos x(1 + cosec2 x) dx
g ∫ cosec2 x(1 + tan2 x) dx h ∫ sec2 x(1 − cot2 x) dx
i ∫ sec2 x(1 + ex cos2 x) dx j ∫ (________
1 + sin x
cos2 x
+ cos2 x sec x) dx

3 Evaluate the following. Give your answers as exact values.

b ∫ (_____
x3 )
a ∫3 2ex dx
7 6 1+x Watch out
dx When applying
1
limits to integrated trigonometric
∫ ∫−
π 0
c π −5 sin x dx d π sec x(sec x + tan x) dx functions, always work in radians.
_ _
2 4
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 7 149

4 Given that a is a positive constant and ∫a (______

x ) dx = 6 + ln ( 2 )
2a 3x − 1 _1
E/P
find the exact value of a. (4 marks)

5 Given that a is a positive constant and ∫

ln a
(ex + e−x) dx = __
48
E/P 7 , find the exact value of a. (4 marks)
ln 1

6 Given ∫ (3ex + 6e−2x) dx = 0, find the value of b.

b
E/P (4 marks)
2

1 _3 4
E/P 7 f(x) = __x 2 − __, x > 0
8 x
a Solve the equation f(x) = 0 (2 marks)
b Find ∫ f(x) dx (2 marks)
c Evaluate ∫ f(x) dx, giving your answer in the form p + q ln r, where p, q and r are
4
1
rational numbers. (3 marks)

7.2 Integrating f(ax + b)

If you know the integral of a function f(x) you can integrate a function of the form f(ax + b) using the
reverse of the chain rule for differentiation.

Example 3

Find the following integrals:

a ∫ cos (2x + 3) dx b ∫ e4x + 1 dx c ∫ sec2 3x dx
a Consider y = sin (2x + 3): Integrating cos x gives sin x, so try sin (2x + 3)
dy
___
= cos (2x + 3) × 2
dx Use the chain rule. Remember to multiply by the
So ∫ cos (2x + 3) dx = __
1
2 sin (2x + 3) + c derivative of 2x + 3 which is 2.

b Consider y = e4x + 1: This is 2 times the required expression so you

dy need to divide sin (2x + 3) by 2.
___
= e4x + 1 × 4
dx
So ∫ e 4x + 1 dx = __
1 4x + 1
4e +c The integral of ex is ex, so try e4x + 1

c Consider y = tan 3x:

This is 4 times the required expression so you
dy
___
= sec2 3x × 3 divide by 4.
dx
So ∫ sec2 3x dx = __
1
3 tan 3x + c
Recall 6 . Let y = tan 3x and differentiate using
the chain rule. This is 3 times the required
expression so you divide by 3.
150 CHAPTER 7 INTEGRATION

In general: Watch out You cannot use this method to

∫ 1
f′(ax + b) dx = __ f(ax + b) + c
a integrate an expression such as cos (2x2 + 3)
since it is not in the form f(ax + b).

Example 4

Find the following integrals:

a ∫ (______) dx ∫ (2x + 3)4 dx
1
b
3x + 2
1
a Consider y = ln (3x + 2): Integrating __
x gives ln|x| so try ln (3x + 2)
dy ______
___ 1
= ×3
dx 3x + 2 The 3 comes from the chain rule. It is 3 times the
So ∫ (_______) dx = __ ln |3x + 2| + c
1 1
required expression, so divide by 3.
3x + 2 3
b Consider y = (2x + 3)5:
To integrate (ax + b)n try (ax + b)n + 1
dy
___
= 5 × (2x + 3)4 × 2
dx
= 10 × (2x + 3)4 The 5 comes from the exponent and the 2 comes
So ∫ (2x + 3)4 dx = ___ (2x + 3)5 + c
1 from the chain rule.
10
This answer is 10 times the required expression,
so divide by 10.

Exercise 7B SKILLS ANALYSIS

1 Integrate the following with respect to x:

a sin (2x + 1) b 3e2x Hint For part a, consider y = cos(2x + 1).
c 4ex + 5 d cos (1 − 2x) You do not need to write out this step once
you are confident with using this method.
e cosec2 3x f sec 4x tan 4x
g 3 sin (_2 x + 1)
1
h sec2 (2 − x) i cosec 2x cot 2x j cos 3x − sin 3x

2 Find the following integrals:

a ∫ (e2x − _12 sin (2x − 1)) dx b ∫ (ex + 1)2 dx

( )
3 − 2 cos _2 x
1

c ∫ sec2 2x(1 + sin 2x) dx d ∫ __________

2_1 dx
sin 2 x
e ∫ (e3 − x + sin (3 − x) + cos (3 − x)) dx
3 Integrate the following with respect to x:
1 1 3
a ______ b ________2 c (2x + 1)2 d ______
2x + 1 (2x + 1) 4x − 1
3 3 3
e ______ f ________2 g (3x + 2)5 h ________3
1 − 4x (1 − 4x) (1 − 2x)
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 7 151

4 Find the following integrals:

a ∫(3 sin (2x + 1) + ______) dx ∫ (e5x + (1 − x)5) dx
4
b
2x + 1
c ∫(______
sin2 2x 1 + 2x (1 + 2x)2 )
1 1 1
+ ______ + ________ dx d ∫((3x + 2)2 + ________
(3x + 2)2 )
1
dx

5 Evaluate:

∫ ∫ 12
∫ ∫2 ______
5
__
3π 1 __
5π
3
_______
a cos (π − 2x) dx b dx c sec2(π − 3x) dx d dx
4 18
π
_
4
_1
2 (3 − 2x)4 __
2π
9 7 − 2x

6 Given ∫3 (2x − 6)2 dx = 36, find the value of b.

b
E/P (4 marks)

7 Given ∫ 2 ___ dx = __, find the value of k.

e8 1 1
E/P (4 marks)
e kx 4

Challenge
Given ∫5 (______) dx = __ a ln( 17 ), and that a and b
11 1 1 __ 41
SKILLS
ax + b
INNOVATION
are integers with 0 < a < 10, find two different
pairs of values for a and b.

7.3 Using trigonometric identities

■ Trigonometric identities can be used to Links Make sure you are familiar
integrate expressions. This allows an with the standard trigonometric
expression that cannot be integrated to be identities. ← Pure 2 Section 6.3
replaced by an identical expression that can
be integrated.

Example 5

Find ∫ tan2 x dx

Since sec2 x ; 1 + tan2 x You cannot integrate tan2 x but you can integrate
tan2 x ; sec2 x − 1 sec2 x directly.

So ∫ tan2 x dx = ∫ (sec2 x − 1) dx
Using 6
= ∫ sec2 x dx − ∫ 1 dx

= tan x − x + c
152 CHAPTER 7 INTEGRATION

Example 6 SKILLS ANALYSIS

__
π
π 1 − √2
Show that ∫
_
8 ___ ______ You cannot integrate sin2x directly. Use the
π
__ sin2x dx = +
12 48 8 trigonometric identity to write it in terms of cos 2x

Recall cos 2x ≡ 1 − 2 sin 2x Use the reverse chain rule. If y = sin 2x,
1 dy
So sin 2x ≡ __(1 − cos 2x) ___ = 2 cos 2x. Adjust for the constant.
2 dx
So ∫__π sin2x dx = ∫__π (__ − __ cos 2x) dx
π
__ π
__
8 8 1 1
12 12 2 2 Substitute the limits into the integrated
π
__

= [ x − sin 2x] π
1
__ 1
__ 8 expression.
2 4 ___
12
Problem-solving
= ( − sin ( )) − (___ − __ sin (__))
π
___ 1
__ π 1 π
__ π
16 4 4 24 4 6 Being familiar with the exact values for
__

= (___ − ( )) − (___ − __(__))

π π√2
1 _____
__ 1 1 trigonometric functions given in radians will save
16 4 2 24 4 2 you lots of time in your exam.
__

16 24 ) 4 ( 2 2)
π π √2
=( −___ ___ 1 __
__ 1 _____
+ − π
Write sin (__) in its rationalised denominator form,
__ __ 4
√2
= (___ − ___) + ________
3π 2π 1 − √2 1__
as ___ rather than ___ . This will make it easier to
48 48 8 2 √2
__
simplify your fractions.
π 1 − √2
= ___ + ________
48 8
Watch out This is a ‘show that’ question so
don’t use your calculator to simplify the fractions.
Show each line of your working carefully.
Example 7

Find:
a ∫ sin 3x cos 3x dx b ∫ (sec x + tan x)2 dx
Remember sin 2A ≡ 2 sin A cos A, so
a ∫ sin 3x cos 3x dx = ∫ __21 sin 6x dx sin 6x ≡ 2 sin 3x cos 3x
= − __
1 __1
2 × 6 cos 6x + c
= − __
1
12 cos 6x + c
Use the reverse chain rule.

b (sec x + tan x)2 Simplify _12 × _16 to __

1
12
≡ sec2x + 2 sec x tan x + tan2x
≡ sec2x + 2 sec x tan x + (sec2x − 1) Multiply out the bracket.

≡ 2 sec2x + 2 sec x tan x − 1

Write tan2x as sec2x − 1. Then all the terms are
So ∫ (sec x + tan x)2 dx standard integrals.
= ∫ (2 sec2x + 2 sec x tan x − 1) dx
= 2 tan x + 2 sec x − x + c Integrate each term using 6 and 9
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 7 153

Exercise 7C SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

1 Integrate the following with respect to x: Hint For part a, use 1 + cot2x ≡ cosec2x.
a cot2 x b cos2 x For part c, use sin 2A ≡ 2 sin A cos A,
c sin 2x cos 2x d (1 + sin x)2 making a suitable substitution for A.
e tan2 3x f (cot x − cosec x)2
1
g (sin x + cos x)2 h sin2 x cos2 x i __________ j (cos 2x − 1)2
sin2 x cos2 x
2 Find the following integrals:

a ∫ (________
cos2 x )
1 − sin x
dx b ∫ (________
sin2 x )
1 + cos x
dx c ∫ (______
cos2 x )
cos 2x
dx

∫ (_____
sin2 x )
(1 + cos x)2
cos x
∫ __________ ∫ (cot x − tan x)2 dx
2
d dx e dx f
sin2 x
g ∫ (cos x − sin x)2 dx h ∫ (cos x − sec x)2 dx i ∫ (__________
1 − cos2 2x )
cos 2x
dx
2+π
π

3 Show that ∫_π sin2 x dx = _____

_
2
E/P (4 marks)
4 8
4 Find the exact value of each of the following:

a ∫_π (__________ ) ( ) dx d ∫ (_________

1 − sin2 2x )
π π π
(1 + sin x) 2 π

∫ ∫0
_
3 1 _
4
_
4 _________
_
sin 2x
2
dx b π (sin x − cosec x) dx
_
2 c __ dx
sin x cos x cos2 x
2 2 3π
6 6 8

E/P 5 a By expanding sin (3x + 2x) and sin (3x − 2x) using the double-angle formulae,
or otherwise, show that sin 5x + sin x ≡ 2 sin 3x cos 2x (4 marks)
b Hence find ∫ sin 3x cos 2x dx (3 marks)

E/P 6 f(x) = 5 sin2 x + 7 cos2 x

a Show that f(x) = cos 2x + 6 π
(3 marks)
∫0
_
4
b Hence, find the exact value of f(x) dx (4 marks)

7 a Show that cos 4x ≡ _8 cos 4x + _2 cos 2x + _8

1 1 3
E/P (4 marks)
b Hence, find ∫ cos4 x dx (4 marks)

7.4 Reverse chain rule

f ′(x)
If a function can be written in the form k____, you can integrate it using the reverse of the chain rule
f(x)
for differentiation.

Example 8
Problem-solving
Find If f(x) = 3 + 2 sin x, then f’(x) = 2 cos x
By adjusting for the constant, the numerator is
a ∫ ______
2x
x2 + 1
dx b ∫ _________
cos x
3 + 2 sin x
dx the derivative of the denominator.
154 CHAPTER 7 INTEGRATION

a Let I= ∫ ______
2x
x2 + 1
dx

Consider y = ln|x2 + 1| This is equal to the original integrand, so you

dy
___ 1
______ don’t need to adjust it.
Then = × 2x
dx x2 + 1
So I = ln|x2 + 1| + c Since integration is the reverse of differentiation.

I = ∫ __________ dx
cos x
b Let
3 + 2 sin x
Consider y = ln|3 + 2 sin x| Try differentiating y = ln|3 + 2 sin x|
dy
___ 1
Then = __________ × 2 cos x
dx 3 + 2 sin x The derivative of ln|3 + 2 sin x| is twice the
So I= __1
ln|3 + 2 sin x| + c original integrand, so you need to divide it by 2.
2

To integrate expressions of the form Watch out You can’t use this method to
f ′(x)
∫ k_____
f(x)
dx, try ln|f(x)| and differentiate
1
integrate a function such as ______
x2 + 3
because the

to check, and then adjust any constant. derivative of x2 + 3 is 2x, and the numerator does
not contain an x term.

You can use a similar method with functions of the form kf’(x)(f(x))n.

Example 9 SKILLS ANALYSIS

Find:
a ∫3 cos x sin2 x dx b ∫x(x2 + 5)3 dx

a Let I = ∫ 3 cos x sin2 x dx

Consider y = sin3 x Try differentiating sin3 x

dy
___
= 3 sin2 x cos x
dx This is equal to the original integrand, so you
So I= sin3 x +c don’t need to adjust it.

b Let I = ∫x(x2 + 5)3 dx Try differentiating (x2 + 5)4

Consider y = (x2 + 5)4
The 2x comes from differentiating x2 + 5
dy
___
= 4(x2 + 5)3 × 2x
dx
This is 8 times the required expression so you
= 8x(x2 + 5)3
divide by 8.
So I = __
1
8 (x + 5) + c
2 4

■ To integrate an expression of the form ∫ k f ′(x)(f(x))n dx, try (f(x))n + 1 and differentiate to check,
and then adjust any constant.
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 7 155

Example 10

Use integration to find ∫ __________3 dx

cosec2 x
(2 + cot x)

This is in the form ∫k f9(x)(f(x))n dx with

I = ∫ ___________3 dx
cosec2 x
Let
(2 + cot x) f(x) = 2 + cot x and n = −3
Consider y = (2 + cot x)−2
dy Use the chain rule.
___
= −2(2 + cot x)−3 × (−cosec2x)
dx
= 2(2 + cot x)−3 cosec2x This is 2 times the required answer so you need
to divide by 2.
So I = __
1
2 (2 + cot x)
−2 + c

Example 11
π
Given that ∫0 5 tan x sec4 x dx = ___ where 0 < θ < __, find the exact value of θ.
θ 15
4 2

This is in the form ∫k f9(x)(f(x))n dx with

∫0 5 tan x sec4 x dx
θ
Let I=
f(x) = sec x and n = 4
Consider y = sec4 x
dy
___
= 4 sec3 x × sec x tan x
dx
= 4 sec4 x tan x This is _54 times the required answer so you need to
divide by _45
I = [__sec 4 x] = ___
θ
5 15
So
4 0 4
Substitute the limits into the integrated expression.
(4 ) − (4 )= 4
5
__ 5
__ 15
___
sec 4 θ sec 4 0
1 1
sec 0 = _____ = __ = 1
5
__ 5 15 cos 0 1
sec 4 θ − __ = ___
4 4 4
Take the 4th root of both sides.
5
__ 20
sec 4 θ = ___
4 4 1__ π π 3π 5π
The solutions to cos θ = ± ___ are θ = − __, __, ___, ___ , . . .
sec 4 θ = 4 √2 4 4 4 4
π
__
The only solution within the given range for θ is __
sec θ = ± √ 2 4
π
θ = __ y

4 Online Check your solution by using

x

your calculator.
Exercise 7D SKILLS ANALYSIS
Hint Decide carefully
1 Integrate the following functions with respect to x. whether each expression
x e2x x
a ______ b ______
c ________ f9(x)
is in the form k____ or
x2 + 4 e2x + 1 (x2 + 4)3 f(x)
e2x cos 2x sin 2x kf9(x)(f(x))n
d ________ e _________ f ___________3
(e + 1)
2x 3 3 + sin 2x (3 + cos 2x)
g xe x2 h cos 2x (1 + sin 2x)4 i sec2 x tan2 x j sec2 x (1 + tan2 x)
156 CHAPTER 7 INTEGRATION

2 Find the following integrals:

a ∫(x + 1)(x2 + 2x + 3)4 dx b ∫cosec2 2x cot 2x dx
c ∫sin5 3x cos 3x dx d ∫cos x esin x dx
∫ ______
e
∫x(x2 + 1)
2x _3
e dx f 2 dx
e +3
2x

∫(2x + 1)√x2 + x + 5 dx ∫ __________

_________
2x + 1
g h _________ dx
√ x2 + x + 5

i ∫ __________
√
sin x cos x
_________ dx j ∫ _________
sin x cos x
cos 2x + 3
dx
cos 2x + 3

3 Find the exact value of each of the following:

__
2π

∫0 (3x2 + 10x)√x 3 + 5x 2 + 9 dx ∫
__________
3 9 6 sin 3x
_________
a b dx
π
_
9 1 − cos 3x
π
_

∫4 ______
x
∫0 sec2x e4 tan x dx
7 4
c dx d
x2 − 1
4 Given that ∫0 kx2e x 3 dx = _3 (e8 − 1), find the value of k.
k 2
E/P (3 marks)

5 Given that ∫0 4 sin 2x cos4 2x dx = _5 , where 0 < θ < π, find the exact value of θ.
θ 4
P

6 a By writing cot x = _____, find ∫ cot x dx

cos x
E/P (2 marks)
sin x
b Show that ∫tan x dx ≡ ln|sec x| + c (3 marks)

Chapter review 7

1 By choosing a suitable method of integration, find:

∫ (2x − 3) 7 dx ∫ x√4x − 1 dx ∫ sin 2 x cosx dx

______
a b c

d ∫ x ln x dx e ∫ _________
4 sin x cos x
4 − 8 sin 2 x
dx f ∫ _____
1
3 − 4x
dx

2 By choosing a suitable method, evaluate the following definite integrals.

Write your answers as exact values.
π

∫0 x sec2 x dx
_
∫−3 x(x 2 + 3) 5 dx
0 4
a b

∫1 (16x x ) dx
π

∫
_
4 _3 2
− __
3
c 2
d π
__ (cos x + sin x)(cos x − sin x) dx
12

∫1 (____________
16x + 8x − 3 )
4
∫0 ln2 (______
1 + e x)
1
4
e 2
dx f dx

3 a Show that ∫ __2 ln x dx = 1 − __

e 1 2
E/P
e (5 marks)
1 x
1 4p − 2
b Given that p > 1, show that ∫ _____________ dx = __ ln ______
p 1
(5 marks)
1 (x + 1)(2x − 1) 3 p+1
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 7 157

4 Given ∫_1 (__3 − __2 ) dx = _4 , find the value of b.

b 2 1 9
E/P (4 marks)
2 x x

5 Given ∫0 cos x sin 3 x dx = __

θ 9
E/P 64 , where θ > 0, find the smallest possible value of θ. (4 marks)

Challenge
π
__ Hint
∫ 3k __ Calculate the value of the
SKILLS Given π
__ (1 − π sin kx) dx = π(7 − 6√ 2 ), indefinite integral in terms of k
CREATIVITY 4k
find the exact value of k. and solve the resulting equation.

Summary of key points

∫xn dx = _____
x
∫ex dx = ex + c ∫ __x1 dx = ln|x| + c
n+1
1 +c
n+1
∫cos x dx = sin x + c ∫sin x dx = −cos x + c ∫sec2x = tan x + c
∫cosec x cot x dx = −cosec x + c ∫cosec2x dx = −cot x + c ∫sec x tan x dx = sec x + c
2 ∫f ′(ax + b) dx = __a1 f(ax + b) + c
3 Trigonometric identities can be used to integrate expressions. This allows an expression that
cannot be integrated to be replaced by an identical expression that can be integrated.
f ′(x)
4 To integrate expressions of the form ∫k ____ dx, try ln|f(x)| and differentiate to check,
f(x)
and then adjust any constant.

5 To integrate expressions of the form ∫kf ′(x)(f(x))n dx, try (f(x))n + 1 and differentiate to
check, and then adjust any constant.
METHODS
Quadratic functions
8 NUMERICAL
2 6.1
6.2

Learning objectives
A"er completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Locate roots of f(x) = 0 by considering changes of sign → pages 159–162
● Use iteration to find an approximation to the root of the
equation f(x) = 0 → pages 163–167

Prior knowledge check

1 f(x) = x2 − 6x + 10. Evaluate:

a f(1.5) b f(−0.2)
← International GCSE Mathematics

2 Find f9(x) given that:

__ 5
a f(x) = 3√ x + 4x2 − __3 ← Pure 1 Section 8.3 The positions of the Moon, the
x
Earth and the Sun are affected by
b f(x) = 5 ln (x + 2) + 7e−x ← Pure 3 Section 6.2
the gravitational pull of each body.
c f(x) = x2 sin x − 4 cos x ← Pure 3 Section 6.1 Surprisingly, these positions can’t be
1 calculated properly by using ordinary
3 Given that un + 1 = un + __
u and that u0 = 1, equations. For problems like this we
n
find the values of u1, u2 and u3 ← Pure 2 Section 5.7 need numerical methods.

158
NUMERICAL METHODS CHAPTER 8 159

8.1 Locating roots

A root of a function is a value of x for Notation The following two things are identical:
which f(x) = 0. The graph of y = f(x) will • the roots of the function f(x)
cross the x-axis at points corresponding • the roots of the equation f(x) = 0
to the roots of the function.
You can sometimes show that a root exists within a given interval by showing that the function
changes sign (from positive to negative, or vice versa) within the interval.
■ If the function f(x) is continuous on the Notation Continuous means that the
interval [a, b] and f(a) and f(b) have function does not ‘jump’ from one value to
opposite signs, then f(x) has at least another. If the graph of a function, such as
one root, x, which satisfies a < x < b tan(x), has a vertical asymptote between a and
b then the function is not continuous on [a, b].
Example 1 SKILLS REASONING

The diagram shows a sketch of the curve y = f(x), y

2
where f(x) = x3 − 4x2 + 3x + 1 f(x) = x3 – 4x2 + 3x + 1
a Explain how the graph shows that f(x) has 1
a root between x = 2 and x = 3
b Show that f(x) has a root between
–1 O 1 2 3 x
x = 1.4 and x = 1.5
–1

a The graph crosses the x-axis between

The graph of y = f(x) crosses the x-axis whenever
x = 2 and x = 3. This means that a root of
f(x) = 0
f(x) lies between x = 2 and x = 3
b f(1.4) = (1.4)3 − 4(1.4)2 + 3(1.4) + 1 = 0.104
f(1.4) > 0 and f(1.5) < 0, so there is a change of
f(1.5) = (1.5)3 − 4(1.5)2 + 3(1.5) + 1 = −0.125
sign.
There is a change of sign between 1.4 and
1.5, so there is at least one root between
f(x) changes sign in the interval [1.4, 1.5], so f(x)
x = 1.4 and x = 1.5
must equal zero within this interval.

There are three situations you need to watch out for when using the change of sign rule to locate
roots. A change of sign does not necessarily mean there is exactly one root. Also, the absence of a
sign change does not necessarily mean that a root does not exist in the interval.
y y y
y = f(x) y = f(x)

y = f(x)

O a b x O a b x O a b x

There are multiple roots within There are multiple roots within There is a vertical asymptote
the interval [a, b]. In this case the interval [a, b], but a sign within interval [a, b]. A sign
there is an odd number of roots. change does not occur. In this change does occur, but there
case there is an even number is no root.
of roots.
160 CHAPTER 8 NUMERICAL METHODS

Example 2

The graph of the function y

y = f(x)
f(x) = 54x − 225x + 309x − 140
3 2 1
is shown in the diagram.
A student observes that f(1.1) and f(1.6) are
both negative and states that f(x) has no roots O 1 2 x
in the interval [1.1, 1.6]
a Explain by reference to the diagram why
–1
the student is incorrect.
b Calculate f(1.3) and f(1.5) and use your answer
to explain why there are at least 3 roots in the interval 1.1 < x < 1.7

a The diagram shows that there could be Notation The interval [1.1, 1.6] is the set of all
two roots in the interval [1.1, 1.6]. real numbers, x, that satisfy 1.1 ≤ x ≤ 1.6
b f(1.1) = −0.476 < 0
f(1.3) = 0.088 > 0 Calculate the values of f(1.1), f(1.3), f(1.5) and
f(1.5) = −0.5 < 0 f(1.7). Comment on the sign of each answer.
f(1.7) = 0.352 > 0
There is a change of sign between 1.1 and f(x) changes sign at least three times in the
1.3, between 1.3 and 1.5 and between 1.5 interval 1.1 < x < 1.7 so f(x) must equal zero at
and 1.7, so there are at least three roots in least three times within this interval.
the interval 1.1 < x < 1.7

Example 3
1
a Using the same axes, sketch the graphs of y = ln x and y = __
x . Explain how your diagram shows
1
that the function f(x) = ln x − __
x has only one root.
b Show that this root lies in the interval 1.7 < x < 1.8
c Given that the root of f(x) is α, show that α = 1.763 correct to 3 decimal places.

a y
y=
1
x
y = ln x 1
Sketch y = ln x and y = __
x on the same axes.
Notice that the curves do intersect.
–2 –1 O 1 2 3 x

1 1
ln x − __
x = 0 ⇒ ln x = x
__ f(x) has a root where f(x) = 0
1
The equation ln x = __
x has only one solution, The curves meet at only one point, so there is only
so f(x) has only one root. 1
one value of x that satisfies the equation ln x = __
x
NUMERICAL METHODS CHAPTER 8 161

Online
x

1
__ Locate the root of
b f(x) = ln x − x 1
f(x) = ln x − __
x using technology.
1
f(1.7) = ln 1.7 − ___ = −0.0576…
1.7
1 f(1.7) < 0 and f(1.8) > 0, so there is a change of
f(1.8) = ln 1.8 − ___ = 0.0322…
1.8 sign.
There is a change of sign between 1.7 and
1.8, so there is at least one root in the
You need to state that there is a change of sign in
interval 1.7 < x < 1.8
your conclusion.
c f(1.7625) = −0.00064… < 0
f(1.7635) = 0.00024… > 0
Problem-solving
There is a change of sign in the interval
[1.7625, 1.7635] so 1.7625 ≤ α ≤ 1.7635, To determine a root to a given degree of accuracy
you need to show that it lies within a range of
so α = 1.763 correct to 3 d.p.
values that will all round to the given value.
Numbers in this range will
round to 1.763, to 3 d.p.

1.762 1.7625 1.763 1.7635 1.764 x

Exercise 8A SKILLS REASONING

1 Show that each of these functions has at least one root in the given interval.
__
a f(x) = x3 − x + 5, −2 < x < −1 b f(x) = x2 − √ x − 10, 3 < x < 4
1
c f(x) = x3 − __
x − 2, −0.5 < x < −0.2 d f(x) = ex − ln x − 5, 1.65 < x < 1.75

E 2 f(x) = 3 + x2 − x3
a Show that the equation f(x) = 0 has a root, α, in the interval [1.8, 1.9]. (2 marks)
b By considering a change of sign of f(x) in a suitable interval, verify that α = 1.864,
correct to 3 decimal places. (3 marks)

__
E 3 h(x) = 3√ x − cos x − 1, where x is in radians.
a Show that the equation h(x) = 0 has a root, α, between x = 1.4 and x = 1.5 (2 marks)
b By choosing a suitable interval, show that α = 1.441 is correct to 3 decimal places. (3 marks)

E 4 f(x) = sin x − ln x, x > 0, where x is in radians.

a Show that f(x) = 0 has a root, α, in the interval [2.2, 2.3]. (2 marks)
b By considering a change of sign of f(x) in a suitable interval, verify that α = 2.219,
correct to 3 decimal places. (3 marks)

P 5 f(x) = 2 + tan x, 0 < x < π, where x is in radians.

a Show that f(x) changes sign in the interval [1.5, 1.6 ].
b State with a reason whether or not f(x) has a root in the interval [1.5, 1.6 ].
162 CHAPTER 8 NUMERICAL METHODS

1
P 6 A student observes that the function f(x) = __
x + 2, x ≠ 0, has a change of sign
in the interval [−1, 1]. The student writes:
y = f(x) has a vertical asymptote within this interval so even
though there is a change of sign, f(x) has no roots in this interval.

By means of a sketch, or otherwise, explain why the student is incorrect.

7 f(x) = (105x3 − 128x2 + 49x − 6) cos 2x, where x is in radians. y

The diagram shows a sketch of y = f(x) 0.5

a Calculate f(0.2) and f(0.8).

b Use your answer to part a to make a conclusion about the O 1 x
number of roots of f(x) in the interval 0.2 < x < 0.8
–0.5
c Further calculate f(0.3), f(0.4), f(0.5), f(0.6) and f(0.7). y = f(x)

d Use your answers to parts a and c to make an improved conclusion

about the number of roots of f(x) in the interval 0.2 < x < 0.8

P 8 a Using the same axes, sketch the graphs of y = e−x and y = x2

b Explain why the function f(x) = e−x − x2 has only one root.
c Show that the function f(x) = e−x − x2 has a root between x = 0.70 and x = 0.71

P 9 a On the same axes, sketch the graphs of y = ln x and y = ex − 4

b Write down the number of roots of the equation ln x = ex − 4
c Show that the equation ln x = ex − 4 has a root in the interval [1.4, 1.5].

E/P 10 h(x) = sin 2x + e4x

a Show that there is a stationary point, α, of y = h(x) in the interval −0.9 < x < −0.8 (4 marks)
b By considering the change of sign of h9(x) in a suitable interval, verify that
α = −0.823 correct to 3 decimal places. (2 marks)
__ 2
E/P 11 a On the same axes, sketch the graphs of y = √ x and y = __
x (2 marks)
__ 2
b With reference to your sketch, explain why the equation √ x = __ x has exactly one real root.
(1 mark)
__ 2
c Given that f(x) = √ x − __
x , show that the equation f(x) = 0 has a root r, where 1 < r < 2 (2 marks)
__ 2
d Show that the equation √ x = __ x may be written in the form x = q,
p

where p and q are integers to be found. (2 marks)

__ 2
e Hence write down the exact value of the root of the equation √ x − __ x =0 (1 mark)

E/P 12 f(x) = x4 − 21x − 18

a Show that there is a root of the equation f(x) = 0 in the interval [−0.9, −0.8]. (3 marks)
b Find the coordinates of any stationary points on the graph y = f(x) (3 marks)
c Given that f(x) = (x − 3)(x3 + ax2 + bx + c), find the values of the constants a, b and c. (3 marks)
d Sketch the graph of y = f(x) (3 marks)
NUMERICAL METHODS CHAPTER 8 163

8.2 Fixed point iteration

An iterative method can be used to find a value of x for which f(x) = 0. To perform an iterative
procedure, it is usually necessary to manipulate the algebraic function first.
■ To solve an equation of the form f(x) = 0 by an iterative method, rearrange f(x) = 0 into the
form x = g(x) and use the iterative formula xn + 1 = g(xn)
Some iterations will converge to a root. This can happen in two ways. One way is that successive
iterations get closer and closer to the root from the same direction. Graphically these iterations
create a series of steps. The resulting diagram is sometimes referred to as a staircase diagram.
______
f(x) = x2 − x − 1 can produce the iterative formula xn + 1 = √ xn + 1 when f(x) = 0. Let x0 = 0.5
Successive iterations produce the following staircase diagram.
y y=x
y= x+1 Read up from x0 on the vertical axis
to the curve y = x + 1 to find x1.
You can read across to the line y = x
to ‘map’ this value back onto the
x-axis. Repeating the process shows
the values of xn converging to the
root of the equation y = x + 1,
which is also the root of f(x).
O x0 x1 x2 x3 x

The other way that an iteration converges is that successive iterations alternate being below the
root and above the root. These iterations can still converge to the root and the resulting graph is
sometimes called a cobweb diagram.
Watch out By rearranging the same function
f(x) = x2 − x − 1 can produce the iterative formula in different ways you can find different iterative
1 formulae, which may converge differently.
xn + 1 = ______ when f(x) = 0. Let x0 = −2
xn − 1
Successive iterations produce the cobweb diagram x0 x2 x3 x1
y
shown on the right. x
O
Not all iterations or starting values converge to a root.
When an iteration moves away from a root, o"en y= 1
x–1
increasingly quickly, you say that it diverges.
f(x) = x2 − x − 1 can produce the iterative formula
xn + 1 = xn2 − 1 when f(x) = 0. Let x0 = 2 y=x

Successive iterations diverge from the root, as shown in the diagram below.
y
y = x2 – 1

y=x

O x0 x1 x
164 CHAPTER 8 NUMERICAL METHODS

Example 4

f(x) = x2 − 4x + 1
1
a Show that the equation f(x) = 0 can be written as x = 4 − __
x, x ≠ 0
f(x) has a root, α, in the interval 3 < x < 4
1
b Use the iterative formula xn + 1 = 4 − __
xn with x0 = 3 to find the value of x1, x2 and x3

a f(x) = 0
x2 − 4x + 1 = 0
x2 = 4x − 1 Add 4x to each side and subtract 1 from each side.
1
x = 4 − __
x, x ≠ 0 Divide each term by x. This step is only valid if
1
___ x≠0
b x1 = 4 − x = 3.666666…
0

1
x2 = 4 − __
y

x1 = 3.72727… Online
x

Use the iterative formula to

1 work out x1, x2 and x 3. You can use your
x3 = 4 − ___
x2 = 3.73170… calculator to find each value quickly.

Example 5

f(x) = x3 − 3x2 − 2x + 5
a Show that the equation f(x) = 0 has a root in the interval 3 < x < 4
___________

b Use the iterative formula xn + 1 = √ 3

x3n − 2xn + 5
___________
to calculate the values of x1, x2 and x3,
giving your answers to 4 decimal places and taking:
i x0 = 1.5 ii x0 = 4

a f(3) = (3)3 − 3(3)2 − 2(3) + 5 = −1

f(4) = (4)3 − 3(4)2 − 2(4) + 5 = 13
There is a change of sign in the interval
3 < x < 4, and f is continuous, so there is
The graph crosses the x-axis between x = 3 and
a root of _____________
f(x) in this interval.
x=4

√
x03 − 2x0 + 5
b i x1 = ____________ = 1.3385…
3
____________

=√
x1 − 2x1 + 5
3
____________
x2 = 1.2544…
3
_____________

=√
x2 − 2x2 + 5
3
____________ Each iteration gets closer to a root, so the
x3 = 1.2200…
3 sequence x0, x1, x2, x3, … is convergent.
NUMERICAL METHODS CHAPTER 8 165

_____________

√
y

Online
x

x03 − 2x0 + 5
____________ Explore the iterations
ii x1 = = 4.5092… graphically using technology.
3
____________

=√
1 − 2x1 + 5
x 3
____________
x2 = 5.4058…
3
_____________

=√
2 − 2x2 + 5
x 3
____________ Each iteration gets further from a root, so the
x3 = 7.1219…
3 sequence x0, x1, x2, x3, … is divergent.

Exercise 8B SKILLS REASONING

P 1 f(x) = x2 − 6x + 2
a Show that f(x) = 0 can be written as:
x2 + 2 ______ 2
i x = ______ ii x = √6x − 2 iii x = 6 − __
x
6
b Starting with x0 = 4, use each iterative formula to find a root of the equation f(x) = 0.
Round your answers to 3 decimal places.
c Use the quadratic
__
formula to find the roots to the equation f(x) = 0, leaving your answer in
√
the form a ± b , where a and b are constants to be found.

P 2 f(x) = x2 − 5x − 3
a Show that f(x) = 0 can be written as:
______ x2 − 3
i x = √5x + 3 ii x = ______
5
b Let x0 = 5. Show that each of the following iterative formulae gives different roots of f(x) = 0
_______ x2n − 3
i xn + 1 = √5xn + 3 ii xn + 1 = ______
5
E/P 3 f(x) = x2 − 6x + 1
______
a Show that the equation f(x) = 0 can be written as x = √6x − 1 (1 mark)
______
b Sketch on the same axes the graphs of y = x and y = √6x − 1 (2 marks)
c Write down the number of roots of f(x). (1 mark)
_______
d Use your sketch to explain why the iterative formula xn + 1 = √6xn − 1
converges to a root of f(x) when x0 = 2 (1 mark)
x2n + 1
______
f(x) = 0 can also be rearranged to form the iterative formula xn + 1 =
6
e By sketching a diagram, explain why the iteration diverges when x0 = 10 (2 marks)

P 4 f(x) = xe−x − x + 2
x
|
a Show that the equation f(x) = 0 can be written as x = ln _____ , x ≠ 2
x−2 |
f(x) has a root, α, in the interval −2 < x < −1

| |
xn
b Use the iterative formula xn + 1 = ln ______ , x ≠ 2, with x0 = −1, to find, to 2 decimal places,
xn − 2
the values of x1, x2 and x3
166 CHAPTER 8 NUMERICAL METHODS

P 5 f(x) = x3 + 5x2 − 2
a Show that f(x) = 0 can be written as:
______

√
_______ 2 2 − x3
ii x = __2 − 5 iii x = ______
3
i x = √2 − 5x2
x 5
b Starting with x0 = 10, use the iterative formula in part a (ii) to find a root of the equation
f(x) = 0. Round your answer to 3 decimal places.
c Starting with x0 = 1, use the iterative formula in part a (iii) to find a different root of the
equation f(x) = 0. Round your answer to 3 decimal places.
d Explain why the iterative formulae in part a (iii) cannot be used when x0 = 2

E/P 6 f(x) = x4 − 3x3 − 6

_______
a Show that the equation f(x) = 0 can be written as x = √px4 + q , where p and q
3

are constants to be found. (2 marks)

_______
b Let x0 = 0. Use the iterative formula xn + 1 = √
3
+ q , together with your values of
pxn4
p and q from part a, to find, to 3 decimal places, the values of x1, x2 and x3 (3 marks)
The root of f(x) = 0 is α.
c By choosing a suitable interval, show that α = −1.132 to 3 decimal places. (3 marks)

E/P 7 f(x) = 3 cos (x2) + x − 2 _1

a Show that the equation f(x) = 0 can be written as x = (arccos (

3 ))
2−x
_____
2

(2 marks)
_1

b Use the iterative formula xn + 1 = (arccos (______)) , x0 = 1, to find, to 3 decimal places,

2
2 − xn
3
the values of x1, x2 and x3 (3 marks)
c Given that f(x) = 0 has only one root, α, show that α = 1.1298 correct
to 4 decimal places. (3 marks)

E/P 8 f(x) = 4 cot x − 8x + 3, 0 < x < π, where x is in radians.

a Show that there is a root α of f(x) = 0 in the interval [0.8, 0.9]. (2 marks)
cos x 3
b Show that the equation f(x) = 0 can be written in the form x = ______ + __ (3 marks)
2 sin x 8
cos xn 3
c Use the iterative formula xn + 1 = _______ + __ , x0 = 0.85, to calculate the values of
2 sin xn 8
x1, x2 and x3 giving your answers to 4 decimal places. (3 marks)
d By considering the change of sign of f(x) in a suitable interval, verify that α = 0.831
correct to 3 decimal places. (2 marks)

E/P 9 g(x) = ex − 1 + 2x − 15
15
a Show that the equation g(x) = 0 can be written as x = ln (15 − 2x) + 1, x < ___ (2 marks)
2
The root of g(x) = 0 is α.
The iterative formula xn + 1 = ln (15 − 2xn) + 1, x0 = 3, is used to find a value for α.
b Calculate the values of x1, x2 and x3 to 4 decimal places. (3 marks)
c By choosing a suitable interval, show that α = 3.16 correct to 2 decimal places. (3 marks)
NUMERICAL METHODS CHAPTER 8 167

E/P 10 The diagram shows a sketch of part of the curve with equation y
y = f(x)
y = f(x), where f(x) = xex − 4x. The curve cuts the x-axis at the
points A and B and has a minimum turning point at P,
as shown in the diagram.
a Work out the coordinates of A
and the coordinates of B. (3 marks) A B
b Find f9(x). (3 marks) O x
P
c Show that the x-coordinate of P
lies between 0.7 and 0.8. (2 marks)

d Show that the x-coordinate of P is the solution to the equation x = ln (_____)

4
(3 marks)
x+1

( xn + 1 )
4
To find an approximation for the x-coordinate of P, the iterative formula xn + 1 = ln ______
is used.
e Let x0 = 0. Find the values of x1, x2, x3 and x4 . Give your answers to 3 decimal places.
(3 marks)

Chapter review 8

E/P 1 f(x) = x3 − 6x − 2 _____

b
a Show that the equation f(x) = 0 can be written in the form x = ± a + __
x √
and state the values of the integers a and b. (2 marks)
f(x) = 0 has one positive root, α.
______

√
b
The iterative formula xn + 1 = a + __
x , x0 = 2, is used to find an approximate value for α.
n

b Calculate the values of x1, x2, x3 and x4 to 4 decimal places. (3 marks)

c By choosing a suitable interval, show that α = 2.602 is correct to 3 decimal places. (3 marks)

E/P 2 p(x) = 4 − x2 and q(x) = ex

a On the same axes, sketch the curves of y = p(x) and y = q(x) (2 marks)
b State the number of positive roots and the number of negative roots of
the equation x2 + ex − 4 = 0 (1 mark)
_1
c Show that the equation x2 + ex − 4 = 0 can be written in the form x = ±(4 − ex) 2 (2 marks)
_1
The iterative formula xn + 1 = −(4 − exn) 2 , x0 = −2, is used to find an approximate
value for the negative root.
d Calculate the values of x1, x2, x3 and x4 to 4 decimal places. (3 marks)
e Explain why the starting value x0 = 1.4 will not produce a valid result with
this formula. (2 marks)
168 CHAPTER 8 NUMERICAL METHODS

E/P 3 g(x) = x5 − 5x − 6
a Show that g(x) = 0 has a root, α, between x = 1 and x = 2 (2 marks)
_1
b Show that the equation g(x) = 0 can be written as x = ( px + q) , where p, q and r
r

are integers to be found. (2 marks)

_1
The iterative formula xn + 1 = ( pxn + q) r , x0 = 1 is used to find an approximate value for α.
c Calculate the values of x1, x2 and x3 to 4 decimal places. (3 marks)
d By choosing a suitable interval, show that α = 1.708 is correct to 3 decimal places. (3 marks)

E/P 4 g(x) = x2 − 3x − 5
______
a Show that the equation g(x) = 0 can be written as x = √3x + 5 (1 mark)
______
b Sketch on the same axes the graphs of y = x and y = √3x + 5 (2 marks)
_______
c Use your diagram to explain why the iterative formula xn + 1 = √3xn + 5 converges
to a root of g(x) when x0 = 1 (1 mark)
xn2 − 5
g(x) = 0 can also be rearranged to form the iterative formula xn + 1 = ______
3
d With reference to a diagram, explain why this iterative formula diverges
when x0 = 7 (3 marks)

E/P 5 f(x) = 5x − 4 sin x − 2, where x is in radians.

a Show that f(x) = 0 has a root, α, between x = 1.1 and x = 1.15 (2 marks)
b Show that f(x) = 0 can be written as x = p sin x + q , where p and q are rational
numbers to be found. (2 marks)
c Starting with x0 = 1.1, use the iterative formula xn + 1 = p sin xn + q with your values
of p and q to calculate the values of x1, x2, x3 and x4 to 3 decimal places. (3 marks)

1
E/P 6 a On the same axes, sketch the graphs of y = __
x and y = x + 3 (2 marks)
1
b Write down the number of roots of the equation __x=x+3 (1 mark)
1
c Show that the positive root of the equation __
x = x + 3 lies in the interval
(0.30, 0.31). (2 marks)
1
d Show that the equation __
x = x + 3 may be written in the form x + 3x − 1 = 0
2 (2 marks)

e Use the quadratic formula to find the positive root of the equation x2 + 3x − 1 = 0
to 3 decimal places. (2 marks)
NUMERICAL METHODS CHAPTER 8 169

Challenge
SKILLS f(x) = x6 + x 3 − 7x2 − x + 3
INNOVATION The diagram shows a sketch of y = f(x). Points A and B are the points of
inflection on the curve.
y
y = f(x)

O x
A B

a Show that equation f0(x) = 0 can be written as:

______
7 − 15x 7
√7 − 3x
4
i x = _________ ii x = ________ iii x = ______
4

3 15x + 3
3 15
b By choosing a suitable iterative formula and starting value, find an
approximation for the x-coordinate of B, correct to 3 decimal places.
c Explain why you cannot use the same iterative formula to find an
approximation for the x-coordinate of A.

Summary of key points

1 If the function f(x) is continuous on the interval [a, b] and f(a) and f(b) have opposite signs,
then f(x) has at least one root, x, which satisfies a < x < b

2 To solve an equation of the form f(x) = 0 by an iterative method, rearrange f(x) = 0 into the
form x = g(x) and use the iterative formula xn + 1 = g(xn)
170 2 REVIEW EXERCISE

E
Review exercise
1 The graph of the function f(x) =
x ∈ ℝ, has an asymptote y = k, and
crosses the x and y axes at A and B
respectively, as shown in the diagram.
− 1,
3e−x E/P
a ln x + ln 3 = ln 6
b ex + 3e−x = 4
2
3 Find the exact solutions to the equations:
(2)
(4)
← Pure 3 Section 5.3
y

E 4 The table below shows the population of

A Angola between 1970 and 2010.

Year Population, P (millions)

O B x
y=k 1970 5.93
1980 7.64
a Write down the value of k and the 1990 10.33
y-coordinate of A. (2)
2000 13.92
b Find the exact value of the 2010 19.55
x-coordinate of B, giving your answer
as simply as possible. (2) This data can be modelled using an
exponential function of the form P = abt,
← Pure 3 Section 5.2
where t is the time in years since 1970 and
a and b are constants.
E/P 2 A heated metal ball S is dropped into a
a Copy and complete the table below,
liquid. As S cools, its temperature, T °C,
giving your answers to 2 decimal
t minutes after it enters the liquid, is
places. (1)
given by T = 400e−0.05t + 25, t > 0
a Find the temperature of S as it enters Time in years since 1970, t log P
the liquid. (1) 0 0.77
b Find how long S is in the liquid before 10
its temperature drops to 300 °C. 20
Give your answer to 3 significant 30
figures. (3) 40
dT b Plot a graph of log P against t using
c Find the rate, ___, in °C per minute
dt the values from your table and draw in
to 3 significant figures, at which the a line of best fit. (2)
temperature of S is decreasing at the c By rearranging P = abt, explain how
instant t = 50 (3) the graph you have just drawn supports
d With reference to the equation given the assumed model. (3)
above, explain why the temperature of d Use your graph to estimate the values
S can never drop to 20 °C. (2) of a and b to 2 significant figures. (4)
← Pure 3 Sections 5.2, 5.5 ← Pure 3 Sections 5.4, 5.5
REVIEW EXERCISE 2 171

E 5 The function f is defined by E 8 The functions f and g are defined by

_2
f : x → ln(5x − 2), x [ ℝ, x > 5 f : x → 2x + ln 2, x [ ℝ
a Find an expression for f−1(x). (2) g : x → e2x, x [ ℝ
b Write down the domain of f−1(x). (1) a Prove that the composite function
gf is
c Solve, giving your answer to
3 decimal places, gf : x → 4e4x, x [ ℝ (4)
ln(5x − 2) = 2 (2) b Sketch the curve with equation
y = gf(x), and show the coordinates of
← Pure 3 Sections 5.1, 5.3
the point where the curve crosses the
E 6 The function f is defined by y-axis. (3)
f : x → ex + k, x [ ℝ and k is a positive c Write down the range of gf. (2)
constant. d Find the value of x for which
a State the range of f(x). (2) d
___ [gf(x)] = 3, giving your answer
b Find f(ln k), simplifying your dx
answer. (2) to 3 significant figures. (4)
← Pure 3 Sections 2.3, 5.1, 6.2
c Find f−1, the inverse function of f,
in the form f−1 : x → …, stating its E/P 9 a By sketching the graphs of y = −x
domain. (2)
and y = ln x, x > 0, on the same axes,
d On the same axes, sketch the curves show that the solution to the equation
with equations y = f(x) and y = f−1(x), x + ln x = 0 lies between 0 and 1. (3)
giving the coordinates of all points
b Show that x + ln x = 0 may be written
where the graphs cut the axes. (3)
in the form
← Pure 3 Section 5.1 (2x − ln x)
x = _________ (2)
3
E 7 The function f is given by
c Use the iterative formula
f : x → ln(4 − 2x), x [ ℝ, x < 2
(2xn − ln xn)
a Find an expression for f−1(x). (3) xn + 1 = __________, x0 = 1,
3
b Sketch the curve with equation to find the solution of x + ln x = 0
y = f−1(x), showing the coordinates correct to 5 decimal places. (3)
of the points where the curve meets ← Pure 3 Sections 5.3, 8.2
the axes. (3)
10 A curve has equation y = _2 x 2 + 4 cos x
1
E/P
c State the range of f−1(x). (2)
Show that an equation of the normal to
The function g is given by π
the curve at x = __ is
g : x → ex, x [ ℝ 2
8y(8 − π) − 16x + π(π 2 − 8π + 8) = 0 (7)
d Find the value of gf(0.5) (2)
← Pure 3 Section 6.1
← Pure 3 Sections 5.1, 5.2

E/P 11 A curve has equation y = e 3x − ln (x 2).

Show that an equation of the tangent at
x = 2 is y − (3e 6 − 1)x − 2 + ln 4 + 5e 6 = 0
(6)
← Pure 3 Section 6.2
172 2 REVIEW EXERCISE

E 12 A curve C has equation y = (2x − 3) 2e 2x 5x2 − 8x + 1

E 19 f(x) = ___________
dy 2x(x − 1)2
a Use the product rule to find ___ (3) A B C
dx a Given that f(x) = __ + _____ + _______2
x x − 1 (x − 1)
b Hence find the coordinates of the
find the values of the constants
stationary points of C. (3)
A, B and C. (4)
← Pure 3 Sections 6.2, 6.4

(x − 1) 2
∫
b Hence find f(x) dx (4)
E 13 The curve C has equation y = _______ c Hence show that
sin x
f(x) dx = ln(___) − ___
32 5
∫
9
dy (4)
a Use the quotient rule to find ___ (3) 4 3 24
dx ← Pure 3 Sections 1.2, 6.4, 7.4
b Show that the equation of the
π
tangent to the curve at x = __ is 5x + 3
2 E/P 20 a Express _____________ in partial
(2x − 3)(x + 2)
y = (π − 2)x + (1 − __)
π2
(4) fractions. (3)
4
← Pure 3 Sections 6.1, 6.5
b Hence find the exact value of
5x + 3
∫
6 _____________
E/P 14 a Show that if y = cosec x then dx, giving your
dy 2(2x − 3)(x + 2)
___
= −cosec x cot x (4) answer as a single logarithm. (4)
dx
dy
b Given x = cosec 6y, find ___ in terms ← Pure 3 Sections 1.2, 6.4, 7.4
dx
of x. (6) E/P
21 f(x) = (x2 + 1) ln x
← Pure 3 Section 6.6
∫
e
Find the exact value of f(x) dx (7)
1
E/P 15 Assuming standard results for sin x and ← Pure 3 Section 7.4
cos x, prove that the derivative of arcsin x
1
is _______
_____ (5) E 22 g(x) = x 3 − x 2 − 1
√1 − x 2
← Pure 3 Section 6.6 a Show that there is a root α of g(x) = 0
in the interval [1.4, 1.5]. (2)
16 Given ∫ (12 − 3x)2 dx = 78, find the value
3
E/P b By considering a change of sign of
a
of a. (4) g(x) in a suitable interval, verify that
← Pure 3 Section 7.2 α = 1.466 correct to 3 decimal places.
(3)
E/P 17 a By expanding cos (5x + 2x) and ← Pure 3 Section 8.1
cos (5x − 2x) using the double-angle
formulae, or otherwise, show that
E 23 p(x) = cos x + e −x
cos 7x + cos 3x ≡ 2 cos 5x cos 2x. (4)
a Show that there is a root α of p(x) = 0
b Hence find ∫ 6 cos 5x cos 2x dx (3)
in the interval [1.7, 1.8]. (2)
← Pure 3 Sections 4.3, 7.3
b By considering a change of sign of f(x)
in a suitable interval, verify that
18 Given that ∫ mx 3e x 4 dx = __(e 81 − 1)
m
3
E/P
0 4 α = 1.746 correct to 3 decimal places.
find the value of m. (3) (3)
← Pure 3 Section 7.4 ← Pure 3 Section 8.1
REVIEW EXERCISE 2 173

E 24 f(x) = e x−2 − 3x + 5 Challenge

a Show that the equation f(x) = 0 can be 1 A curve has equation
written as 3 2
y = − ________2 , x ≠ __
x = ln (3x − 5) + 2, x > _3
5 (4 − 6x) 3
(2)
Find an equation of the normal to the curve
The root of f(x) = 0 is α.
at x = 1 in the form ax + by + c = 0, where
The iterative formula a, b and c are integers.
xn+1 = ln (3xn − 5) + 2, x0 = 4 is used to ← Pure 3 Section 6.3
find a value for α.
2 The functions f and g are defined as
b Calculate the values of x1, x2 and x3 to f(x) = x 3 − kx + 1, where k is a constant, and
4 decimal places. (3) g(x) = e2x, x [ R. The graphs of y = f(x) and
← Pure 3 Section 8.2 y = g(x) intersect at the point P, where x = 0.
a Confirm that f(0) = g(0) and hence state the
1
_______ coordinates of P.
E 25 f(x) = + 4x 2,
x≠2
(x − 2)3
b Given that the tangents to the graphs at P are
a Show that there is a root α of f(x) = 0 perpendicular, find the value of k.
in the interval [0.2, 0.3]. (2) ← Pure 3 Section 5.2
b Show that the equation f(x) = 0 can be 3 The volume of a hemisphere V cm3 is related
____
written in the form x = √
−1
3 ___

4x2
+2 (3)
to its radius r cm by the formula V = _23 πr 3 and
the total surface area S cm2 is given by the
formula S = πr2 + 2πr2 = 3πr2. Given that the
c Use the iterative formula dV
_________ rate of increase of volume, in cm3 s−1, ___ = 6,
dt
xn+1 = √ −1/4x2n + 2 , x0 = 1 to calculate
3

dS
the find the rate of increase of surface area ___.
dt
← Pure 3 Section 6.3
values of x1, x2, x3 and x4, giving your
answers to 4 decimal places. (3)
d By considering the change of sign of
f(x) in a suitable interval, verify that
α = 1.524 correct to 3 decimal places.
(2)
← Pure 3 Section 8.2
174 EXAM PRACTICE

Exam practice
Mathematics
International/Advanced Level
Pure Mathematics 3
Time: 1 hour 30 minutes
You must have: Mathematical Formulae and Statistical Tables, Calculator
Answer ALL questions

x2 – 9 2x2 + 5x – 3
1 Simplify fully _______ 4 ___________
(4)
x2 – 3x x2 + 7x
2 Maria wants to predict the value V euros of her new V

saxophone after t years. She uses the formula

V = 800e–0.2t + 1000e–0.1t + 200, t > 0
The diagram shows a sketch of V against t.
a State the range of V. (1)
b Calculate the rate at which the value of Maria’s O t
saxophone is decreasing when t = 15
Give your answer in euros per year and to the
nearest integer. (3)
c Calculate the exact value of t when V = 1400 (4)

y
3 The diagram shows a sketch of the curve
f(x) = (4 – 3x)ex, x ∈ ℝ. A

a Using calculus, find the exact coordinates of the

turning point at A. (5)
b State the range of f(x). (2)
c Sketch the curve of y = |f(x)|. Show the coordinates
where the curve crosses or meets the axes. (4) O x
 EXAM PRACTICE 175

4 The diagram shows a sketch of the curve y = f(x). y

The curve passes through the point (0, 1). The point
A(3, 2) is a maximum. A(3, 2)
On separate axes, sketch the graphs of:
(0, 1)
a y = f(–x) + 1 (3) b y = f(x + 3) + 2 (3)
O x
c y = 2f(3x) (3)
On each sketch, show the coordinates where your graph
intersects the y-axis and the coordinates of the point to
which A is transformed.

5 f(x) = 3 sin2 x + 2 cos2 x

5 – cos 2x
_________
a Show that f(x) = (4)
2 π
_

∫0
4
b Hence find the exact value of f(x)d x (4)

π
6 y = x2 + sin (__x)
2
dy
a Find _________ (4)
dx
b Hence find the equation of the normal to the curve at x = –1 (4)

∫
π
__
3k __
7 Given that π
__ (1 – π sin kx) dx = π (7 – 6√ 2 ), find the exact value of k. (8)
4k

3x3 – 10x2 + 8x + 1
8 f(x) = _________________
x2 – 4x + 4
C D
Write f(x) in the form Ax + B + _____ + ______2 (7)
x – 2 (x – 2)
1
9 f(x) = _____ + 3
4−x
a Calculate f(3.9) and f(4.1). (2)
b Explain why the equation f(x) = 0 does not have a root in the interval 3.9 < x < 4.1 (1)
The equation f(x) = 0 has a single root, α.
c Use algebra to find the exact value of α. (2)

10 Integrate the following expressions with respect to x:

a e4x + 3 (2)
cos 4x
______
b (5)
esin4x
TOTAL FOR PAPER: 75 MARKS
176 GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY
acute (angle) an angle less than 90° exponential an exponential function has the form
algebraic fraction a fraction where the numerator f(x) = ax
and denominator are polynomials expression a mathematical expression contains
algebraic long division the process of dividing numbers and/or variables, e.g. 2x3 + 4ln x + sin x
the denominator into the numerator of an factor a quantity that divides into another quantity
algebraic fraction exactly. x + 1 is a factor of x2 + 3x + 2
appropriate a mathematical function may act as a factorise to rewrite an expression using brackets.
model for a real-life process. If the model describes We factorise x2 + 3x + 2 to get (x + 1)(x + 2)
the process well under all circumstances, it is highly from first principles proving something without
appropriate using other proofs such as Pythagoras’ theorem
argument an input to a function gradient slope
asymptote when a curve approaches but never quite identity an equality between expressions that is true
reaches a line, that line is an asymptote for all values of the variables in those expressions
cancel (out) remove identical values from both the improper algebraic fraction a fraction whose
numerator and denominator in order to simplify an numerator has a degree (power) equal to or greater
ab ___
ab __b than the denominator
expression. For example ___
ac = ac = c
integrand an expression which is to be integrated
chord a line segment joining two points on the
circumference of a circle intercept (verb) to cross an axis
common factor a quantity that will divide without intercept (noun) the place where a line or curve
remainder into two or more other quantities crosses an axis
common multiple a multiple of two or more intersection the point at which two or more curves
quantities cross (intersect)
constant a term that does not include a variable. In interval the limits of an expression, e.g. –π < θ < π
the expression 3x2 + 4x + 5, the term 5 is a constant iteration the repeated application of a mathematical
converge to approach a limit more and more closely process
coordinate axes the two perpendicular lines by LHS le"-hand side; opposite of RHS
which the positions of points are measured on limit a value above or below which an expression
a graph cannot go. The upper limit of sin θ is 1
coordinates a set of values, e.g. (3, 2), that show an linear where the variables have the power 1. Hence
exact position. The first value represents a point on 1
y = 2x + 3 is a linear equation but y = x2 and y = __x
the x-axis; the second value represents a point on the
(y = x−1) are not. A linear equation can be represented
y-axis
by a straight line
deduce to reach a logical conclusion. If x + 2 = 3,
logarithm the power to which the base number
we can deduce that x = 1
must be raised in order to get a particular number.
denominator the lower part of a fraction. For For example, log2 32 = 5 ⇒ 25 = 32
A
example, B is the denominator in the fraction __ long term a"er a long time
B
derivative the rate of change of a mathematical midpoint (of a line segment) a point on a line
function; the result of differentiation segment that divides it into two equal parts
differentiation calculating the instantaneous rate of model a mathematical method of describing a
change of a function real-life process
displacement change of position modulus The positive value of an expression. The
modulus of –2 is +2. The modulus of +2 is also +2
expand to write a mathematical expression in
an extended form. For example, (x + y)3 can be normal a line intersecting a curve at right angles to
expanded to x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3 the tangent at that point
 GLOSSARY 177

numerator the upper part of a fraction. For example, RHS right-hand side; opposite of LHS
A
A is the numerator in the fraction __ roots (of an equation) the set of all possible solutions
B
simplify to replace an expression with a simpler,
obtuse (angle) an angle greater than 90° but less
usually shorter, one
than 180°
sketch (noun or verb) a drawing that explains
origin the point where the y-axis and x-axis intersect
something without necessarily being accurate
outlier a value that lies well outside the other values
stationary point the point on a function where the
in a data set
gradient is zero
parallel two lines side by side, the same distance
stretch to make something longer or (in mathematics
apart at every point
only) shorter
partial fractions when an algebraic fraction is
substitute to replace something (e.g. a variable) with
converted into a number of simpler fractions, these
something else (e.g. a value). If y = x3 + 1
are called partial fractions. For example
and we substitute x = 2, we find that y = 23 + 1 = 9
3x2 – 3x – 2 2 4
___________ ≡ 3 + _____ + _____ successive following one a"er the other
(x – 1)(x – 2) x–1 x–2
point marks a location but has no size itself symmetrical, symmetry two shapes are symmetrical
if one can be transformed into the other by reflecting,
point of inflection a point where the derivative
rotating or stretching
changes sign
translate move (a shape)
polynomial an expression involving integer powers
of a variable, e.g. x2 + 5x + 2 translation moves a shape
quotient a result obtained by dividing one quantity trend the general direction in which a group of
by another points seems to be going
dy
real a number that can be represented by a (possibly turning point a point at which ___ changes sign
infinite)__ decimal expansion. Examples include dx
3, –3, √3 , _13 , log 3, sin 3, π and e It is also known as a maximum, a minimum or a
stationary point. However, not all stationary points
rearrange to put terms in a different order: are turning points. For example, a point of inflection
3x + x2 + 2 → x2 + 3x + 2 is a stationary point but not a turning point
1
reciprocal the reciprocal of a number x is __
x. undefined not having a meaning or a value;
1 for example, the result of division by zero
Every number has a reciprocal apart from 0, as __ is
0
not defined vertex (plural vertices) where two lines meet at an
reflection when an object is mirrored on a line of angle, especially in a shape such as a triangle
symmetry
178 ANSWERS

ANSWERS
CHAPTER 1 Exercise 1C
Prior knowledge check 1 A = 1, B = 1, C = 2, D = –6
x 2 a = 2, b = –3, c = 5, d = –10
1 a 15x7 b ___
3y 3 p = 1, q = 2, r = 4
2 a (x – 1)(x – 5) b (x + 4)(x – 4) c (3x – 5)(3x + 5) 4 m = 2, n = 4, p = 7
x−3 x+4 x+5 5 A = 4, B = 1, C = –8 and D = 3
3 a _____ b _______ c – _____
x+6 3x + 1 x+3 6 A = 4, B = –13, C = 33 and D = –27
7 p = 1, q = 0, r = 2, s = 0 and t = –6
Exercise 1A 8 a = 2, b = 1, c = 1, d = 5 and e = –4
x−8 x−8 9 A = 3, B = −4, C = 1, D = 4, E = 1
1 All factors cancel exactly except _____ = _______ = –1 10 a (x2 – 1) (x2 + 1) = (x – 1)(x + 1)(x2 + 1)
8 − x −(x − 8)
2 a = 5, b = 12 b (x – 1)(x2 + 1), a = 1, b = –1, c = 1, d = 0 and e = 1
x−4
________
3
2x + 10
Chapter review 1
2x2 − 3x − 2 x−2
4 a ____________ ÷ ______________ 1 a x3 – 7
x+4
b _____
2x – 1
c _______
6x − 8 3x2 + 14x − 24 x–1 2x + 1
2x2 − 3x − 2 3x2 + 14x − 24 2 3x2 + 5
= ____________ × ______________
6x − 8 x−2 3 2x2 – 2x + 5
(2x + 1)(x − 2) ______________
______________ (3x − 4)(x + 6) 2(x2 + 4)(x − 5) 2x + 3
= × 4 a __13 b ______________ c _______
2(3x − 4) x−2 (x2 − 7)(x + 4) x
(2x + 1)(x + 6) _____________
______________ 2x2 + 13x + 6
= = 2x − 4
_______ − 1)
4(e6
2 2 5 a b ________
x−4 e6 − 2
b f9(x) = 2x + __
13
2
; f9(4) = __
29
2
6 a a = __34 , b = – __
13
8
, c = – __58

Exercise 1B b g9(x) = __32 x − __

13
8
, g9(–2) = – __
37
8
7 7 p+q 7 3−x 2a − 15
1 a ___ b ___ c _____ d ___ e _____ f _______ 6x + 18x + 5
2
12 20 pq 8x x2 10b 7 _____________
x2 − 3x − 10
x+3 −x + 7 8x − 2
2 a _______ b ____________ c _____________ 8
3 12
x + _____ − ___________
x(x + 1) (x − 1)(x + 2) (2x + 1)(x − 1) x − 1 x 2 + 2x − 3
−x − 5 2x − 4 23x + 9 x(x + 3)(x − 1) 3(x + 3)
d _______ e _______2 f _____________ 12
= _____________ + ____________ − ____________
6 (x + 4) 6(x + 3)(x − 1) (x + 3)(x − 1) (x + 3)(x − 1) (x + 3)(x − 1)
x+3 3x + 1 −x − 7 (x 2 + 3x + 3)(x − 1) x 2 + 3x + 3
3 a _______2 b ____________ c _____________2 = _________________ = ___________
(x + 1) (x − 2)(x + 2) (x + 1)(x + 3) (x + 3)(x − 1) x+3
3x + 3y + 2 2x + 5 7x + 8 9 A = 1, B = −4, C = 3, D = 8
d ____________ e _____________ f _________________
(y − x)(y + x) (x + 2) 2(x + 1) (x + 2)(x + 3)(x − 4) 10 A = 2, B = −4, C = 6, D = −11
11 A = 1, B = 0, C = 1, D = 3
2x − 19
____________
4
(x + 5)(x − 3)
Challenge
6x + 14x + 6
2 − x − 24x − 8
2 1 A = 2, B = −3, C = __34
, D = __
73
5 a _____________ b _______________ 11 11
x(x + 1)(x + 2) 3x(x − 2)(2x + 1) 2 (ax3 + bx2 + cx + d) ÷ (x – p)
= (ax2 + (b + ap)x + d) + (c + bp + ap2)
9x 2− 14x − 7
c _________________ with a remainder of d + cp + bp2 + ap3
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x − 3)
f(p) = ap3 + bp2 + cp + d = 0, which matches the
50x + 3 remainder, so (x – p) is a factor of f(x).
6 ______________
(6x + 1)(6x − 1) 3 a f(−3) = 0 or f(x) = (x + 3)(2x2 + 3x +1)
1 8 5
6 36 b _______ + ________ − _______
7 a g(x) = x + _____ + ___________ (x + 3) (2x + 1) (x + 1)
x + 2 x 2 − 2x − 8
x(x + 2)(x − 4) 6(x − 4) 36
= _____________ + ____________ + ____________ CHAPTER 2
(x + 2)(x − 4) (x + 2)(x − 4) (x + 2)(x − 4)
x 3 − 2x 2 − 2x + 12 Prior knowledge check
= __________________
(x + 2)(x − 4) 9 − 5x 5p − 8x 5x − 4
1 a y = _______ b y = ________ c y = _______
b Divide x3 – 2x2 – 2x + 12 by (x + 2) to give x2 – 4x + 6 7 2 8 + 9x

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 179

2 a 25x2 – 30x + 5 or 5(5x2 – 6x +1) 7 a y

1 3x + 7
b ________ c _______
6x − 14 −x − 1
3 a y y = | 12 x – 2|
y = x(x + 4)(x – 5)
O x
y = –2x
b x = – __43
8 x = –3, x = 4
–4 O 5 x 9 a y
y = |6 – x|

b y
y = sinx
1 y = 12 x – 5
6

O 6 10 x
O 90° 180° 270° 360° x –5

–1
b The two graphs do not intersect, therefore there are
4 a 28 b 0 c 18 no solutions to the equation |6 – x| = __12 x – 5
10 Value for x cannot be negative as it equals a modulus.
Exercise 2A
11 a y y = 2x – 9
1 a __34 b 0.28 c 8 d __
19
56
e 4 f 11
2 a 5 b 46 c 40 O x
3 a 16 b 65 c 0
4 a Positive |x| graph with vertex at (1, 0),
y-intercept at (0, 1)
b Positive |x| graph with vertex at (–1__12 , 0),
y-intercept at (0, 3) y = – | 3x + 4 |
c Positive |x| graph with vertex at (__74 , 0),
y-intercept at (0, 7)
d Positive |x| graph with vertex at (10, 0),
y-intercept at (0, 5) b x < –13 or x > 1
e Positive |x| graph with vertex at (7, 0), 12 –23 < x < __53
y-intercept at (0, 7)
13 a k = –3 b Solution is x = 6
f Positive |x| graph with vertex at (__32 , 0),
y-intercept at (0, 6) Challenge
g Negative |x| graph with vertex and y-intercept at (0, 0) a y f(x) = | x2 + 9x + 8 |
h Negative |x| graph with vertex at (__13 , 0),
y-intercept at (0, –1)
5 a y
g(x) = | 4 – 32 x |
5
h(x) = 5
4 O x
g(x) = 1 – x
__ __
b There are 4 solutions: x = –5 ± 3√ 2 and x = –4 ± √ 7
O 8 x
3
Exercise 2B
b x = – __23 and x = 6 1 a i b i
3 12 –3
6 a x = 2 or x = – __43 b x = 7 or x = 3 3 6
4 17 –2
c No solution d x = 1 or x = – __17 2 1
5 22
e x = – __25 or x = 2 f x = 24 or x = –12 –1 –2
6 27 1
0 –3
ii one-to-one ii many-to-one
iii {f(x) = 12, 17, 22, 27} iii {f(x) = –3, –2, 1, 6}
180 ANSWERS

c i d i y f(x) = x + 2 ii f(x) > 0

–1 1 iii one-to-one
7
0 4

1 7 O x
e i y f(x) = ex ii f(x) > 1
ii one-to-one
iii one-to-one
iii {f(x) = 1, __74 , 7}
2 a i one-to-one ii function
b i one-to-one ii function
c i one-to-many ii not a function 1
d i one to many ii not a function
O x
e i one to one
ii not valid at the asymptote, so not a function f i y ii f(x) ∈ ℝ
f i many to one __ ii function f(x) = 7 log x iii one-to-one
3 a 6 b ±2√ 5 c 4 d 2, –3
4 a i b i
1 3 1 1
2 5 4 2
3 7 9 3 O 1 x
16 4
4 9 25 5 6 a g(x) is not a function because it is not defined for
5 11 36 6 x=4

ii one-to-one ii one-to-one b y c i 1 ii 109

d a = –86 or a = 9
c i d i f(x) = x2 + 9
–2 1 2
4
2 2 1
4
–1 3 2
f(x) = 4 – x
1 3
1 4 1
2 O 4 x
0 0 5 2
5
7 a y b –7
ii many-to-one ii one-to-one 10 s(x) c –2 and 5
e i
–2 3.14
–1 3.37 O x
–6
0 4
1 5.72 8 a y
2 10.39

4
ii one-to-one
1
5 a i y ii f(x) > 2 O x
–5 4
f(x) = 3x + 2 iii one-to-one
b a = –3.91 or a = 3.58
9 a y
2
27
O x
14
b i y ii f(x) > 9
f(x) = x2 + 5 iii one-to-one 2
–10 –4 O 6 x
b Range {2 < h(x) < 27} c a = –9, a = 0
10 c = __25 , d = __
44
(2, 9) 5
11 a = 2, b = –1
O x
12 a = 3
c i y ii 0 < f(x) < 2
f(x) = 2 sin x iii many-to-one Exercise 2C
2
1 a 7 b __94 or 2.25 c 0.25
d –47 e –26
1
2 a 4x2 – 15 b + 8x – 3 c ___2 – 4
16x2
O x x
4
__
d +1 e 16x + 5
x

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 181

3 a fg(x) = 3x2 – 2 b x=1 2 a f –1(x) = 10 – x, x ∈ ℝ b g –1(x) = 5x, x ∈ ℝ

4x − 5 3
4 a qp(x) = _______ b x= __
9 c h–1(x) = __, x ≠ 0 d k–1(x) = x + 8, x ∈ ℝ
x−2 4 x
5 a 23 b x = __
13
or x = __
13 3 Domain becomes x < 4
7 5
1
0 , g(x) < __13 ii g –1(x) = __
a f 2(x) = f (_____) = ___________ = _____
1 1 x+1 4 a i
6 x

(x + 1)
x+1 1
_____ x+2 iii x ∈ ℝ, 0 < x < __13 , g –1(x) > 3
+ 1
iv y
x + 2
b f 3(x) = _______
2x + 3
g –1(x) = 1
7 a 2x + 3 b 2x + 3 x
8 a 20x b x20
9 a (x__+ 3)3 – 1, qp(x) > – 1 b 999 c x=2 3
√6 g (x) = 1
10 3 ± ___ 1 x
2 3
x
O 1 3
11 a –8 < g(x) < 12 b 6 c 10.5 3

x+1
b i g(x) > –1 ii g –1(x) = _____
Exercise 2D 2
x−3 iii x ∈ ℝ, x > –1, g –1(x) > 0
1 a i y∈ℝ ii f –1(x) = _____
2
iv y
iii Domain: x ∈ ℝ, Range: y ∈ ℝ g (x) = 2x – 1
iv y f (x) = 2x + 3
f –1(x) = x – 3 g –1(x) = x + 1
3 2 2
– 32
O 3 x
–1 O x
– 32 –1

b i y∈ℝ ii f –1(x) = 2x – 5 2x + 3
c i g(x) > 0 ii g-1(x) = _______
iii Domain: x ∈ ℝ, Range: y ∈ ℝ x
iv iii x ∈ ℝ, x > 0, g –1(x) > 2
y f –1(x) = 2x – 5
iv y
3
f (x) = x + 5 g(x) =
x–2
5 2
2

–5 O 5 x
2
g –1(x) = 2x + 3
–5 x

4−x
c i{y ∈ ℝ ii f –1(x) = _____
3 O x
iii Domain: x ∈ ℝ, Range: y ∈ ℝ
d i g(x) > 2 ii g –1(x) = x2 + 3
iv f (x) = 4 – 3x y
iii x ∈ ℝ, x > 2, g –1(x) > 7
f –1(x) = 4 – x iv y
3 4 g –1(x) = x2 + 3
4
3 7
O 4
4 x
3

_____
d i y∈ℝ ii f –1(x) = √ x + 7
3
g (x) = x – 3
iii Domain: x ∈ ℝ, Range: y ∈ ℝ 2
iv y
f (x) = x3 – 7
O 2 7 x
3
f (x) = x–7

–7 O x

–7
182 ANSWERS

_____
e i g(x) > 6 ii g –1(x) = √ x − 2 Exercise 2E
iii x ∈ ℝ, x > 6, g –1(x) > 2 1 a y b y
f (x) = x2 – 7x – 8 y = | f (x) |
iv y
g (x) = x2 + 2 8

6
–1 O 8 x –1O 8 x

–8
g –1(x) = x – 2
2
c y
O 2 6 x y = f (| x |)
3 _____
f i g(x) > 0 ii = √x + 8 g –1(x)
iii x ∈ ℝ, x > 0, g –1(x) > 2 –8 O 8 x
iv y –8
g (x) = x3 – 8

3 2 a y
g –1 (x) = x+8 g(x) = cos x
1
2
O 2 x
_____
–360 O 360 x
–1
5 = √ x + 4 + 3, x ∈ ℝ, x >_____
t –1(x) 0
6 a −2 b m −1(x) = √ x − 5 − 2 c x.5
7 a h(x) tends to infinity b y
b 7 y = | g (x) |
1
2x + 1
c h−1(x) = _______ x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ 2
x−2
__ __
–360 O 360 x
d 2 + √5 , 2 − √5
8 a nm(x) = x
c y
b The functions m and n are inverse of one another as
y = g(|x|)
mn(x) = nm(x) = x 1
3
3 − _____
3 x−1
360 x
9 st(x) = _________ = x, ts(x) = _________ =x O
3−x 3 –360
_____ +1 _____ –1
x x+1
______

10 a f (x) = −
−1 x+3
_____
2 √
x ∈ ℝ, x > −3 3 a y h(x) = (x – 1)(x – 2)(x + 3)
b a = −1
11 a f (x) > –5 b f –1(x) = ln(x + 5) x ∈ ℝ, x > −5
c y = f(x) 6
x = –5 y
y=x

–3 O 1 2 x
y = f–1 (x)
1.6
b y
–4 1.6 y = |h(x)|
–4
y = –5
6

d g –1(x) = ex + 4, x ∈ ℝ e x = 1.95
3(x + 2) –3 O 1 2 x
2
12 a f(x) = ___________ − _____
x 2 + x − 20 x − 4
3(x + 2) 2(x + 5) x−4 c y
= ____________ − ____________ = ____________ y = h (| x |)
(x + 5)(x − 4) (x + 5)(x − 4) (x + 5)(x − 4)
1 6
= _____
x+5
b y ∈ ℝ, y < __19
–2 –1 O 1 2 x
1
c f −1 : x → __ − 5. Domain is x ∈ ℝ, x < __19 and x ≠ 0
x

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 183

4 a y b y
a
k(x) = ,a>0
x2 y = | k (x) |

O x
O x
c y
b Both these graphs would match the original graph.
y = k(|x|)
c y
O x
O x
a
m(x) = 2 , a < 0 8 a y b They are
x
a
m(x) = x , a < 0 reflections of
a −a |
d i
x | | | |
True, |k(x)| = ___2 = ____
x2
= m(x)| each other
in the x-axis.
a −a |m(x)| = –m(|x|)
ii False, k(|x|) = ____2 ≠ ____2 = m(|x|) O x
|x| |x|

−a −a
iii True, m(|x|) = ____2 = ____ = m(x)
|x| x2
5 a y
9 a y b They would
y = |p(x)|
B(–4, 5) g(x) = 2 –x f(x) = 2 x be the same
as the original
3 D
graph.
A C E(2, 1)
–8 –2 O x
O x
b y
y = p (| x |) c y
3 D y = f(| x |)

(–2, 1) E(2, 1)
O x
y = g(| x |)
6 a B(–8, 9) y
O x
y = | q (x) |
10 a – 4 < f(x) < 9
D(–4, 3) 4 F y
y = f(x)
A C D G
–10 –5 –3 O 4 x

1
b y –3 –1O x
y = q (| x |)

G b y
–4 O 4 x y = | f(x) |
–4 F

7 a y 1
a –3 –1O x
k(x) = x , a > 0

c y
O x y = f(| x |)

1
O x
184 ANSWERS

Exercise 2F 4 a y
1 a y (3, 14) b y y = g(x)

O (5, –1) x –1 O 5 x
(0, 2)
–5
x (2, –5)
O (0, –7)
(–2, –4) (2, –9)
y b i (6, −18) ii (1, −9) iii (2, 9)
c y (2, 2) d (–1, 2)
c y
(–1, 0) y = g(| x |)
O x
O x
(–3, –1) –5 O 5 x
( 32 , –4) –5

e y f y (–2, –9) (2, –9)

(3, 4) (–3, 4)
(2, 2) 5 a y
(–2, 2) B(90, 2)
2 y = h(x)
O x O x
–180 –90 O 90 180 x
2 a y (1, 12) b y
(–2, 2) –2
A(–90, –2)
3
2
b A(–90, –2) and B(90, 2)
–4 O x
c i y
O x B(180, 3)
3
y = h(x – 90º) + 1
c y d y
O(90, 1)
1 –3 O x
–90 O 90 180 270 x
–1 A(0, –1)
–1 O x
(–2, –8) ii y
e y B(180, 12 )
1
6 2 y = 14 h( 12 x)

–360 –180 O 180 360 x

1
– 12
O x A(–180, – ) 2

3 a y b y iii y
A(–90, 1) B(90, 1)
1
y = 12 |h(–x)|

O x –180 –90 O 90 180 x

–1
O x
A = (0, 2), x = 2, y = −1 A = (−2, 5), x = 0, y = 4
c y d y Exercise 2G
1 a Range f(x) > −3
O x y
y = 4|x| – 3

O x – 34 O 3
4
x
A = (0, −1), x = 1, y = 0 A = (0, 1), x = 2, x = −2, y = 0
–3

b Range f(x) > –1

y
y = 13 |x + 2| – 1
O
–5 1 x
– 13

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 185

c Range f(x) < 6 Challenge

y 1 a A(3, –6) and B(7, –2) b 6 units2
2 Graphs intersect at x = __13 and x = __
17
4 y = –2|x – 1| + 6 3
Maximum point of f(x) is (3, 10). Minimum point of g(x)
is (3, 2). Using area of a kite, area = __
64
3
–2 O 4 x

Chapter review 2
d Range f(x) < 4 1 a y b x = 0, x = −4
y = 2| x + 1|
y
4
y = – 52 |x| + 4
O x
O
x y=2–x
– 8 8
k > – __
5 5 11
2 4

3 x = – __
24
19
or x = __
40
21
2 a, b y
4 a y y = | 12 – 5x|
y = 2|x + 4| – 5

O x
O x y = –2x + 3

b The graphs do not intersect, so there are no

solutions.
3 a, b y 5 a i one-to-many ii not a function
b i one-to-one ii function
y = –3|x| + 6 c i many-to-one ii function
d i many-to-one ii function
O x e i one-to-one ii not a function
f i one-to-one ii not a function
6 a y
(6, 4)
4 a y
(–2, 2)

O x
y = 4|x + 6| + 1 (1, –1)

b __12 and 1 __12 ___

–3 ± √ 21
O x 7 a pq(x) = 4x2 + 10x b x = ________
4
8 a Range g(x) > 7
b f(x) > 1 c x = – __
16
3
and x = – __
48
7 y g(x)
5 a y y=x
y = – 52 |x – 2| + 7
g –1(x)
7
O x

O 7 x

c x = – __23 or x = __
22 x−7
b g(x) < 7 7 b g −1(x) = _____ , x ∈ ℝ, x > 7
2
6 k < 14
c g −1(x) is a reflection of g(x) in the line y = x
7 b=2
x+3
8 a h(x) > –7 9 a f −1(x) = _____ , x ∈ ℝ, x > 2
b Original function is many-to-one, therefore the x−2
inverse is one-to-many, which is not a function. b i Range f −1(x) > 1 ii x ∈ ℝ, x . 2
c − __12 < x < __52 d k < – __
23 x 1 x 1
3 10 a f(x) = ______ − _____ = _____________ − _____
x2 − 1 x + 1 (x − 1)(x + 1) x + 1
9 a a = 10 b P(–3, 10) and Q(2, 0)
x x−1 1
c x = – __67 or x = –6 = _____________ − _____________ = _____________
(x − 1)(x + 1) (x − 1)(x + 1) (x − 1)(x + 1)
10 a m(x) < 7 b x = – __
35
23
or x = –5
b f(x) > 0 c x=6
c k<7
186 ANSWERS

11 a 20, 28, __19 b f(x) > −8, g(x) ∈ ℝ

19 a Positive |x| graph with vertex at (__, 0) and
a
3 _____ 2
c g −1(x) = √ x − 1 , x ∈ ℝ y-intercept at (0, a).
b Positive |x| graph with vertex at (__, 0) and
d 4(x3 − 1) e a = __53 a
_______
4
12 a a = –3 b f −1 : x ↦ √ x + 13 − 3, x > –4 y-intercept at (0, a).
x+1 c a = 6, a = 10
13 a f −1(x) = _____ , x ∈ ℝ
4 20 a Positive |x| graph with vertex at (2a, 0) and
3 y-intercept at (0, a).
b gf(x) = _______ , x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ __38
8x − 3 3a
b x = ___ , x = 3a
c −0.076 and 0.826 (3 d.p.) 2
2x c Negative |x| graph with x-intercepts at (a, 0) and
14 a f −1(x) = _____ , x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ 1
x−1 (3a, 0) and y-intercept at (0, −a).
b Range f −1(x) ∈ ℝ, f −1(x) ≠ 2 21 a, b y
c −1 d 1, __65
__
15 a 8, 9 b −45 and 5√ 2
a
16 a y y = | 2x + a| y = 1x

y = tan x a O x
2

–180 –90 O 90 180 x _______

−a + √ (a2 + 8)
c One intersection point d x = _____________
4
22 a (1, 2), ( __52 , 5 ln __52 − __
13
4
)
b y
b y

y = | tan x |

O x
–180 –90 O 90 180 x
c y

y = tan| x | c (3, −6), Minimum

(__92 , __
39
4
− 15 ln __52 ), Maximum
23 a –2 < f(x) < 18 b 0
–180 –90 O 90 180 x
c y d x = 2 or x = 5
18

17 a y b y
B(4.5, 4)
B(9, 3)
A(4, 3) 6
4

O x O x
A(2, –2) –5 –3.5 –2 O 7x
24 a p(x) < 10
c y b Original function is many-to-one, therefore the
A(6, 3)
inverse is one-to-many, which is not a function.
c −11 < x < 3
x d k>8
B(11, –3)
Challenge
18 a g(x) > 0 b x = 0, x = 8 a y
c y

x = 2 and x = 6 O x

O x b (−a, 0), (a, 0), (0, a2) c a=5

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 187

CHAPTER 3 Exercise 3B
Prior knowledge check 1 a y = sec θ
y
1 y
1 y = sin x
1
–540 0 540
–450 –270 –90 90 270 450 θ
–1
–180° O 180° x

–1
b y = cosec θ
a 53.1°, 126.9° (1 d.p.) b −23.6°, −156.4° (1 d.p.) y
1 1 1
_________ − _____ = _________ − _____ 1 − cos 2x
cos x _________
2 =
sin x cos x tan x sin x cos x sin x sin x cos x 1
sin 2x sin x
= _________ = _____ = tan x
sin x cos x cos x –540 –360 –180 0 180 360 540 θ
3 0.308, 1.26, 1.88, 2.83, 3.45, 4.40, 5.02, 5.98 (3 s.f.) –1

Exercise 3A
1 a +ve b −ve c −ve d +ve c y = cot θ
e −ve y
2 a −5.76 b −1.02 c −1.02 d 5.67
e 0.577 f −1.36 g −3.24 h 1.04
3 a 1 __ b −1 c −1 d −2
0 540 θ
2√ 3 –540 –360 –180 180 360
e − ____ f −1 g 2 h 2
3 __ __
__ √3
___ 2√ 3 __
i − √2 j k ____ l −√ 2
3 3
1 1
4 cosec(π − x) = _________ = _____ = cosec x 2 a y
sin (π − x) sin x y = –x y = cot x
__
1 1 √3 2__
5 cot 30° sec 30° = _______ × _______ = ___ × ___ =2
tan 30° cos 30° 1 √3

cosec(___) + sec (___) = ________ + ________

2π 2π 1 1
6
sin (___) cos (___)
3 3 2π 2π –π O π x
3 3
1
1__ ____
= ___ +
√3 1
___ − __
2 2
b 2 solutions
2__ 2 __
= −2 + ___ = −2 + __√ 3 3 a y
√3 3

Challenge y = sec θ

a Using triangle OBP, OB cos θ = 1

1
⇒ OB = _____ = sec θ
cos θ 0 90 180 270 360 θ
b Using triangle OAP, OA sin θ = 1 y = –cos θ
1
⇒ OA = _____ = cosec θ
sin θ
c Using Pythagoras’ theorem, AP2 = OA2 − OP2 y = sec θ
1
So AP2 = cosec2 θ − 1 = _____ −1 b The solutions of sec θ = −cos θ are the θ values of the
sin2 θ
points of intersection of y = sec θ and y = −cos θ.
1 − sin2 θ ______
cos2 θ
= _________ = = cot2 θ As they do not meet, there are no solutions.
sin2 θ sin2 θ
Therefore AP = cot θ
188 ANSWERS

4 a y 7 a y y = sec 2θ
y = cot θ

1
(180, 1)
0 90 180 270 360 θ 0 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360° θ
y = sin 2θ –1

b 6 (90°, –1) (270°, –1)

5 a y y = tan θ
b y y = –cosec θ

1
(270°, 1)
0 90 180 270 360 θ 0 90° 180° 270° 360° θ
–1

(90°, –1)
y
c y
y = cot (θ + 90°)
y = 1 + sec θ

2
180°
0 90 180 270 360 θ
0 90° 270° 360° θ
–2

b cot(θ + 90°) = −tan θ (180°, 0)

π
( 2)
6 a i The graph of y = tan θ + __ is the same as that
d y
π
of y = tan θ translated by __ to the left.
2
ii The graph of y = cot(−θ ) is the same as that of y = cosec (θ – 30°)
y = cot θ reflected in the y-axis. 1
π (120°, 1)
( 4)
iii The graph of y = cosec θ + __ is the same as
0 30° 210° 300° 360° θ
π –1
that of y = cosec θ translated by __ to the left.
4 (0, –2)
π
( 4)
iv The graph of y = sec θ − __ is the same as that
(300°, –1)
π
of y = sec θ translated by __ to the right.
4
e y
π π π
( 2) ( 4) ( 4)
b tan θ + __ = cot(−θ); cosec θ + __ = sec θ − __
4
y = 2 sec (θ – 60°)

2
(60°, 2)

O 150° 330° θ

(240°, –2)
–2

–4

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 189

f y 10 a y

(0, 1.155) y = 1 + 2 sec θ

1 3
(15°, 1) (195°, 1)

O 150° 330° θ
(105°, –1) (285°, –1)
–1
–π O 3π 2π θ
–π π
2 2
π
–1 2

y = cosec (2θ + 60°)

g y b θ = −π, 0, π, 2π
c Max = __13 , first occurs at θ = 2π
Min = −1, first occurs at θ = π
1
(45°, 0) (225°, 0) Exercise 3C
(135°, 0) (315°, 0) 1 a cosec3 θ b 4 cot6 θ c __12 sec2 θ
O 90° 180° 270° 360° θ d cot2 θ e sec5 θ f cosec2 θ
_____
g 2√ cot θ h sec3 θ
–1 __
2 a __
5
b − __12 c ±√ 3
4
3 a cos θ b 1 c sec 2θ
y = –cot 2θ d 1 e 1 f cos A
g cos x
sin θ cos2 θ + sin2 θ
h y 4 a LHS = cos θ + sin θ _____ = _____________
cos θ cos θ
1
= _____ = sec θ = RHS
cos θ
y = 1 – 2 sec θ cos θ sin θ cos2 θ + sin2 θ
b LHS = _____ + _____ = _____________
(180°, 3) sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ
1 1 1
= __________ = _____ × _____
sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ
180° 360° = cosec θ sec θ = RHS
O (0°, –1) 1 1 − sin2 θ cos2 θ
c LHS = _____ − sin θ = _________ = ______
θ
(360°, –1) sin θ sin θ sin θ
cos θ
= cos θ × _____ = cos θ cot θ = RHS
sin θ
d LHS = (1 − cos x)(1 + _____ ) = 1 − cos x + _____ − 1
1 1
cos x cos x
2π
8 a ___ b 4π c π d 2π 1 1 − cos2 x sin2 x
3 = _____ − cos x = _________ = ______
cos x cos x cos x
9 a y sin x
= sin x × _____ = sin x tan x = RHS
cos x
y = 3 + 5 cosec x cos2 x + (1 − sin x)2
e LHS = __________________
(1 − sin x) cos x
cos 2 x + 1 − 2 sin x + sin2 x
= _________________________
8 (1 − sin x) cos x
3π 3π 2 − 2 sin x
______________ 2(1 − sin x)
– –π π = = ______________
2 2 2 2 (1 − sin x) cos x (1 − sin x) cos x
–2π –π –2 O π 2π x = 2 sec x = RHS
cos θ cos θ
f LHS = _________ = __________
tan θ ( tan θ )
1
1 + _____ tan θ + 1
_________

cos θ tan θ sin θ

= __________ = _________ = RHS
tan θ + 1 1 + tan θ

b −2 < k < 8
190 ANSWERS

5 a 45°, 315° b 199°, 341° 1 1 sin2 θ + cos2 θ

f LHS = ______ + _____ = _____________
c 112°, 292° d 30°, 150° cos2 θ sin2 θ cos2 θ sin2 θ
e 30°, 150°, 210°, 330° f 36.9°, 90°, 143°, 270° 1
g 26.6°, 207° h 45°, 135°, 225°, 315° = ___________ = sec2 θ cosec2 θ = RHS
cos2 θ sin2 θ

( cos2 A )
6 a 90° b ±109° sin2 A
g LHS = cosec A(1 + tan2 A) = cosec A 1 + ______
c −164°, 16.2° d 41.8°, 138°
e ±45°, ±135° f ±60° 1 sin2 A sin A 1
g −173°, −97.2°, 7.24°, 82.8° = cosec A + _____ . ______ = cosec A + _____ . _____
sin A cos2 A cos A cos A
h −152°, −36.5°, 28.4°, 143°
= cosec A + tan A sec A = RHS
5π 11π 2π ___4π π 3π
7 a π b ___ , ____ c ___ , d __ , ___ h LHS = sec2 θ − sin2 θ = (1 + tan2 θ) − (1 − cos2 θ )
6 6 3 3 4 4
AB = tan2 θ + cos2 θ = RHS
8 a ____ = cos θ ⇒ AD = 6 sec θ __
√2
AD 7 ___
AC 4
___ = cos θ ⇒ AC = 6 cos θ π
AB 8 a 20.9°, 69.1°, 201°, 249° b ± __
3
CD = AD − AC ⇒ CD = 6 sec θ − 6 cos θ π 3π 3π 7π
c −153°, −135°, 26.6°, 45° d __ , ___ , ___ , ___
= 6(sec θ − cos θ ) 2 4 2 4
b 2 cm π
e 120° f 0, __ , π
1
_____ cos x 4
− _____
sin x sin x _____
cosec x − cot x ____________ 1 1 − cos x π π 5π 4π
9 a ______________ = = × ________ g 0°, 180° h __ , __ , ___ , ___
1 − cos x 1 − cos x sin x 1 − cos x __
4 3 4 3
9 a 1 + √2
= cosec x __
√2 − 1
1 __ _______________ __
π 5π b cos k = _______ = __ = √2 − 1
b x = __, ___ __
6 6 1 + √ 2 (√ 2 − 1)(√ 2 + 1)
sin x tan x sin 2 x c 65.5°, 294.5°
10 a __________ − 1 = ______________ − 1 4
1 − cos x cos x (1 − cos x) 10 a b = __
a
(a)
2
sin 2 x − cos x + cos 2 x 1 − cos x 4
__
= ____________________ = ______________ cos2 x ______
______ b2 ________
cos x(1 − cos x) cos x(1 − cos x) b c = cot x =
2 2 = =
1 − (__)
sin2 x 1 − b2 4
2

1 a
= _____ = sec x
cos x
a2
16 _________ 16
b Would need to solve sec x = − __12 , which is equivalent = ___ × = _______
a2 (a2 − 16) a2 − 16
to cos x = −2, which has no solutions.
1 1 sec θ − tan θ
11 x = 11.3°, 191.3° (1 d.p.) 11 a __ = ____________ = _________________________
x sec θ + tan θ (sec θ − tan θ )(sec θ + tan θ )

Exercise 3D sec θ − tan θ sec θ − tan θ

= ______________ = ____________
(sec2 θ − tan2 θ ) 1
1 a ( )
sec2 __12 θ b tan2 θ c 1
b x2 + __2 + 2 = (x + __) = (2 sec θ )2 = 4 sec2 θ
2
d tan θ e 1 f 3 1 1
x x
g sin θ h 1 i cos θ
j 1 k 4 cosec4 (2θ) 12 p = 2(1 + tan2 θ ) − tan2 θ = 2 + tan2 θ
_____
±√ k − 1 1
2
__
⇒ tan2 θ = p − 2 ⇒ cot2 θ = _____
√3
p−2
3 a __12 b − ___ 1 ( p − 2) + 1 p − 1
2 cosec2 θ = 1 + cot2 θ = 1 + _____ = __________ = _____
4 a − __54 b − __45 c − __35 p−2 p−2 p−2

5 a − __
7
24
b − __
25
7 Exercise 3E
6 a LHS = (sec2 θ − tan2 θ )(sec2 θ + tan2 θ ) π π π π
1 a __ b __ c − __ d − __
= 1(sec2 θ + tan2 θ ) = RHS 2 2 4 6
b LHS = (1 + cot2 x) − (1 − cos2 x) 3π π π π
e ___ f − __ g __ h __
= cot2 x + cos2 x = RHS 4 6 3 3
π π
cos2 A ( sin2 A ) sin2 A − 1
1 cos2 A 1 2 a 0 b − __ c __
c LHS = ______ ______ − cos2 A = ______ 3 2
3 a __12 b − __12 c −1 d 0
= cosec2 A − 1 = cot2 A = RHS __ __
√3 √3
sin2 θ 4 a ___ b ___ c −1 d 2
d RHS = tan2 θ × cos2 θ = ______ × cos2 θ = sin2 θ 2 2
cos2 θ
e −1 f 1
= 1 − cos2 θ = LHS
5 α, π − α

( cos2 A )
1 − tan2 A sin2 A
e LHS = __________ = cos2 A 1 − ______ 6 a 0<x<1
sec2 A ______
x
b i √ 1 − x2 ii _______
______
= cos2 A − sin2 A = (1 − sin2 A) − sin2 A √ 1 − x2
= 1 − 2 sin2 A = RHS c i no change ii no change

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 191

7 a y 8 a y b
y = 2 + 2 arcsin x y
π
3π π
2
π
2 y = f(x)
2
y = g(x)

x
π
–1 1 1 1 x
–2 2
π
2
–π –π
2 2

π π
Range: − __ < f(x) < __
–1 O 1 x 2 2
2
2 c g: x → arcsin 2x, − __12 < x < __12
–π
2 π π
d g−1: x → __12 sin x, − __ < x < __
2 2
π
[ 2]
b y 9 a Let y = arccos x. x ∈ [0,1] ⇒ y ∈ 0, __
3π _________ _____
2 cos y = x, so sin y = √ 1 − cos 2y = √ 1 − x 2
_____
π
[ 2]
(Note, sin y ≠ − √ 1 − x 2 since y ∈ 0, __ , so sin y > 0)
_____
y = arcsin √ 1 − x 2
_____
y = π – arctan x
π
Therefore, arccos x = arcsin√ 1 − x 2 for x ∈ [0,1]
π
(2 )
π
2 b For x ∈ (−1,0), arccos x ∈ __, π , but arcsin only
π π
[ 2 2]
has range − __, __

O x Challenge
a y b y
–π π
2
π
c y 2
π 1

0 π x
–1 –1 0 x
π
y = arccos (2x + 1) 2 1

π
2
π
Range: 0 < arcsec x < π, arcsec x ≠ __
2

Chapter review 3
O x 1 −125.3°, ±54.7°
–1
8
2 p = __
q
d y cos2 θ
3 p2q2 = sin2 θ × 42 cot2 θ = 16 sin2 θ × ______
π sin2 θ
= 16 cos θ = 16(1 − sin θ) = 16(1 − p2)
2 2

π 4 a i 60°
2 ii 30°, 41.8°, 138.2°,150°
b i 30°, 165°, 210°, 345°
ii 45°, 116.6°, 225°, 296.6°
–1 O 1 x 71π 101π
c i ____ , _____
60 60
π 5π 7π 11π
–π
2
y = –2arcsin (–x) ii __ , ___ , ___ , ____
6 6 6 6
5 − __85

–π
192 ANSWERS

a LHS = (_____ + _____)(sin θ + cos θ )

sin θ cos θ π 17π
6 11 ___ , ____
cos θ sin θ 12 12
(sin2 θ + cos2 θ ) π
= ______________ (sin θ + cos θ ) 12 __
cos θ sin θ 3
sin θ cos θ π 5π 4π 11π
= __________ + __________ 13 __ , ___ , ___ , ____
sin θ cos θ cos θ sin θ 3 6 3 6
= sec θ + cosec θ = RHS 14 a (sec x − 1)(cosec x − 2) b 30°, 150°
__
1
_____ 15 2 − √ 3
sin x
____________ 16 y
b LHS =
1
_____ − sin x
sin x
π

1
_____
sin x 1 sin x 1 y = arccos x
= _________ = _____ × ______ = ______ = sec2 x = RHS
π
2
1 − sin2 x sin x cos2 x cos2 x
_________
sin x 1
1
c LHS = 1 − sin x + cosec x − 1 = _____ − sin x –1 0 1 x
sin x
π π
2
1 − sin2 x cos2 x cos x y = cos x
= _________ = ______ = cos x _____ = cos x cot x
sin x sin x sin x
17 a − __1 b i − __53 ,
ii − __43 c 126.9°
= RHS 3
18 pq = (sec θ − tan θ )(sec θ + tan θ ) = sec2 θ − tan2 θ
cot x (1 + sin x) − cos x (cosec x − 1) 1
d LHS = ________________________________ = 1 ⇒ p = __
(cosec x − 1)(1 + sin x) q
cot x + cos x − cot x + cos x 2 cos x 19 a LHS = (sec2 θ − tan2 θ )(sec2 θ + tan2 θ )
= _________________________ = ______________ = 1 × (sec2 θ + tan2 θ ) = sec2 θ + tan2 θ = RHS
cosec x − 1 + 1 − sin x cosec x − sin x
b −153.4°, −135°, 26.6°, 45°
2 cos x 2 cos x 2 cos x sin x
= ____________ = ___________ = ___________ = 2 tan x 20 a y
( sin x )
1
_____ 1 − sin2x
_________ cos2 x
− sin x
sin x
1
cosec θ + 1 + cosec θ − 1 ________
2 cosec θ
e LHS = ___________________ =
(cosec2 θ − 1) cot2 θ A
2 sin2 θ2 sin θ 2 sin θ O π x
= _____ . ______ = ______ = _____ . _____ π
sin θ cos2 θ cos2 θ cos θ cos θ 2
= 2 sec θ tan θ = RHS
sec2 θ − tan2 θ ______
1
f LHS = _____________ = = cos2 θ = RHS
sec2 θ sec2 θ b y
sin2 x
+ (1 + cos x)2 π
7 a LHS = __________________ 2
(1 + cos x) sin x
sin2 x + 1 + 2 cos x + cos2 x 2 + 2 cos x B
= _________________________ = ______________ O x
(1 + cos x) sin x (1 + cos x) sin x 1
2(1 + cos x) 2
= ______________ = _____ = 2 cosec x
(1 + cos x) sin x sin x
π 2π 4π 5π c The regions A and B fit together to make a rectangle.
b − __ , − ___ , ___ , ___ y
3 3 3 3

RHS = (_____ + _____) = __________

(1 + cos θ)2 ___________
(1 + cos θ )2 π
cos θ
2
1
8 = 2
sin θ sin θ sin θ
2 1 − cos2 θ A
(1 + cos θ )2
1 + cos θ B
= ___________________ = _________ = LHS
(1 − cos θ )(1 + cos θ ) 1 − cos θ O x
__ 1
9 a −2√ 2
b cosec2 A = 1 + cot2 A = 1 + __18 = __98
__ π π
3__ 3√ 2 Area = 1 × __ = __
⇒ cosec A = ± ____ = ± ____ 2 2
√
2 2 4 __ __
3√ 2 1 1 2√ 3
2__ ____
As A is obtuse, cosec A is +ve, ⇒ cosec A = ____ 21 cot 60° sec 60° = _______ × _______ = ___ =
4 tan 60° cos 60° √ 3 3
1 1 k
10 a __ b k2 − 1 c − _______
______ d − _______
______
k √ k2 − 1 √ k2 − 1

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 193

22 a y Exercise 4A
1 a i (α − β) + β = α, so ∠FAB = α
ii ∠FAB = ∠ABD (alternate angles)
5 ∠CBE = 90 − α, so ∠BCE = 90 − (90 − α) = α
y = 2 – 3 sec x
AB
–2π O 2π iii cos β = ___ ⇒ AB = cos β
–π – π –1 x 1
3π 3π
–
π
2 2 BC
π
2 2 iv sin β = ___ ⇒ BC = sin β
1
AD
b i sin α = _____ ⇒ AD = sin α cos β
b −1 < k < 5 cos β
23 a y BD
ii cos α = _____ ⇒ BD = cos α cos β
π (1, π) cos β
CE
c i cos α = _____ ⇒ CE = cos α sin β
sin β
π
2

BE
ii sin α = _____ ⇒ BE = sin α sin β
–1.5 –1 –0.5 O 0.5 1 1.5 x sin β
–π FC
2 d i sin (α − β) = ___ ⇒ FC = sin (α − β)
y = 3 arcsin x – π 1
–π 2
FA
3π ii cos (α − β) = ___ ⇒ FA = cos (α − β)
– 1
2
–2π e i FC + CE = AD, so FC = AD − CE
(–1, –2π) sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β
ii AF = DB + BE
b (__12 , 0) cos (α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
_____
24 a Let y = arccos x. So cos y = x, sin y = √ 1 − x 2 sin (A − B) sin A cos B − cos A sin B
_____
√1 − x2
2 tan (A − B) = __________ = ______________________
Thus tan y = ________, which is valid for x ∈ (0, 1] cos (A − B) cos A cos B + sin A sin B
x _____
√1 − x2 ___________ cos A sin B
sin A cos B ___________
−
Therefore arccos x = arctan________ for 0 < x ≤ 1 cos A cos B cos A cos B ______________
_______________________ tan A − tan B
x = =
π sin A sin B 1 + tan A tan B
cos A cos B ___________
(2 )
b Letting y = arccos x, x ∈ (−1, 0) ⇒ y ∈ __, π ___________ +
_____ cos A cos B cos A cos B
sin y √ 1 − x 2 3 sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
tan y = _____ = ________
cos y
_____
x sin (P + (−Q)) = sin P cos (−Q) + cos P sin (−Q)
√ 1 − x 2
π π
( 2 2)
arctan ________ gives values in the range − __, __ sin (P − Q) = sin P cos Q − cos P sin Q
x
4 Example: with A = 60°, B = 30°
π __

(2 )
so for y ∈ __, π you need to add π: √3 1
sin (A + B) = sin 90° = 1; sin A + sin B = ___ + __ ≠ 1
_____ 2 2
√1 − x2
y = π + arctan ________ [You can find examples of A and B for which the
x _____ statement is true, e.g. A = 30°, B = −30°, but one
√1 − x2
Therefore arccos x = π + arctan ________ counter-example shows that it is not an identity.]
x
5 cos (θ − θ ) ≡ cos θ cos θ + sin θ sin θ
CHAPTER 4 ⇒ sin2 θ + cos2 θ ≡ 1 as cos 0 = 1
π π π
(2 )
6 a sin __ − θ ≡ sin __ cos θ − cos __ sin θ
Prior knowledge check 2 2
__
1__ √3 __ ≡ (1) cos θ − (0) sin θ = cos θ
1 a ___ b ___ c √3
π π π
(2 )
√2 2 b cos − θ ≡ cos __ cos θ − sin __ sin θ
__
2 a 194.2°, 245.8° b 45°, 165°, 225°, 345° c 270° 2 2
≡ (0) cos θ − (1) sin θ = sin θ
a LHS ≡ cos x + sin x tan x ≡ cos x + sin x(
cos x )
sin x
_____
3 __
π π π √3
( 6)
1
7 sin x + __ = sin x cos __ + cos x sin __ = ___ sin x + __ cos x
cos 2 x + sin 2 x 1 6 6 2 2
≡ _____________ ≡ _____ ≡ sec x ≡ RHS __
cos x cos x π π π 1 √3
( 3)
8 cos x + __ = cos x cos __ − sin x sin __ = __ cos x − ___ sin x
b LHS ≡ cot x sec x sin x ≡ _____ (_____ )( _____)
( sin x ) cos x
cos x 1 sin x 3 3 2 2
1 9 a sin 35° b sin 35° c cos 210° d tan 31°
≡ 1 ≡ RHS e cos θ f cos 7θ g sin 3θ h tan 5θ
cos 2 x + sin 2 x ______
1 i sin A j cos 3x
c LHS ≡ _____________ ≡ ≡ sin 2 x ≡ RHS
1 + cot 2 x cosec 2 x π π π
( 4) ( 4) ( 4)
10 a sin x + __ or cos x − __ b cos x + __
π π π
( 3) ( 6) ( 4)
c sin x + __ or cos x − __ d sin x − __
194 ANSWERS

11 cos y = sin x cos y + sin y cos x tan A + tan A 2 tan A

3 tan 2A = ______________= __________
Divide by cos x cos y ⇒ sec x = tan x + tan y 1 − tan A tan A 1 − tan 2A
so tan y = sec x − tan x 4 a sin 20° b cos 50° c cos 80°
tan x − 3
12 __________ 13 2 d tan 10° e cosec 49° f 3 cos 60°
3 tan x + 1 π
(8)
__
g __12 sin 16° h cos __
c −(________)
__
8 + 5√ 3
14 a __53 b √3 __ __
11 √2 √3
√
__
__ __ 5 a ___ b ___ c __12 d 1
tan x + 3 1 2 2
15 ___________
__ = __ ⇒ (2 + √ 3 ) tan x = 1 − 2√ 3 , so
1 − √ 3 tan x 2 6 a (sin A + cos A) = sin A + 2 sin A cos A + cos A
2 2 2
__ __ __
(1 − 2√ 3 )(2 − √ 3 )
1 − 2√ 3 ________________ __ = 1 + sin 2A
tan x = ________
__ = = 8 − 5√ 3 __ __
π π 2 π √2 2 + √2
( 8)
2 + √3 1 b sin __ + cos __ = 1 + sin __ = 1 + ___ = _______
16 Write θ as (θ + ___) − ___ and θ + ___ as (θ + ___) + ___
2π 2π 4π 2π 2π 8 4 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 7 a cos 6θ b 3 sin 4θ c tan θ
__
Use the addition formulae for cos and simplify. d 2 cos θ e √ 2 cos θ f __14 sin2 2θ
g sin 4θ h − __12 tan 2θ i cos2 2θ
Challenge
a i Area = __12 ab sin θ = __12 x(y cos B)(sin A) = __12 xy sin A cos B p2
8 q = ___ − 1
2
ii Area = __12 ab sin θ = __12 y(x cos A)(sin B) = __12 xy cos A sin B
9 a y = 2(1 − x) b 2xy = 1 − x2
iii Area = __12 ab sin θ = __12 xy sin (A + B) 2(4 − x)
c y2 = 4x2(1 − x2) d y2 = ________
b Area of large triangle = area T 1 + area T 2 3
__
1
xy sin (A + B) = __12 xy sin A cos B + __12 xy cos A sin B 10 − __78
2
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B 11 ± __15

Exercise 4B 12 a i __
24
7
ii __
24
25
iii __
7
25
b ___
336
625
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
√ 2 (√ 3 + 1) √ 2 (√ 3 + 1) √ 2 (√ 3 − 1) __ 2√ 2 9√ 2
1 a __________ b __________ c __________ d √3 − 2 13 a i − __79 ii ____ iii − ____
4 4 4 3 8
__ __ __ __ __
√ 3 √2 √2 sin 2A 4√ 2 9 4√ 2
2 a 1 b 0 c ___ d ___ e ___ b tan 2A = _______ = − ____ × − __ = ____
2__ 2 2 cos 2A 9 7 7
__ √3 __
f − __12 g √3 h ___ i 1 j √2 14 −3
3
tan 45° + tan 30°
3 a tan (45° + 30°) = __________________ 15 mn
1 − tan 45° tan 30° __
__ 32 + 62 − 52 20 5 √2
√3 16 a cos 2θ = ___________ = ___ = __ b ___
1 + ___ __ __ __
2×3×6 36 9 3
3__ _______
_______ (3 + √ 3 )(3 + √ 3 )
3 + √ 3 _______________
b tan 75° = = __ =
2(__)
__ __
√3 3 − √ 3 (3 − √ 3 )(3 + √ 3 ) 3
___
1− 4 3 16 24
3 17 a __34 b m = tan 2θ = ________2 = __ × ___ = ___
1 − (__)
__
3 2 7 7
12 + 6 √3 __
= _________ = 2 + √ 3 4
9−3
4 − __67 18 a cos 2A = cos A cos A − sin A sin A = cos2 A − sin2 A
5 a cos 105° = cos (45° + 60°) = cos2 A − (1 − cos2 A) = 2 cos2 A − 1
= cos 45° cos 60° − sin 45° sin 60° b 4 cos 2x = 6 cos2 x − 3 sin 2x
__ __ __ __
√3 √2 − √6
cos 2x + 3 cos 2x − 6 cos2 x + 3 sin 2x = 0
1__ __ 1 1__ ___ 1 − √ 3 ________
= ___ × − ___ × = _______
__ = cos 2x + 3(2 cos2 x − 1) − 6 cos2 x + 3 sin 2x = 0
√2 2 √2 2 2√ 2 4 cos 2x − 3 + 3 sin 2x = 0
b a = 2, b = 3 cos 2x + 3 sin 2x − 3 = 0
__ __ __
3 + 4√ 3 4 + 3√ 3 10(3√ 3 − 4)
6 a ________ b ________ c ___________ sin 2A 2 sin A cos A
19 tan 2A ≡ ______ ≡ ______________
10 10 11 cos 2A cos 2A − sin 2A
__
__ __ 3 − 4√ 3
________
7 a 5 3
b 5 4
c d __17 sin A cos A
2____________
10
cos A
2 2 tan A
8 a − __ 77
b − __
36
c __ 36 ≡ ______________ ≡ __________
85 85 77 cos 2A − sin 2A
______________ 1 − tan 2A
9 a − ___
36
325
b ___
204
253
c − ___
325
36
cos 2A
10 a 45° b 225°
Exercise 4D
Exercise 4C 1 a 51.7°, 231.7° b 170.1°, 350.1°
1 sin 2A = sin A cos A + cos A sinA = 2 sin A cos A c 56.5°, 303.5° d 150°, 330°
π π π
( 4)
2 a cos 2A = cos A cos A − sin A sin A = cos2 A − sin2 A 2 a sin θ + __ ≡ sin θ cos + cos θ sin __
__
b i cos2A = cos2A − sin2A = cos2A − (1 − cos2A) 4 4
= 2cos2A − 1 1__ 1__ 1__
≡ ___ sin θ + ___ cos θ ≡ ___ (sin θ + cos θ)
ii cos 2A = (1 − sin2 A) − sin2 A = 1 − 2 sin2 A √2 √2 √2

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 195

12 a 2 cos2 (__) − 4 sin2 (__) = 2(_________) − 4(_________)

π π θ θ 1 + cos θ 1 − cos θ
b 0, __, 2π c 0, __ , 2π
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 a 30°, 270° b 30°, 270° = 1 + cos θ − 2 + 2 cos θ = 3 cos θ − 1
b 131.8°, 228.2°
4 a 3(sin x cos y − cos x sin y)
13 a (sin2 A + cos2 A)2 ≡ sin4 A + cos4 A + 2 sin2 A cos2 A
− (sin x cos y + cos x sin y) = 0
⇒ 2 sin x cos y − 4 cos x sin y = 0 (2 sin A cos A)2
So 1 ≡ sin4 A + cos4 A + ______________
Divide throughout by 2 cos x cos y 2
⇒ tan x − 2 tan y = 0, so tan x = 2 tan y ⇒ 2 ≡ 2(sin4 A + cos4 A) + sin2 2A
b Using a tan x = 2 tan y = 2 tan 45° = 2 sin4 A + cos4 A ≡ __12 (2 − sin2 2A)
so x = 63.4°, 243.4°
b Using a: sin4 A + cos4 A ≡ __12 (2 − sin2 2A)
π 5π
5 a 0, __ , π, ___ , 2π b ±38.7°
≡ __12 {2 − ___________} ≡ _______________ ≡ __________
3 3 (1 − cos 4A) (4 − 1 + cos 4A) 3 + cos 4A
π π 5π 3π 2 4 4
c 30°, 150°, 210°, 330° d ___ , __ , ___ , ___
12 4 12 4 π 5π 7π 11π
c ___ , ___ , ___ , ____
π 5π 12 12 12 12
e 60°, 300°, 443.6°, 636.4° f __ , ___
8 8 14 a cos 3θ ≡ cos (2θ + θ) ≡ cos 2θ cos θ − sin 2θ sin θ
π 5π ≡ (cos2 θ − sin2 θ) cos θ − 2 sin θ cos θ sin θ
g __, ___
4 4 ≡ cos3 θ − 3 sin2 θ cos θ
π 2π 7π 5π
h 0°, 30°, 150°, 180°, 210°, 330° i __, ___ , ___ , ___ ≡ 4 cos3 θ − 3 (sin2 θ + cos2 θ) cosθ
6 3 6 3 ≡ 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ
j −104.0°, 0°, 76.0°
π 5π 7π
k 0°, 35.3°, 144.7°, 180°, 215.3°, 324.7°, 360° b __, ___ and ___
9 9 9
6 51.3°
7 a 5 sin 2θ = 10 sin θ cos θ, so equation becomes
10 sin θ cos θ + 4 sin θ = 0, or 2 sin θ (5 cos θ + 2) = 0 Exercise 4E
b 0°, 180°, 113.6°, 246.4° 1 R = 13; tan α = __
12
5
2 35.3° 3 41.8°
8 a 2 sin θ cos θ + cos2 θ − sin2 θ = 1
__
π
4 a cos θ − √ 3 sin θ ≡ R cos (θ + α) gives R = 2, α = __
⇒ 2 sin θ cos θ − 2 sin2 θ = 0 3
π
( 3)
⇒ 2 sin θ (cos θ − sin θ) = 0 b y = 2 cos θ + __
b 0°, 180°, 45°, 225° y
9 a LHS = cos2 2θ + sin2 2θ − 2 sin 2θ cos 2θ
= 1 − sin 4θ = RHS 2
1
π ____
___ 17π
b ,
24 24 O 2π θ
2 tan (__) sin (__) cos2 (__)
π 7π 3π
θ θ θ
π π
6 2 6 2
2
_________ 2
_______ 2
________ –2
10 a i RHS = =2 ×
sec2 (__) cos (__)
θ θ 1
2 2 5 a 25 cos (θ + 73.7°) b (0, 7)
c d i 2 ii 0 iii 1
= 2 sin (__) cos (__) = sin θ
θ θ 25, −25
___
2 2 6 a R__= √ 10 , α = 71.6° b θ = 69.2°, 327.7°
7 a √ 5 cos (2θ + 1.107) b θ = 0.60, 1.44
1 − tan2 (__) 1 − tan2 (__)
θ θ
8 a 6.9°, 66.9° b 16.6°, 65.9°
2 2
ii RHS = ___________ = ___________ c 8.0°, 115.9° d −165.2°, 74.8°
1 + tan2 (__) sec2 (__)
θ θ 9 a 5 sin (3θ − 53.1°)
2 2 b Minimum value is −5,

2 { 2}
= cos2 (__) 1 − tan2 (__) = cos2 (__) − sin2 (__)
θ θ θ θ when 3θ − 53.1° = 270° ⇒ θ = 107.7°
2 2 c 21.6°, 73.9°, 141.6°
= cos θ = LHS 5(__________) − 3(__________) + 3 sin 2θ
1 − cos 2θ 1 + cos 2θ
10 a
b i 90°, 323.1° ii 13.3°, 240.4° 2 2
3(1 + cos 2x) (1 − cos 2x) ≡ 1 + 3 sin 2θ − 4 cos 2θ, so a = 3, b = −4, c = 1
11 a LHS ≡ ____________ − ___________ b Maximum = 6, minimum = −4 c 14.8°, 128.4°
2 2 ___

≡ 1 + 2 cos 2x 11 a R = √ 10 , α = 18.4°, θ = 69.2°, 327.7°

b 9 cos2 θ = 4 − 4 sin θ + sin2 θ
b y
⇒ 9(1 − sin2 θ ) = 4 − 4 sin θ + sin2 θ
3 So 10 sin2 θ − 4 sin θ − 5 = 0
c 69.2°, 110.8°, 212.3°, 327.7°
d When you square you are also solving
–π π O x 3 cos θ = −(2 − sin θ ). The other two solutions are for
– 2π – 2π
π π
3 3 –1 3 3 this equation.
cos θ 1
Crosses y-axis at (0, 3) 12 a _____ × sin θ + 2 sin θ = _____ × sin θ ⇒
sin θ sin θ
Crosses x-axis at (− ___ , 0), − __ , 0 , __ , 0 , (___ , 0)
π π
( 3 ) (3 ) 3
2π 2π
cos θ + 2 sin θ = 1
3
b θ = 126.9° (1 d.p.)
196 ANSWERS

__
π __
π __
13 a √ 2 cos θ cos __ + √ 2 sin θ sin __ + √ 3 sin θ − sin θ = 2 sin (x + y) sin x cos y + cox sin y
4 __ 4 c LHS = __________ = ___________________
cos x cos y cos cos y
⇒ cos θ + sin__
θ − sin θ +√ 3 sin θ = 2
sin x sin y
⇒ cos θ + √ 3 sin θ = 2 = _____ + _____ ≡ tan x + tan y = RHS
π cos x cos y
b __
3 cos (x + y) cos x cos y − sin x sin y
14 a R = 41, α = 77.320° b i __18
ii 77.320° d LHS = __________ + 1 = _____________________ + 1
91 sin x sin y sin x sin y
15 a R = 13, α = 22.6° b θ = 48.7°, 108.7°
cos x cos y sin x sin y cos x cos y
c a = 12, b = −5, c = 12 d minimum value = −1 = __________ − _________ + 1 = __________
sin x sin y sin x sin y sin x sin y
Exercise 4F ≡ cot x cot y = RHS
cos2 A − sin2 A (cos A + sin A)(cos A − sin A) π π
( 3)
__
1 a LHS = ______________ = __________________________ e LHS = cos θ + __ + √ 3 sin θ = cos θ cos __
cos A + sin A cos A + sin A __ 3
π __
1 √3 __
= cos A − sin A = RHS − sin θ sin __ + √ 3 sin θ = __ cos θ − ___ sin θ + √ 3 sin θ
3 2 2
__
2
b RHS = ____________ {sin B cos A − cos B sin A} √3 π
( 6)
1
2 sin A cos A = __ cos θ + ___ sin θ ≡ sin θ + __ = RHS
2 2
sin B cos B
= _____ − _____ = LHS cos (A + B)
sin A cos A f LHS = cot (A + B) = __________
sin (A + B)
1 − (1 − 2 sin2 θ ) 2 sin2 θ cos A cos B − sin A sin B
c LHS = _______________ = ___________ = tan θ = RHS = ______________________
2 sin θ cos θ 2 sin θ cos θ sin A cos B + cos A sin B
sin2 θ cos A cos B
__________ sin A sin B
− __________
2θ
1 + ______
2θ
1 + tan cos sin A sin B sin A sin B cot A cot B − 1
d LHS = _________ = _________ = ________________________ ≡ _____________ = RHS
1 − tan2 θ sin2 θ
______ sin A cos B
__________ +
cos A sin B
__________ cot A + cot B
1−
cos2 θ sin A sin B sin A sin B
cos2 θ + sin2 θ ______
1 g LHS = sin 2(45° + θ) + sin 2(45° − θ) = (sin (45° + θ)) 2
= _____________ = = sec 2θ = RHS
cos2 θ − sin2 θ cos 2θ + (sin (45° − θ)) 2 = (sin 45° cos θ + cos 45° sin θ) 2
+ (sin 45° cos θ − cos 45° sin θ) 2
e LHS = 2 sin θ cos θ (sin2 θ + cos2 θ ) __ __ __ __

= (___ cos θ + ___ sin θ) + (___ cos θ − ___ sin θ)

2 2
= 2 sin θ cos θ = sin 2θ = RHS √2 √2 √2 √2

sin 3θ cos θ − cos 3θ sin θ sin (3θ − θ ) 2 2 2 2

f LHS = _______________________ = ___________
sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ 1 1 1
= __ cos 2θ + cos θ sin θ + __ sin 2θ + __ cos 2θ
sin 2θ 2 sin θ cos θ 2 2 2
= __________ = ___________ = 2 = RHS
sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ 1
− cos θ sin θ + __ sin 2θ = cos 2θ + sin 2θ ≡ 1 = RHS
2
1 2 cos 2θ cos θ 1 2 cos 2θ cos θ
g LHS = _____ − _____________ = _____ − _____________ h LHS = cos (A + B) cos (A − B)
sin θ sin 2θ sin θ 2 sin θ cos θ
= (cos A cos B − sin A sin B) × (cos A cos B + sin A sin B)
1 − cos 2θ 1 − (1 − 2 sin2 θ )
= __________ = _______________ = 2 sin θ = RHS = (cos 2 A cos 2 B) − (sin 2 A sin 2 B) = (cos 2 A(1 − sin 2 B))
sin θ sin θ
− ((1 − cos 2 A)sin 2 B) = cos 2 A − cos 2 A sin 2 B
1 − (1 − 2 sin2 __)
1
_____ θ
−1 − sin 2 B + cos 2 A sin 2 B ≡ cos 2 A − sin 2 B = RHS
cos θ 1 − cos θ 2
h LHS = _________ = _________ = ________________
1 + (2 cos2 __ − 1)
1
_____ 1 + cos θ θ sin θ cos θ sin2 θ + cos2 θ
+1 3 a LHS = _____ + _____ = _____________
cos θ 2 cos θ sin θ sin θ cos θ
θ
2 sin2 __ 1
2 θ = ________ = 2 cosec 2θ = RHS
( 2 ) 2θ
= ________ = tan2 __ = RHS __
1
sin
θ
__ 2
2 cos 2
2 b 4
1 − tan x ____________
cos x − sin x 4 a Use sin 3θ ≡ sin(2θ + θ) and substitute
i LHS = _________ =
1 + tan x cos x + sin x cos 2θ ≡ cos2 θ − sin2 θ
b Use cos 3θ ≡ cos(2θ + θ) and substitute
(cos x − sin x)(cos x − sin x) cos 2θ ≡ cos2 θ − sin2 θ
= _________________________
cos2 x − sin2 x sin 3θ 3 sin θ cos2 θ − sin3 θ
c tan 3θ ≡ ______ = ___________________
cos2 x + sin2 x − 2 sin x cos x __________
1 − sin 2x cos 3θ cos3 θ − 3 sin2 θ cos θ
= __________________________ = = RHS
cos2 x − sin2 x cos 2x 3 tan θ − tan3 θ
= _____________
2 a LHS = sin ( A + 60°) + sin ( A − 60°) = sin A cos 60° 1 − 3 tan2 θ
+ cos A sin 60° + sin A cos 60° − cos A sin 60° d
= 2 sin A cos 60° ≡ sin A = RHS 3 __
2 2
cos A sin A cos A cos B − sin A sin B tan θ = 2√ 2
b LHS = _____ − _____ = ______________________
sin B cos B sin B cos B
θ
1
cos (A + B)
≡ __________ = RHS __ __ __ __
sin B cos B 6√ 2 − 16√ 2 −10√ 2 10√ 2
so tan 3θ = ___________ = _______ = _____
1 − 24 −23 23

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 197

x
5 a i cos x ≡ 2 cos2 __ − 1 2 a sin (A + B) + sin (A − B)
2
= sin A cos B + cos A sin B + sin A cos B − cos A sin B
x x 1 + cos x
⇒ 2 cos2 __ ≡ 1 + cos x ⇒ cos2 __ ≡ _________ = 2 sin A cos B
2 2 2
Let A + B = P and A − B = Q
x
ii cos x ≡ 1 − 2 sin2 __ P+Q P−Q
2 ∴ A = ______ and B = ______
x x 1 − cos x 2 2
⇒ 2 sin 2 __ ≡ 1 − cos x ⇒ sin2 __ ≡ _________
∴ sin P + sin Q = 2 sin (______) cos (______)
2 2 2 P +Q P−Q
__ __
2 √ 5 √ 5 2 2
b i ____ ii ___ iii __2
1
5 5 11π P + Q 5π P − Q
b ____ = ______, ___ = ______
c cos4 __ ≡ (_________) ≡ __________________
2
A 1 + cos A 1 + 2 cos A + cos2 A 24 2 24 2
2 2 4 22π 10π
____ = P + Q, ____ =P−Q
1 + 2 cos A + (__________)
1 + cos 2A 24 24
2
≡ ________________________ 32π 2π π
____ = 2P ⇒ P = ___, Q = __,
4 24 3 4
__ __

sin (___) + sin __ = ________

2 + 4 cos A + 1 + cos 2A 3 + 4 cos A + cos 2A π √3 + √2
(4)
≡ ______________________ ≡ ___________________ 2π
8 8 3 2
LHS ≡ cos θ ≡ cos θ ≡ ( )
1 + cos 2 θ
2
6 4 ( 2 ) 2 __________
2
Chapter review 4 __
1 1 1
≡ __(1 + 2 cos 2θ + cos 2 2θ) ≡ __ + __ cos 2θ √3
4 4 2 1 a __12 b __12 c ___
3
+ __(__________) ≡ __ + __ cos 2θ + __ + __ cos 4θ
1 1 + cos 4θ 1 1 1 1 1__ 2__
4 2 4 2 8 8 2 sin x = ___ , so cos x = ___
√5 √5
3 1 1
≡ __ + __ cos 2θ + __ cos 4θ ≡ RHS cos (x − y) = sin y ⇒ ___
2__ 1__
cos y + ___ sin y = sin y
8 2 8
√5 √5
7 [sin (x + y) + sin (x − y)][sin (x + y) − sin (x − y)] __
__
2 √5 + 1
≡ [2 sin x cos y][2 cos x sin y] ⇒ (√ 5 − 1) sin y = 2 cos y ⇒ tan y = _______ __ = _______
√5 − 1 2
≡ [2 sin x cos x][2 cos y sin y]
≡ sin 2x sin 2y 3 a tan A = 2, tan B = __13 b 45°
π π π
( 3) ( 3)
4 Use the sine rule and addition formulae to get
8 2 cos 2θ + __ ≡ 2 cos 2θ cos __ − sin 2θ sin __ __
3 1 √3 9 1
__ ___ sin θ × ___ = ___ cos θ × __
≡ 2(cos 2θ __ − sin 2θ ___) ≡ cos 2θ − √ 3 sin 2θ
1 √3 __
20 2 20 2 __
2 2 Then rearrange to get tan θ = 3√ 3
π π π
( 6)
9 4 cos 2θ − __ ≡ 4 cos 2θ cos __ + 4 sin 2θ sin __ 5 75°
6 6
__ __ 6 a i __
56
ii ___
120
≡ 2√ 3 cos 2θ + 2 sin 2θ ≡ 2√ 3 (1 − 2 sin 2θ) + 4 sin θ cos θ 65 119
__ __
b Use cos {180° − (A + B)} ≡ −cos (A + B) and expand.
≡ 2√ 3 − 4√ 3 sin 2θ + 4 sin θ cos θ
You can work out all the required trig. ratios (A and
__
π π
{ 4}
10 a RHS = √ 2 sin θ cos __ + cos θ sin __ B are acute).
4
7 a Use cos 2x ≡ 1 − 2 sin2 x b __45

{ √ 2}
__
1__ 1__
= √ 2 sin θ ___ + cos θ ___ = sin θ + cos θ = LHS c i Use tan x = 2, tan y = __3 in the expansion of
1
√2
tan (x + y)
π π
{ 6}
b RHS = 2 sin 2θ cos __ − cos 2θ sin __ ii Find tan (x − y) = 1 and note that x − y has to be
6 acute.
__
8 a Show that both sides are equal to __56
= 2{sin 2θ ___ − cos 2θ __} = √ 3 sin 2θ − cos 2θ = LHS
√3 1 __

2 2 3k 12k
b ___ c _______2
2__ 4 − 9k
Challenge 9 a √ 3 sin 2θ = 1 − 2 sin2 θ = cos 2θ
1 a cos(A + B) − cos(A − B) __
1__
≡ cos A cos B − sin A sin B − (cos A cos B + sin A sin B) ⇒ √ 3 tan 2θ = 1 ⇒ tan 2θ = ___
√3
≡ −2 sin A sin B π 7π
P+Q b ___, ___
b Let A + B = P and A − B = Q. Solve to get A = ______ 12 12
2 10 a a = 2, b = 5, c = −1 b 0.187, 2.95
P−Q
______ 11 a cos (x − 60°) = cos x cos 60° + sin x sin 60°
and B = . Then use result from part a to get __
2 1 √3
__ ___
cos P − cos Q = − 2 sin (______) sin (______)
P+Q P−Q = cos x + sin x
2 2
2 2 __ 1
__
So (2 −
2)
√3 1 2 __ _______
1 __
c − __32 (cos 8x − cos 6x) ___ sin x = cos x ⇒ tan x =
__ _______ =
2 √3
___ 4 − √3
2−
2
b 23.8°, 203.8°
198 ANSWERS

π π
12 a cos (x + 20°) = sin (90° − 20° − x) = sin (70° − x) b __, − __
Using addition formulae: 3 3
cos x cos 20° − sin x sin 20° 23 a LHS = cos4 2θ − sin4 2θ
= sin 70° cos x − cos 70° sin x ≡ (cos2 2θ − sin2 2θ )(cos2 2θ + sin2 2θ )
Rearrange to get: sin x (5 cos 70°) + cos x (3 sin 70°) = 0 ≡ (cos2 2θ − sin2 2θ ) (1)
sin x 3 sin 70° 3 ≡ cos 4θ = RHS
⇒ tanx = _____ = − _________ = − __ tan 70°
cos x 5 cos 70° 5 b 15°, 75°, 105°, 165°
b 121.2° 24 a Use cos 2θ = 1 − 2 sin2 θ and sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ
13 a Find sin a = __35 and cos α = __45 and insert in b sin 360° = 0, 2 − 2 cos (360°) = 2 − 2 = 0
expansions on LHS. Result follows. c 26.6°, 206.6°
b 0.6, 0.8
Challenge
14 a Example: A = 60°, B = 0°; sec (A + B) = 2
cos 2θ + cos 4θ 2 cos 3θ cos θ
sec A + sec B = 2 + 1 = 3 1 a ______________ ≡ _____________ ≡ −cot θ
sin 2θ − sin 4θ −2 cos 3θ sin θ
sin θ cos θ sin2 θ + cos2 θ
b LHS = _____ + _____ ≡ _____________ b cos 5x + cos x + 2 cos 3x
cos θ sin θ sin θ cos θ
1 ≡ 2 cos 3x cos 2x + 2 cos 3x
≡ _______ ≡ 2 cosec 2θ = RHS ≡ 2 cos 3x (cos 2x + 1)
__
1
sin 2θ
2 ≡ 2 cos 3x (2 cos2 x)
π
15 a Setting θ = __ gives resulting quadratic equation in t, ≡ 4 cos2 x cos 3x
8
π 2 a As ∠OAB = ∠OBA ⇒ ∠AOB = π − 2θ, so ∠BOD = 2θ
(8)
t2 + 2t − 1 = 0, where t = tan __
OB = 1, OD = cos 2θ
Solving this and taking +ve value for t gives result. BD = sin 2θ, AB = 2 cos θ
π π __
BD BD
(4 8)
b Expanding tan __ + __ gives answer: √ 2 + 1 sin θ = ___ = ______
AB 2 cos θ
16 a 2 sin (x − 60)° So BD = 2 sin θ cos θ
b y But BD = sin 2θ
2 So sin 2θ ≡ 2 sin θ cos θ
O b AB = 2 cos θ
x AD = (2 cos θ ) cos θ = 2 cos2 θ
–360º –300º –120º 60º 240º 360º
– 3 OD = 2 cos2 θ − 1
–2 From part a, OD = cos 2θ, so cos 2θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1
__
Graph crosses y-axis at (0°, −√ 3 )
Graph crosses x-axis at (−300°, −0), (−120°, 0),
Review exercise 1
(60°, 0), (240°, 0)
17 a R = 25, α = 1.29 b 32 c θ = 0.12, 1.17 4x − 3
________
1
x(x − 3)
18 a 2.5 sin (2x + 0.927) b __32 sin 2x + 2 cos 2x + 2 c 4.5
(x + 2)2 − 3(x + 2) + 3 __________
x2 + x + 1
19 a α = 14.0°
___
b 0°, 151.9°, 360° 2 a f(x) = ____________________ =
(x + 2)2 (x + 2)2
20 a R = √ 13 , α = 56.3° b θ = 17.6°, 229.8°
1 1 1 b (x + __12 )2 + __34 > 0
21 a LHS = _____ . _____ ≡ _______ ≡ 2 cosec 2θ = RHS
cos θ sin θ __1 sin 2θ c x2 + x + 1 > 0 from b and (x + 2)2 > 0 as x ≠ −2
2
1 + tan x 1 − tan x 3 d = 3, e = 6, f = −14
b LHS = _________ − _________
1 − tan x 1 + tan x 4 x > __23 or x < −5
(1 + tan x)2 − (1 − tan x)2 5 a Range: p(x) < 4
≡ _______________________
(1 + tan x)(1 − tan x) y
4
(1 + 2 tan x + tan2 x) − (1− 2 tan x + tan2 x)
≡ _______________________________________
1 − tan2 x –2 2
4 tan x 2(2 tan x) O x
≡ _________ = _________ = 2 tan 2x = RHS –3
1 − tan2 x 1 − tan2 x y = p(x)
c LHS = − __12 [cos 2x − cos 2y] ≡ __12 [cos 2y − cos 2x] __

≡ __12 [2 cos2 y − 1 − (2 cos2 x − 1)] b a = − __

25
4
or a = 2√ 6
−5x − 18
≡ __12 [2 cos2 y − 2 cos2 x] ≡ cos2 y − cos2 x = RHS 6 a qp(x) = __________
x+4
d LHS = 2 cos 2θ + 1 + (2 cos2 2θ
− 1) a = −5, b = −18, c = 1, d = 4
≡ 2 cos 2θ (1 + cos 2θ ) ≡ 2 cos 2θ (2 cos2 θ ) b x = − __
39
10
≡ 4 cos2 θ cos 2θ ≡ RHS
−4x − 18
1 − (1 − 2 sin2 x) 2 sin2 x c r −1(x) = __________, x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ −5
22 a ________________ ≡ _______ x+5
1 + (2 cos2 x − 1) 2 cos2 x
≡ tan2 x = sec2 x − 1

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 199

7 a y 11 a i y
y = | f( x)|

y = f(x) 2
1 A9(1, 1)

–2 O x
O 2 3 5 x
B9 C9

( x ) + 2 __________
x+2
_____
___________ x + 2 + 2x _______
3x + 2 y
b = = ii
( x )
x+2
_____ x+2 x+2 y = –f(x + 1)
+5 ex 1 A9
c ln 13 d g−1(x) = ______ , x ∈ ℝ
2
B9 C9
8 a 3(1 − 2x) = 1 − 2(3x + b), b = − __23
–1 O 1 2 4 x
3x + 2 1−x
b p −1(x) = _______ , q −1(x) = _____
9 2
−3x + 7 –2
c p (x)q (x) = q (x)p (x) = ________,
−1 −1 −1 −1
18
a = −3, b = 7, c = 18
iii y
9 a y b y

(2, 7) 2 y = f( – 2x)
(2, 4)
y = f(x) + 3 y = | f(x)| C9 B9
– 52 – 32 –1 A9 O x

O x –5 O 5x (– 12, –1)
–5
c y
b i 6 ii 4
(–2, 4) (2, 4)
12 a b = −9 b A(9, −3), B(15, 0)
y = f(| x|) c x = 15, x = −21
13 a f(x) < 8
–5 O 5 x b The function is not one-to-one.
10 a y c − __
32
3
< x < − __87

y = h(x) d k > __
44
3
10
14 a y = 4 – 2cosec x

–5 –1
O x
–2π –π O π 2π x
(–3, –8)
b i (−5, −24) ii (3, −8) iii (−3, 8) b 2<k<6
c π 11π 5π
y 15 a __ b k=2 c − ____, − ___
y = h(–|x|) 3 2 12
10
cos x 1 − sin x cos 2x + (1 − sin x) 2
16 a _________ + _________ = __________________
1 − sin x cos x cos x(1 − sin x)
cos 2x + 1 − 2 sin x + sin 2x 2 − 2 sin x
O = _________________________ = ______________
cos x(1 − sin x) cos x(1 − sin x)
–5 –1 1 5 x
2
= _____ = 2 sec x
cos x
3π 5π 11π 13π
b x = ___, ___, ____, ____
(–3, –8) (3, –8) 4 4 4 4
sin θ cos θ sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ
17 a _____ + _____ = _____________
cos θ sin θ cos θ sin θ
1 2
= ________ = ______ = 2 cosec 2θ
1
__ sin 2θ
sin 2θ
2
200 ANSWERS

b y 25 a sin (x + 30°) = 2 sin (x − 60°)

sin x cos 30° + cos x sin 30°
2 = 2(sin x cos 60° − cos x sin 60°)
__ __

sin x + __ cos x = 2(__ sin x − ___ cos x)

√3
___ 1 1 √3
O 90° 180° 270° 360° θ 2 2 2 2
__ __
–2 √ 3 sin x + cos x = 2 sin x − 2√ 3 cos x
__ __
(−2 + √ 3 ) sin x = (−1 − 2√ 3 ) cos x
y = 2 cosec 2θ __ __ __

c 20.9°, 69.1°, 200.9°, 249.1° − 1 − 2√ 3 __________

sin x __________
_____ −1 − 2√ 3 _________
−2 − √ 3
= __ = __ × __
cos x −2+ 3 √ √
−2 + 3 −2 − √ 3
18 a Note the angle BDC = θ
__ __
BC 2 + 4√ 3 + √ 3 + 6 __
cos θ = ___ ⇒ BC = 10 cos θ = __________________
__ __ = 8 + 5√ 3
10 4 + 2√ 3 − 2√ 3 − 3
BC __
sin θ = ___ ⇒ BD = 10 cot θ b 8 − 5√ 3
BD
10 1__ π
b 10 cot θ = _____ ⇒ cot θ = ___ , θ = __
√3 √3 3 26 a sin 165° = sin (120° + 45°)

DC = 10 cos θ cot θ = 10(__) ___

2 (√3 ) √3
1 1__ 5__ = sin 120° cos 45° + cos 120° sin 45°
= ___ __ __ __ __
√3 −1 ___
1__ ____ 1 √6 − √2
√ 3 − 1 ________
19 a sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1 = ___ × ___ + × __ = _______
__ =
2 √2 2 √2 2√ 2 4
sin 2 θ cos 2θ 1
______ + ______ = ______ ⇒ tan 2 θ + 1 = sec 2 θ 1
cos θ cos 2 θ cos 2 θ
2 b cosec 165° = _________
sin 165°
b 0.0°, 131.8°, 228.2° __ __ __ __
4 (√ 6 + √ 2 ) __________
4(√ 6 + √ 2 ) √__ √__
20 a ab = 2, a = __
2 = _________
__ __ ×
_________
__ __ = = 6+ 2
b (√ 6 − √ 2 ) (√ 6 + √ 2 ) 6−2
4 − b2 ______
4 − b 2 ______ 4 − b2 __
b ______ = = = b2 3 − √7
a 2 − 1 __ 4 4 − b2
______ 27 a cos A = __ ⇒ sin A = _____
− 1 4 4
b2 b2 __ __

sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A = 2(_____)(__) = ______

π π − √7 3 −3√ 7
21 a __ − y = arccos x b __ 4 4 8
2 2
1 1 1
22 a arccos __ = p ⇒ cos p = __ b cos 2A = 2 cos 2A − 1 = __
x x 8
Use Pythagorean theorem to show that opposite __

sin 2A ( 8 )
_____
−3√ 7
______
side of right-angled triangle is √ x 2 − 1 __
_____ _____
√x2 − 1 √x2 − 1 tan 2A = _______ = _________ = −3√ 7
(8)
sin p = ________ ⇒ p = arcsin ________ cos 2A 1
__
x x
b Possible answer: cannot take the square root of
a negative number and for 0 < x < 1, x2 − 1 is 28 a −180°, 0°, 30°, 150°, 180°
negative. b −148.3°, −58.3°, 31.7°, 121.7° (1 d.p.)
___
23 a (–1, 3π ) y 29 a 3 sin x + 2 cos x = √ 13 sin (x + 0.588…)
2 b 169
c ⇒ x = 2.273, 5.976 (3 d.p.)
y = 2arccos x – π
2 cos θ sin θ cos 2θ − sin 2θ
30 a cot θ − tan θ = _____ − _____ = _____________
sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ
cos 2θ 2 cos 2θ
O x = ________ = ________ = 2 cot 2θ
1
__ sin 2θ
(1, – )
π sin 2θ
2 2
b θ = −2.95, −1.38, 0.190, 1.76 (3 s.f.)
(√2 )
1__
___
b ,0
__
√3 31 a cos 3θ = cos (2θ + θ) = cos 2θ cos θ − sin 2θ sin θ
tan x + ___
π
( 6) 6
1
24 tan x + __ = __ ⇒ ____________
__
3 1
= __ = (cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ) cos θ − (2 sin θ cos θ) sin θ
√ 3 6 = cos 3 θ − 3sin 2 θ cos θ
1 − ___ tan x
__ 3 = cos 3 θ − 3(1 − cos 2 θ) cos θ
__ √3
6 tan x + 2√ 3 = 1 − ___ tan x = 4cos 3 θ − 3 cos θ
3 __
__ −27√ 2
−27__ _______
( ) tan x = 1 − 2 3
18 + √ 3
________
__ b sec 3θ = _____ =
√ 19√ 2 38
3
__ __ __
3 − 6√ 3 ________
18 − √ 3 ____________
72 − 111√ 3
tan x = ________
__ × __ =
18 + √ 3 18 − √ 3 321

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 201

32 sin 4θ = (sin 2 θ)(sin 2 θ) 4 a True, because a0 = 1 whenever a is positive

1 − cos 2θ b False, for example when a = __12
cos 2θ = 1 − 2sin 2 θ ⇒ sin 2 θ =__________
2 c True, because when a is positive, ax > 0 for all
sin 4 θ = (__________)(__________)
1 − cos 2θ 1 − cos 2θ values of x
2 2 5 y
1 b a c d
= __(1 − 2 cos 2θ + cos 2 2θ)
4

= __(1 − 2 cos 2θ + __________)

1 1 + cos 4θ
4 2 2
3 __
__ 1 1
__ 1
= − cos 2θ + cos 4θ
8 2 8
O x
Challenge
1 a (x + 2)2 + (y − 3)2 = 25 b 15 units2
___ ___
19 − √ 41 16 19 + √ 41 –3
2 A: x = _________ , B: x = ___ , C: x = _________
4 3 4
3 a sin x b cos x c cosec x
d cot x e tan x f sec x 6 k = 3, a = 2
7 a As x increases, y decreases
b p = 1.2, q = 0.2
CHAPTER 5
Challenge
Prior knowledge check y
1 a 125 b __13 c 32 d 49 e 1
y = 2x – 2 + 5
2 a 6 6 b y21 c 26 d x4
3 gradient 1.5, y-intercept 4.1
21
4
Exercise 5A
1 a y y = (1.7)x
4
y=4 O x
3
2
1
Exercise 5B
1 a 2.718 28 b 54.598 15 c 0.000 04 d 1.221 40
y
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 x 2 a
2.6 y = ex
b x ≈ 2.6
2 a y = (0.6)x
y
4
3
y=2
2
1
1
–4 O 4 x
b Student’s own answers
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 x
c e = 2.71828…
–1.4
e3 = 20.08553…
b x ≈ −1.4
3 a y
3 y y = ex + 1
4
3 2
2 y=1
y = 1x
1 O x

–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 x
202 ANSWERS

b − _13 e −3x
_
1
b y 6 a 6e6x c 14e2x
d 2e0.4x e 3e3x + 2ex f 2e2x + ex
y = 4e–2x 7 a 3e6 b 3 c 3e−1.5
8 f9(x) = 0.2e0.2x
4 The gradient of the tangent when x = 5 is
f9(5) = 0.2e1 = 0.2e
The equation of the tangent is therefore y = (0.2e)x + c
O x At (5, e), e = 0.2e × 5 + c, so c = 0 and when x = 0, y = 0
c y
Exercise 5C
y = 2e – 3 x 1 a ln 6 b _12 ln 11 c 3 – ln 20
d _14 ln (_13 ) e _12 ln 3 – 3 f 5 – ln 19
2 a e2 b _
e
c _ e – _32
1 4
4 2
d _16 (e 2+ 2)
_
5 __
1
e 18 – e 2 f 2, 5
O –1 x 3 a ln 2, ln 6 b _12 ln 2, 0 c e3, e−5
y = –3 d ln 4, 0 e ln 5, ln (_13 ) f e6, e−2
4 ln 3, 2 ln 2
d y
5 a _18 (e2 + 3) b _15 (ln 3 + 40) c _15 ln 7, 0
d e3, e−1
4
1 + ln 5
________
3 6
4 + ln 3
7 a The constant 6 represents the initial concentration
x
of the banned medicine in mg/l
b 4.91 mg/l
y = 4 – ex __
t
c 3 = 6e − 10
e y 1
x _
1
= e − __
t
10
y = 6 + 10e 2 2
ln (_12 ) = – ___
t
16
10
t = –10 ln (_12 ) = 6.931… = 6 hours 56 minutes
6 8 a (0, 3 + ln 4) b (4 – e–3)

Challenge
As y = 2 is an asymptote, C = 2
O x Substituting (0, 5) gives 5 = Ae0 + 2, so A is 3.
Substituting (6, 10) gives 10 = 3e6B + 2
f y Rearranging this gives B = _16 ln (_83 )

110 Exercise 5D
y = 100e–x + 10 1 a log S = log (4 × 7x)
= log 4 + log 7xlog S
= log 4 + x log 7
10 b gradient log 7, intercept log 4
2 a log A = log (6x4)
O x = log 6 + log x4
= log 6 + 4 log x
b gradient 4, intercept log 6
4 a A = 1, C = 5, b is positive
3 a Missing values 1.52, 1.81, 1.94
b A = 4, C = 0, b is negative
c A = 6, C = 2, b is positive b log y
5 A = e2, b = 3 2.5
y 2
y = f(x)
1.5
e2 1
0.5
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 log x
c Approximately a = 3.5, n = 1.4

O x

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 203

4 a Missing values 2.63, 3.61, 4.49, 5.82 8 a log N = 0.095t + 1.6

b a = 40, b = 1.2
b log y
7 c The constant a represents the initial number of sick
people.
6
d 9500 people. After 30 days people may start to
5 recover, or the disease may stop spreading as
4 quickly.
3 9 a log A = 2 log w – 0.1049
2 b q = 2, p = 0.7854
1 c Circles: p is approximately one quarter π, and the
π π
0 width is twice the radius, so A = __ w 2 = __ (2r) 2 = πr 2.
0 2 4 6 8 10 x 4 4
c Approximately b = 3.4, a = 10
5 a Missing values −0.39, 0.62, 1.54, 2.81 Exercise 5E
1 a €20 000 b €14 331
b log R
4 c V (€)
20 000 t
– 12
3 V = 20 000e

2
O t
1 2 a 30 000 b 38 221
c P (thousands)
94
–2 –1 O 1 2 3 log m
t
c Approximately a = 60, b = 0.75 P = 20 + e 50
d Approximately 1,600 kcal per day (2 s.f.) 30
6 a Missing values 2.94, 1.96, 0.95
b log f O 100 t
4
d Model predicts population of the country to be over
3.5 200 million, this is highly unlikely and by 2500 new
3 factors are likely to affect population growth. Model
2.5 not valid for predictions that far into the future.
2 3 a 200
1.5 b Disease will infect up to 300 people.
1 c N
0.5 300
0 N = 300 – 100e–0.5t
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 log R 200
c Approximately A = 5800, b = −0.9
d Approximately 690 times
7 a Missing values 0.98, 1.08, 1.13, 1.26, 1.37 O t
b P = abt 4 a i 15 rabbits ii 132 rabbits
log P = log (abt) b The initial number of rabbits
= log a + log bt dR
= log a + t log b c ____ = 2.4 e 0.2m
dm
c log P dR
When m = 6, ____ = 7.97 ≈ 8
1.4 dm
1.2 d The rabbits may begin to run out of food or space
5 a 0.565 bars
1
dp
0.8 b ___ = –0.13e −0.13h = − 0.13p, k = −0.13
dh
0.6 c The atmospheric pressure decreases exponentially
0.4 as the altitude increases
0.2 d 12%
0 6 a Model 1: 15 733 Dirhams
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 t Model 2: 15 723 Dirhams
d Approximately a = 7.6, b = 1.0 Similar results
e The rate of growth is often proportional to the size b Model 1: 1814 Dirhams
of the population Model 2: 2484 Dirhams
Model 2 predicts a larger value
204 ANSWERS

c C f A good model. The computer will always be worth

20k something.

y = (____)x
2
6 a
ln 4
b (0, 0) satisfies the equation of the line.
c 2.43
Model 1
Model 2 7 a We cannot go backward in time
b 75 °C
O t c 5 minutes
d The exponential term will always be positive, so the
d In Model 2 the car will always be worth at least overall temperature will be greater than 20 °C.
1000 Dirhams. This could be the value of the car 8 a S = aV b
as scrap metal. log S = log (aVb)
= log a + log (V b)
Chapter review 5 = log a + b log V
1 a y
b log S 1.26 1.70 2.05 2.35 2.50
y = 2–x log V 0.86 1.53 2.05 2.49 2.72

c log V
3.00
2.50
2.00
1 1.50
1.00
y=0 x
O 0.50
0.00
b 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 log S
y
y = 5ex – 1 d The gradient is approximately 1.5; a ≈ 0.09
9 a They exponentiated the two terms on the LHS
4 separately rather than combining them first.
__
b x = 2 + 2√ 2
10 a log10 P = 0.01t + 2
b 100, initial population
c 1.023
d Accept answers from 195 to 200
O x
y = –1 Challenge
y = 5.8 × 0.9x
c y
CHAPTER 6
y = ln x
Prior knowledge check
2 1
1 a 6x − 5 b − ___2 − ____
__ c 8x − 16x3
x 2√ x
O 1 x
2 y = −6x + 17
3 0.58, 3.73 (3 s.f. each)

x=0 Exercise 6A
1 a −2 sin x b cos (__12 x)

2 a 2 ln p + ln q b ln p = 4, ln q = 1 c 8 cos 8x d 4 cos (__23 x)

3 a –e–x b 11e11x c 30e5x 2 a 11 sin x b −5 sin (__56 x)
___
e + 5 ln 5 3 + √ 13 c −2 sin (__12 x)
8
4 a ______ b ____ c –_12 ln 14 d ________ d −6 sin 2x
2 4 2
3 a 2 cos 2x − 3 sin 3x b −8 sin 4x + 4 sin x − 14 sin 7x
e4
e 0 f ___ 1
2 c 2x − 12 sin 3x d − ___2 + 10 cos 5x
5 a €950 b €290 c 4.28 years d €100 x
e 4 (0.41, −0.532), (1.68, 2.63), (2.50, 1.56)
P
5 8
950 6 (0.554, 2.24), (2.12, −2.24)
t
P = 100 + 850e– 2 7 y = −5x + 5π − 1

100
O t Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.
 ANSWERS 205

dy
8 ___ = 4x − cos x 9 Let y = akx ⇒ y = e ln a kx = e kx ln a
dx dy
dy ___
At x = π, y = 2π2, ___ = 4π − cos π = 4π + 1
kx
= k ln a e kxlna = k ln a e lna = a kxk ln a
dx dx
1 2
Gradient of normal = − _______ 10 a 2e2x − __
4π + 1 x
Equation of normal: 2
b 2e2a − __ = 2 ⇒ 2ae2a − 2 = 2a ⇒ a(e2a − 1) = 1
1 a
y − 2π 2 = − _______(x − π)
4π + 1 11 a 5 sin (3 × 0) + 2 cos (3 × 0) = 0 + 2 = 2 = y
(4π + 1)y − 2π2(4π + 1) = −x + π When x = 0, y = 2, therefore (0, 2) lies on C.
x + (4π + 1)y − 8π3 − 2π2 − π = 0 b y = − __ 1
x+2
15
x + (4π + 1)y − π(8π2 + 2π + 1) = 0
1 1
9 Let f(x) = sin x 12 y = − ________ x + ________ + 162
648 ln 3 648 ln 3
f(x + h) − f(x) sin (x + h) − sin x
f 9(x) = lim____________ = ________________
h→0 h h Challenge
sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x
____________________________ y = 3x − 2 ln2 + 2
= lim
h→0 h
Exercise 6C
h→0 [( ) sin x + ( h ) cos x]
cos h−1
_________ sin h
_____
= lim 1 a 8(1+2x)3 b 20x(3−2x2)−6
h __
1
c 2(3 + 4x) − 2 d 7(6 + 2x)(6x + x2)6
cos h − 1 sin h
Since _________ → 0 and _____ → 1 the expression 2 1
h h e − ________2 f − _______
_____

inside the limit → (0 × sin x + 1 × cos x)

(3 + 2x) 2√ 7 − x
g 128(2 + 8x)3 h 18(8 − x)−7
sin (x + h) − sin x 1____
So lim ________________ = cos x 2 a −sin x ecosx b −2 sin (2x − 1) c _______
h→0 h 2x√ ln x
Hence the derivative of sin x is cos x d 5(cos x − sin x)(sin x + cos x)4
e (6x − 2) cos (3x2 − 2x + 1)
Challenge f cot x g −8 sin 4x ecos4x h −2e2x sin(e2x + 3)
Let f(x) = sin kx 3 −1

f 9(x) = lim(____________) = lim(___________________)

f(x + h) − f(x) sin (kx + kh) − sin kx 4 y = −54x + 81
h→0 h h→0 h 5 12e−3
1 1 1 4y

h→0 ( )
sin kx cos kh + cos kx sin kh − sin kx
__________________________________ 6 a _______ b ______ c __ sec 2y d _______3
= lim 2y + 1 ey + 4 2 1 + 3y
h __
1
7

h→0 (( ) ( h )
10

)
cos kh − 1 sin kh
= lim __________ sin kx + ______ cos kx __
16
h 8 3
dx
( h ) ( )
sin kh cos kh − 1 9 a e y = ___
As h → 0, ______ → k and __________ → 0 as given, dy
h b y = ln x, ey = x
so f 9(x) = 0 sin kx + k cos kx = k cos kx Differentiate with respect to y using part a
dx 1 dy
Exercise 6B e y = ___ ⇒ ___y = ___
dy e dx
c (__) ln__
x
1 1 1
1 a 28e7x b 3x ln 3 d __ dy __
___ 1
2 2 x Since x = e y , =
dx x
e 4(__) ln__
x
1 1 3
__
f g 3e3x + 3e−3x h −e−x + ex
10 a 4 cos 2 __ = 4 (__) = 2
π
(6)
3 3 x 1
2
b (__) 2 ln __
2x
3 3
2 a 34x 4 ln 3 π π
( 6)
2 2 When y = __, x = 2, therefore 2, __ lies on C.
6
c 24x 8 ln 2 d 23x 3 ln 2 − 2−x ln 2 dx
3 323.95 b ___ = −8 sin 2y
dy __

At Q 2, __ : ___ = −8 sin 2 __ = −8(___) = − 4√ 3

4 4y = 15 ln 2(x−2) + 17 π dx π √3
(6)
__

dy
___ 1 dy ( 6 ) dy 2
5 = 2e 2x − __ At x = 1, y = e2, ___ = 2e 2 − 1
dx x dx dy 1__
Equation of tangent: y − e2 = (2e2 − 1)(x − 1) So, ___ = − ____
dx 4√ 3
⇒ y = (2e2 − 1)x − 2e2 + 1 + e2 ⇒ y = (2e2 − 1)x − e2 + 1 __ __
π
c 4√ 3 x − y − 8√ 3 + __ = 0
6 −9.07 millicuries/day 6
7 a P0 = 37 000, k = 1.01 (2 d.p.) b 1178 11 a 6 sin 3x cos 3x b 2(x + 1)e (x+1) 2 c −2 tan x
c The rate of change of the population in the year 2000
e − ___2 cos (__)
2 sin 2x
____________ 1 1
8 The student has treated ‘ln kx’ as if it is ‘ekx’ – they d
(3 + cos 2x) 2 x x
have applied the incorrect standard differential.
12 3125x − 100y − 9371 = 0
1
Correct differential is: __ 13 9 ln 3
x
206 ANSWERS

Challenge (x − 2) 2(2e 2x) − e 2x[2(x − 2)] _______________________

2(x − 2) 2e 2x − 2e 2x(x − 2)
__ 10 a _________________________ =
cos √ x (x − 2) 4 (x − 2) 4
a _________
______ __ b 9e sin 3(3x+4) cos (3x + 4) sin 2 (3x + 4)
4√ x sin √ x 2(x − 2)e 2x − 2e 2x ______________
2e 2x(x − 2 − 1) __________
2e 2x(x − 3)
= ________________ = =
(x − 2) 3 (x − 2) 3 (x − 2) 3
Exercise 6D A = 2, B = 1, C = 3
1 a (3x + 1)4(18x + 1) b 2(3x2 + 1)2(21x2 + 1) b y = 4e2x − 3e2
c 16x2(x + 3)3(7x + 9) d 3x(5x − 2)(5x − 1)−2
2x 6x 2x(x + 2) 6x
2 a −4(x − 3)(2x − 1)4 e−2x 11 a _____ + ____________ = ____________ + ____________
x + 5 (x + 5)(x + 2) (x + 5)(x + 2) (x + 5)(x + 2)
b 2 cos 2x cos 3x − 3 sin 2x sin 3x
c ex(sin x + cos x) d 5 cos 5x ln (cos x) − tan x sin 5x 2x(x + 2 + 3) 2x(x + 5) 2x
= ____________ = ____________ = ______
3 a 52 b 13 c __3 (x + 5)(x + 2) (x + 5)(x + 2) (x + 2)
25
4
b ___
4 (2, 0), (− __13 , ___
27 )
343
25
5π 4 12 a Using the quotient rule:
5 ___
256 e2−x(−4 sin 2x) − 2 cos 2x(−e2−x)
f 9(x) = ____________________________
( 2 )
___
π−2 __
√ 2π (π − 4)x + 8y − π√ 2 _____ (e2−x) 2
6 =0
At the turning points, f 9(x) = 0
7 6x(5x − 3)3 + 3x2[3(5x − 3)2(5)] Thus, e2−x[(−4 sin 2x) + 2 cos 2x] = 0
= 6x(5x − 3)3 + 45x2(5x − 3)2 ⇒ −4 sin 2x + 2 cos 2x = 0
= 3x(5x − 3)2(2(5x − 3) + 15x) = 3x(5x − 3)2(10x − 6 + 15x) −4 sin 2x = −2 cos 2x
= 3x(5x − 3)2(25x − 6) ⇒ n = 2, A = 3, B = 25, C = −6
tan 2x = __24 = __24
8 a (x + 3)(3x + 11)e3x b 85e6
b Range is y ∈ ℝ
2 sin x − 3 cos x
9 a (3 sin x + 2 cos x) ln (3x) + _______________
x
b x3(7x + 4)e7x − 3 Exercise 6F
10 21.25 1 a 3 sec2 3x b 12 tan2 x sec2 x c sec2 (x − 1)
d __12 x2 sec2 __12 x + 2x tan __12 x + sec2 (x − __12 )
Challenge
2 a −4 cosec2 4x b 5 sec 5x tan 5x
a −ex sin x (sin2 x − cos x sin x − 2 cos2 x)
c −4 cosec 4x cot 4x d 6 sec2 3x tan 3x
b −(4x − 3)5(4x − 1)8(256x2 − 148x + 3)
sec2 x (2x tan x − 1)
e cot 3x − 3x cosec2 3x f __________________
x2
Exercise 6E g −6 cosec3 2x cot 2x
5 4 5 h −4 cot (2x − 1) cosec2 (2x − 1)
1 a _______2 b − ________ c − ________
(x + 1) (3x − 2) 2 (2x + 1) 2 __ __
a __12 (sec x) 2 tan x b − __12 (cot x) − 2 cosec 2 x
1 1
3
6x 15x + 18
d − ________3 e _________ c −2 cosec2 x
cot x d 2 tan x sec2 x
(2x − 1) __
3
(5x + 3) 2 e 3 sec3 x tan x f −3 cot2 x cosec2 x
4x(sin x + 4 cos x)
e_________________ 1 ln x 4 a 2x sec 3x + 3x2 sec 3x tan 3x
2 a b _______ − _______2
cos 2x x(x + 1) (x + 1) 2xsec 22x − tan 2x 2x tan x − x 2sec 2x
b __________________ c _________________
e −2x((2xe 4x − 2x) ln x − e 4x − 1) x2 tan 2x
c ____________________________
x(ln x) 2 tan x − x sec 2 x ln x
d ex sec 3x (1 + 3 tan 3x) e _________________
e x + 3) 2((e x + 3) sin x + 3e x cos x)
(______________________________ x tan 2 x
d f etan x sec x (tan x + sec2 x)
cos 2x
1 1
2 sin x cos x
___________ sin 2 x 5 a ______ − ______ b 2
e − _______ cos 2 x sin 2 x
ln x x(ln x) 2 __
c 24x − 9y + 12√ 3 − 8π = 0
1
___
3
16 1 dy sin x
cos x × 0 − 1 × − sin x ______
6 y = _____ , ___ = _____________________ =
2
___ cos x dx cos 2x cos 2x
4
25 = sec x tan x
5 (0.5, 2e4) 1
7 y = _____
6 y = __13 e tan x
1
______
__
π
(9)
6√ 3 − 2π ln __ dy tan
___ x × 0 − 1 × sec 2x sec 2x ______
cos 2x
= ___________________ = − ______ = = − cosec2 x
7 ________________ dx tan 2x tan 2x ______
sin 2x
π
cos 2x
8 a (__13 , 0) b y = − __19 x + __
1
dx
27
8 a Let y = arccos x ⇒ cos y = x ⇒ ___ = − sin y
3(3x sin 3x + 4 cos 3x) dy
x_____________________
9 dy
___ 1 1 1
cos 2 3x = − _____ = − ___________
_________ = − ________
_____
dx sin y √ 1 − cos 2y √1 − x2

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 207

x cos x − sin x 2x
b Let y = arctan x 3 a ______________ b − ______
x2 x2 + 9 __
Then, tan y = x
( 4√ 2 )
__ __ √3
dx
___ 4 a k = √2 b (0, 0), ±√ 6 , ± ____
__
= sec 2 y
dy ____
b ( √ 256 , 32 ln 2 + 16)
3
dy ______
___ 1 1 1 5 a x>0
= = _________ = ______
( 6 , 4 ), ( 2 , 1), ( 6 , 4 ), ( 2 , −1)
dx sec 2y 1 + tan 2y 1 + x 2 π __
__ 5 __ π 5π __
___ 5 ___ 3π
6
−2 2
9 a ________
_______ b ______2 dy
√ 1 − 4x2 4+x 7 Maximum is when ___ = 0
3 −1 dx
c ________ d ______2
( 2√ sin x )
_______ dy
___
_____
1 2 sin x _____
+ x cos x
√ 1 − 9x2 1+x = √ sin x + x cos x × _______ _____ = _______________ =0
1 −1
dx 2√ sin x
e ________
______ f ________
______
So 2 sin x + x cos x = 0 ⇒ 2 sin x = −x cos x ⇒ 2 tan x = −x
x√ x2 − 1 x√ x2 − 1
∴ 2 tan x + x = 0
−1_______ −2x
g ______________ h _______
______
8 a f 9(x) = 0.5e0.5x − 2x
(x − 1)√ 1 − 2x √ 1 − x4
b f 9(6) = −1.957… < 0, f 9(7) = 2.557… > 0
( √ 1 − x2 )
1 cos x So there exists p ∈ [6, 7] such that f 9(p) = 0
i ex arccos x − _______
______ j _______
______ − sin x arcsin x
√ 1 − x2 ∴ there is a stationary point for some

( √ 1 − x2 )
x e arctan x x = p, 6 < p < 7
k x 2 arccos x − _______
______ l _______

(8 √2 ) ( 8 √2 )
1 + x2 3π
___ 7π
___
e4
3π ___
___ 7π e __4
9 a , __ , ___, − ___
1
x × 2 ________2 − arctan 2x
dy 1 + (2x)
10 a ___ = _________________________ b f 0(x) = 2e2x(−2 sin 2x + 2 cos 2x) + 4e2x(cos 2x + sin 2x)
dx x2 = 4e2x(−sin 2x + cos 2x + cos 2x + sin 2x)
2x
________ = 8e2x cos 2x
− arctan 2x

( 8 √2 ) (8 √2 )
1 + 4x 2
___________________ 2 arctan 2x 3π 7π
= __________ − _________
___ ___
= ___ e4
3π ___ 7π e4
x2 x(1 + 4x 2) x2 c , __ is a maximum; ___, − ___
__ is a minimum.
__
√3
x = ___, then
d (__, e 2 ), (___, −e 2 )
2 __ π __π 3π __
3π

arctan 2(___)
√3 4 4
dy ________________
___ 2 2
_____________
= __ 2 −
10 x + 2y − 8 = 0

2( (2) )
__ 2
dx √__
(2)
3
___ √ 3 √ 3
___ 11 a x = __13 b y = − __12 x + 1 __12
1 + 4 ___
__ __ 12 a f 9(x) = e (2 cos x − sin x)
2x b y = 2x + 1
√3
4π ___
2__ ___ 4π 3√ 3 − 4π 2 cos x − sin x = 0 ⇒ tan x = 2
= ____ − = − ___ = _________
2√ 3 9 3 9 9 1
13 a y + 2y ln y b ___
√3
__ __ 3e
2π√ 3
b x = ___, y = _____ 14 a e−x(−x3 + 3x2 + 2x − 2)
2 9 b f 9(0) = −2 ⇒ gradient of normal = __12
Equation of normal:
__ __ Equation of normal is y = __12 x

3√ 3 − 4π (
x − ___)
2π√ 3 9 √3
y − _____ = − _________
__ (x3 − 2x)e−x = __12 x ⇒ 2x3 − 4x = xex ⇒ 2x2 = ex + 4
9 2
__ __
9 9√ 3 2π√ 3 Challenge
y = − _________
__ x + _________
__ + _____
3√ 3 − 4π 6√ 3 − 8π 9 a 1 + x + (1 + 2x) ln x
− _____
1+x

2 arccos y b 1 + x + (1 + 2x) ln x = 0 ⇒ x = e 1 + 2x
dx 1
11 ___ = 2 arccos y × − ________
_____ = − __________
_____
dy √ 1 − y 2
√1 − y2 CHAPTER 7
_____ _________
√
__
dy
___
1 − y2 √ 1 − cos 2√ x Prior knowledge check
= − __________ = − ____________
__ 1 __x
dx 2 arccos y 2√ x 1 a 12(2x − 7) 5 b 5 cos 5x c __ e 3
3
16 __3 __
1 268
−1
12 a ________________
1
b − __________
_____
2 a y = ___x 2 − 12x 2 b ____
3 3
5 cot 5y cosec 5y 5x√ x 2 − 1
3 6 units2
Chapter review 6
1
2
a __ b 2x sin 3x + 3x2 cos 3x Exercise 7A
x 2 x4
dy d d 1 a 3 tan x + 5 ln |x| − __ + c b 5ex + 4 cos x + __ + c
2 a 2 ___ = 1 − sin x ___(cos x) − ___ (sin x) cos x x 2
dx dx dx c −2 cos x − 2 sin x + x2 + c d 3 sec x − 2 ln |x| + c
= 1 + sin 2 x − cos 2 x = 2 sin 2 x 2
e 5ex + 4 sin x + __ + c f __
1
ln |x| − 2 cot x + c
dy x 2
So ___ = sin 2x 1 1
dx g ln |x| − __ − ____2 + c h ex − cos x + sin x + c
x 2x
b __, __ , π, __ , (___, ___)
π π π 3π 3π
(2 4) ( 2) 2 4 i −2 cosec x − tan x + c j ex + ln |x| + cot x + c
208 ANSWERS

1 f −cot x − 4x + tan x + c g x + __12 cos 2x + c

2 a tan x − __ + c b sec x + 2ex + c
x
1
__ h − __32 x + __41 sin 2x + tan x + c i − __12 cosec 2x + c
c −cot x − cosec x − + ln |x| + c
x π π

∫π2 sin 2 x dx = ∫π2 (__1 − __1 cos 2x) dx

__ __

d −cot x + ln |x| + c e −cos x + sec x + c 3

f sin x − cosec x + c g −cot x + tan x + c
__
4
__
4 2 2
π
__

= [__x − __ sin 2x] = __ + __ = _____

h tan x + cot x + c i tan x + ex + c 1 1 π 1 2+π 2

j tan x + sec x + sin x + c 2 4 π

__ 8 4 8
__ 4
3 a 2e 7 − 2e 3 b __
95
c −5 d 2 − √2 __ __ __
72 4√ 3 9√ 3 − 10 − π __
π √2 − 1
4 a=2 4 a ____ b _____________ c 2√ 2 − __ d _______
3 8 4 2
5 a=7
5 a sin (3x + 2x) = sin 3x cos 2x + cos 3x sin 2x
6 b=2
sin (3x − 2x) = sin 3x cos 2x − cos 3x sin 2x
1 __52
7 a x=4 b __
20
x − 4 ln |x| + c Adding gives sin 5x + sin x = 2 sin 3x cos 2x
__
b So ∫sin 3x cos 2x dx
31
c 20
− 4 ln 4 = ∫ __12 (sin 5x + sin x) dx
= __12 (− __15 cos 5x - cos x) + c = −__
1
cos 5x − __12 cos x + c
Exercise 7B 10
6 a 5 sin2 x + 7 cos2 x = 5 + 2 cos2 x
1 a − __12 cos (2x + 1) + c b __32 e2x + c
= 6 + (2 cos2 x − 1)
c 4ex + 5 + c d − __12 sin (1 − 2x) + c = cos 2x + 6
e − __13 cot 3x + c f __
1
4
sec 4x + c b __12 (1 + 3π)
g −6 cos ( __
1
2
x + 1) + c h −tan (2 − x) + c 7 a cos 4 x = (cos 2 x) 2

= (__________)
2
i − __12 cosec 2x + c j __
1
3
(sin 3x + cos 3x) + c 1 + cos 2x
2
2 a __12 e2x + __14 cos (2x − 1) + c b __12 e2x + 2ex + x + c
1 1 1
c __12 tan 2x + __12 sec 2x + c = __ + __ cos 2x + __cos 2 2x
4 2 4
d −6 cot (__2x ) + 4 cosec (__2x ) + c
= + cos 2x + ( )
1 __
__ 1 1 + cos 4x
1 __________
__
e −e3 − x + cos (3 − x) − sin (3 − x) + c 4 2 4 2
1 3 1 1
3 a __12 ln |2x + 1| + c b − _________ + c = __ + __ cos 2x + __ cos 4x
2(2x + 1) 8 2 8
(2x + 1)
_________
3
1 1 3
c +c d __34 ln |4x − 1| + c b ___ sin 4x + __ sin 2x + __x + c
6 32 4 8
3
e − __34 ln |1 − 4x| + c f _________ +c
4(1 − 4x)
(3x + 2) 6 Exercise 7D
_________ 3
__________
g +c h +c 1 a __12 ln |x2 + 4| + c b __12 ln |e2x + 1| + c
18 4(1 − 2x)2
c − __14 (x2 + 4)−2 + c d − __14 (e2x + 1)−2 + c
4 a − __32 cos (2x + 1) + 2 ln |2x + 1| + c
e __
1
ln |3 + sin 2x| + c f __
1
(3 + cos 2x)−2 + c
(1 − x) 6 2 4
b __ e − _______ + c
1 5x
__
5 6 g 1 x2
2
e +c h __
1
10
(1 + sin 2x)5 + c
1 i __
1
tan3 x + c j tan x + __13 tan3 x + c
c − __12 cot 2x + __12 ln |1 + 2x| − _________ + c 3
2(1 + 2x) __
2 a 1
10
(x2 + 2x + 3)5 + c b − __14 cot2 2x + c
(3x + 2)3 1
d _________ − _________ + c c __ sin6 3x + c
1
d esin x + c
9 3(3x + 2) 18
__ __
2√ 3 e __
1
ln |e2x + 3| + c f __
1 2 5
(x + 1) 2 + c
5 a 1 b __74 c ____ d __52 ln 3 2 5
9 g __ (x2 + x + 5) __32 + c
2
h 2(x2 + x + 5) 2 + c
__
1

6 b=6 3
__
− __12 (cos 2x + 3) 2 + c − __14 ln |cos 2x + 3| + c
1

7 k = 24 i j

Challenge 3 a 468 b 2 ln 3 c __12 ln (__

5)
16
d __14 (e 4 − 1)
a = 4, b = −3 or a = 8, b = −6 4 k=2
π
5 θ = __
Exercise 7C 2
1 a −cot x − x + c b __12 x + __14 sin 2x + c 6 a ln |sin x| + c
b ∫ tan x dx = −ln |cos x| + c
c − __18 cos 4x + c d __
3
x − 2 cos x − __14 sin 2x + c
| |
2
1
e __13 tan 3x − x + c f −2 cot x − x + 2 cosec x + c = ln _____ + c
cos x
g x − __12 cos 2x + c h __18 x − __
1
32
sin 4x + c = ln |sec x| + c
i −2 cot 2x + c j __
3
x + __18 sin 4x − sin 2x + c
2
2 a tan x − sec x + c b −cot x − cosec x + c Chapter review 7
a __
1
b __
1
(4x − 1) 2 + __
1
__ __
(2x − 3) 8 + c
5 3
c 2x − tan x + c d −cot x − x + c 1 16 40 24
(4x − 1) 2 + c
e −2 cot x − x − 2 cosec x + c x2
c __13 sin3 x + c d __ ln x − __14 x2 + c
2

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 209

e − __14 ln |cos 2x| + c f − __14 ln |3 − 4x| + c 5 a f(1.5) = 16.10… > 0, f(1.6) = −32.2… < 0
Sign change implies root.
2 a −___
995 085
b __
1
π − __
1
ln 2 c ___
992
− 2 ln 4
__
4 4 2 5 b There is an asymptote in the graph of y = f(x) at
π
e __ ln (___) f ln (__)
√3 − 1 1 35 4
d _______ x = __ ≈ 1.57. So there is not a root in this interval.
4 4 19 3 2
6 y
a ∫ ___2 ln x dx = (ln x)(− __) − ∫ (− __x )( x ) dx
1 1 1 __ 1
3
x x
ln x 1 ln x 1 2
= − ____ + ∫ ___2 dx = − ____ − __ + c
x x x x
ln x dx = [ − ]
x 1 ( e e)
e
–0.5
∫1 ___
e
1 ln x __
____ 1 1 __
__ 1 2
(0 − 1) = 1 − __
− = − − −
x2 x e
–1 O1 x
1 A B 1 2
b ______________ = _____ + _______ ⇒ A = − __, B = __
(x + 1)(2x − 1) x + 1 2x − 1 3 3
1 1 1
Alternatively: __ + 2 = 0 ⇒ __ = −2 ⇒ x = − __
1 ( )
∫1 ______________ dx = ∫ − ________ + _________ dx
p p
1 1 2 x x 2
(x + 1)(2x − 1) 3(x + 1) 3(2x − 1) 7 a f(0.2) = −0.4421…, f(0.8) = −0.1471…
b There are either no roots or an even number of
[3 x + 1 ]1
p
= [− __ ln (x + 1) + __ ln (2x − 1)] = __ ln (_______)
p
1 1 1 2x − 1
3 3 roots in the interval 0.2 < x < 0.8
1
c f(0.3) = 0.01238… > 0, f(0.4) = −0.1114… < 0, f(0.5)

( 3 ( p + 1 )) ( 3 2 )
= __ ln _______ − __ ln (__)
1 2p − 1 1 1 = −0.2026… < 0, f(0.6) = 0, f(0.7) = −0.2710… > 0
d There exists at least one root in the interval
0.2 < x < 0.3, 0.3 < x < 0.4 and 0.7 < x < 0.8
3 ( p+1 ) 3 (p+1)
1 2(2p − 1) 1 4p − 2
= __ ln _________ = __ ln _______ Additionally x = 0.6 is a root. Therefore there are at
least four roots in the interval 0.2 < x < 0.8
4 b=2 8 a y
π
5 θ = __ y = x2
3

Challenge
k = __12 y = e–x
O x
CHAPTER 8 b One point of intersection, so one root.
c f(0.7) = 0.0065… > 0, f(0.71) = −0.0124… < 0
Prior knowledge check
Sign change implies root.
1 a 3.25 b 11.24
9 a y b 2
3 15 5
2 a f 9(x) = ____
__ + 8x +
___ b f 9(x) = _____ − 7e −x
2√ x x4 x+2
c f 9(x) = x 2 cos x + 2x sin x + 4 sin x
3 u 1 = 2, u 2 = 2.5, u 3 = 2.9 O x

Exercise 8A y = ex – 4
y = ln x
1 a f(−2) = −1 < 0, f(−1) = 5 > 0
Sign change implies root. c f(x) = ln x − + 4. f(1.4) = 0.2812… < 0,
ex
b f(3) = −2.732 < 0, f(4) = 4 > 0 f(1.5) = −0.0762… < 0. Sign change implies root.
Sign change implies root. 10 a h9(x) = 2cos2x + 4e4x, h9(−0.9) = −0.3451… < 0,
c f(−0.5) = −0.125 < 0, f(−0.2) = 2.992 > 0 h9(−0.8) = 0.1046… > 0. Sign change implies slope
Sign change implies root. changes from decreasing to increasing over interval,
d f(1.65) = −0.294 < 0, f(1.75) = 0.195 > 0 which implies turning point.
Sign change implies root. b h9(−0.8235) = −0.003839…. < 0,
2 a f(1.8) = 0.408 > 0, f(1.9) = −0.249 h9(−0.8225) = 0.00074… > 0. Sign change implies α
Sign change implies root. lies in the range −0.8235 < α < −0.8225,
b f(1.8635) = 0.0013 > 0, f(1.8645) = −0.0053 < 0 so α = −0.823 correct to 3 decimal places.
Sign change implies root. 11 a y 2
3 a h(1.4) = −0.0512… < 0, h(1.5) = 0.0739… > 0 y= x
Sign change implies root. y= x
b h(1.4405) = −0.0005 < 0, h(1.4415) = 0.0006 > 0
Sign change implies root.
O x
4 a f(2.2) = 0.020 > 0, f(2.3) = −0.087
Sign change implies root.
b f(2.2185) = 0.00064… > 0, f(2.2195) = −0.00041… < 0
There is a sign change in the interval.
2.2185 < x < 2.2195, so α = 2.219 correct to b 1 point of intersection ⇒ 1 root
__
1

3 decimal places. c f(1) = −1, f(2) = 0.414… d p = 3, q = 4 e 43

210 ANSWERS

12 a f(−0.9) = 1.5561 > 0, f(−0.8) = −0.7904 < 0 b x = −4.917 c x = 0.598

There is a change of sign in the interval [−0.9, −0.8], d It is not possible to take the square root of a
so there is at least one root in this interval. negative number over ℝ.
b (1.74, −45.37) to 2 d.p. c a = 3, b = 9 and c = 6 1
6 a x 4 − 3x 3 − 6 = 0 ⇒ __x 4 − x 3 − 2 = 0
d y 3 ________

–0.8
1
√
3 1 1
⇒ __x 4 − 2 = x 3 ⇒ x = __x 4 − 2 ⇒ p = __, q = − 2
3 3 3
–0.9 O 3 x b x 1 = −1.256, x 2 = −1.051, x 3 = −1.168
c f(−1.1315) = −0.014… < 0, f(−1.1325) = 0.0024… > 0
There is a sign change in this interval, which
implies α = −1.132 correct to 3 decimal places.
(1.74, –45.37) 2−x
7 a 3 cos (x 2) + x − 2 = 0 ⇒ cos (x 2) = _____
3
⇒ x = arccos (
3 ) [ ( 3 )]
1⁄2
2−x 2−x
Exercise 8B 2 _____ ⇒ x = arccos _____

x2 + 2
1 a i x 2 − 6x + 2 = 0 ⇒ 6x = x 2 + 2 ⇒ x = ______ b x 1 = 1.109, x 2 = 1.127, x 3 = 1.129
6
______
c f(1.12975) = 0.000423… > 0,
ii x 2 − 6x + 2 = 0 ⇒ x 2 = 6x − 2 ⇒ x = √ 6x − 2
f(1.12985) = −0.0001256… < 0. There is a sign
2 2 change in this interval, which implies α = 1.1298
iii x 2 − 6x + 2 = 0 ⇒ x − 6 + __ = 0 ⇒ x = 6 − __
x x
correct to 4 decimal places.
b i x = 0.354 ii x = 5.646 iii x = 5.646
8 a f(0.8) = 0.484…, f(0.9) = −1.025… There is a change
c a = 3, b = 7 _______ of sign in the interval, so there must exist a root in
2 a i x2 − 5x − 3 = 0 ⇒ x2 = 5x + 3 ⇒ x = √ 5x + 3
the interval, since f is continuous over the interval.
x2 − 3
ii x2 − 5x − 3 = 0 ⇒ x2 − 3 = 5x ⇒ x = ______ 4 cos x 4 cos x
5 b _______ − 8x + 3 = 0 ⇒ 8x = _______ + 3
sin x sin x
b i 5.5 (1 d.p.) ii −0.5 (1 d.p.)
______ cos x 3
3 a x 2 − 6x + 1 = 0 ⇒ x 2 = 6x − 1 ⇒ x = √ 6x − 1 ⇒ x = ______ + __
2 sin x 8
c The graph shows there are two roots of f(x) = 0
b, d y c x 1 = 0.8142, x 2 = 0.8470, x 3 = 0.8169
y=x d f(0.8305) = 0.0105… > 0, f(0.8315) = −0.0047… < 0
There is a change of sign in the interval, so there
y = 6x – 1 must exist a root in the interval.
9 a e x−1 + 2x − 15 = 0 ⇒ e x−1 = 15 − 2x
⇒ x − 1 = ln (15 − 2x)
⇒ x = ln (15 − 2x) + 1
b x 1 = 3.1972, x 2 = 3.1524, x 3 = 3.1628
c f(3.155) = −0.062… < 0, f(3.165) = 0.044… > 0
There is a sign change in this interval, which
O x
2 implies α = 3.16 correct to 2 decimal places.
10 a A(0, 0) and B(ln 4, 0)
e y
b f 9(x) = xe x + e x − 4 = e x(x + 1) − 4
y=x +1
2

6 y=x c f 9(0.7) = −0.5766... < 0, f 9(0.8) = 0.0059… > 0

There is a sign change in this interval, which
implies f 9(x) = 0 in this range. f 9(x) = 0 at a turning
point.
d e x(x + 1) − 4 = 0 ⇒ e x = _____ ⇒ x = ln (_____)
4 4
x+1 x+1
e x 1 = 1.386, x 2 = 0.517, x 3 = 0.970, x 4 = 0.708

Chapter review 8
O x 1 a x 3 − 6x − 2 = 0 ⇒ x 3 = 6x + 2
10 ______

4
x−2 x
a xe −x − x + 2 = 0 ⇒ e −x = _____ ⇒ e x = _____
2
x √ 2
⇒ x 2 = 6 + __ ⇒ x = ± 6 + __ ; a = 6, b = 2
x
x x−2
x b x 1 = 2.6458, x 2 = 2.5992, x 3 = 2.6018, x 4 = 2.6017
|
⇒ x = ln _____
x−2 | c f(2.6015) = (2.6015) 3 − 6(2.6015) − 2 = − 0.0025... < 0
b x 1 = −1.10, x 2 = −1.04, x 3 = −1.07 f(2.6025) = (2.6025) 3 − 6(2.6025) − 2 = 0.0117 > 0
______
5 a i
3
x 3 + 5x 2 − 2 = 0 ⇒ x 3 = 2 − 5x 2 ⇒ x = √ 2 − 5x 2 There is a sign change in the interval
2.6015 < x < 2.6025, so this implies there is a root
2 2
ii x 3 + 5x 2 − 2 = 0 ⇒ x + 5 − ___2 = 0 ⇒ x = ___2 − 5 in the interval.
x x
2 − x3
iii x 3 + 5x 2 − 2 = 0 ⇒ 5x 2 = 2 − x 3 ⇒ x 2 = ______
_______ 5
√
2 − x3
⇒ x = ______
5

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 211

1 1 1
2 a y c __ = x + 3 ⇒ 0 = x + 3 − __, let f(x) = x + 3 − __
x x x
y = ex f(0.30) = −0.0333…< 0, f(0.31) = 0.0841… > 0
y = 4 – x2
Sign change implies root.
1
d __ = x + 3 ⇒ 1 = x 2 + 3x ⇒ 0 = x 2 + 3x − 1
x
O x e 0.303

Challenge
b 2 roots: 1 positive and 1 negative __
1 a f(x) = x 6 + x 3 − 7x 2 − x + 3
c x 2 + e x − 4 = 0 ⇒ x 2 = 4 − e x ⇒ x = ± (4 − e x) 2 f 9(x) = 6x 5 + 3x 2 − 14x − 1
d x 1 = −1.9659, x 2 = −1.9647, x 3 = −1.9646, f 0(x) = 30x 4 + 6x − 14
x 4 = −1.9646 f 0(x) = 0 ⇒ 15x 4 + 3x − 7 = 0
e You would need to take the square root of a 7 − 15x 4
i 15x 4 + 3x − 7 = 0 ⇒ 3x = 7 − 15x 4 ⇒ x = _________
negative number. 3
3 a g(1) = −10 < 0, g(2) = 16 > 0. The sign change ii 15x 4 + 3x − 7 = 0 ⇒ 15x 4 + 3x = 7
implies there is a root in this interval. 7
⇒ x(15x 3 + 3) = 7 ⇒ x = _________
b g(x) = 0 ⇒ x 5 − 5x − 6 = 0 15x 3 + 3
⇒ x 5 = 5x + 6 ⇒ x = (5x + 6) 5
__
1

iii 15x 4 + 3x − 7 = 0 ⇒ 15x 4 = 7 − 3x

p = 5, q = 6, r = 5 _______

c x 1 = 1.6154, x 2 = 1.6971, x 3 = 1.7068

7 − 3x
√
4 7 − 3x
⇒ x 4 = _______ ⇒ x = _______
15 15
d g(1.7075) = −0.0229… < 0, g(1.7085) = 0.0146…> 0
The sign change implies there is a root in this interval. b Using formula iii, root = 0.750 (3 d.p.)
c Formula iii gives the positive fourth root, so cannot be
4 a g(x) = 0 ⇒ x 2 − 3x − 5______
=0
used to find a negative root.
⇒ x 2 = 3x + 5 ⇒ x = √ 3x + 5
b, c y
Review exercise 2
y=x
1 a k = −1, A(0, 2)
y = 3x + 5 b ln 3
2 a 425 °C b 7.49 minutes c 1.64 °C/minute
d The temperature can never go below 25 °C.
3 a x=2 b x = ln 3 or x = ln 1 = 0
4 a Missing values 0.88, 1.01, 1.14 and 1.29
b log P
1.4
O 1 x 1.2
1
d y
y= x –5
2
0.8
3
0.6
0.4
0.2
y=x 0
0 10 20 30 40 t
c P = abt
log P = log (abt) = log a + t log b
This is a linear relationship. The gradient is log b
and the intercept is log a
O x d a = 5.9, b = 1.0
7
ex + 2
5 a ______ b x[ℝ c 1.878
5 a f(1.1) = −0.0648… < 0, f(1.15) = 0.0989… > 0 5
The sign change implies there is a root in this
6 a f(x) > k
interval.
b 2k
b 5x − 4 sin x − 2 = 0 ⇒ 5x = 4 sin x + 2
c f−1: x → ln (x − k), x > k
⇒ x = __45 sin x + __25 ⇒ p = __45 , q = __25 d y f(x)
c x 1 = 1.113, x 2 = 1.118, x 3 = 1.119, x 4 = 1.120
6 a y y=x+3 b 2 f 1(x)
1 k

1 k
y=
x

O x 1 k k

k
212 ANSWERS

4 − ex 1
7 a f−1: x → ______ 14 a y = cosec x = _____
2 sin x
b y dy cos x 1 cos x
___ = − ______ = − _____ × _____ = − cosec x cot x
dx sin 2 x sin x sin x

y 2 dy 1
b ___ = − __________
______
3
dx 6x√ x2 − 1
2 ln 4 15 y = arcsin x ⇒ x = sin y
x dy
dx 1
___ = cos y ⇒ ___ = _____
dy dx cos y
y f 1(x) _________ ______ dy 1
c f−1(x) < 2 cos y = √ 1 − sin 2 y = √ 1 − x 2 ⇒ ___ = _______
______
dx √ 1 − x2
d 3
8 a gf : x → 4e4x, x [ ℝ 16 a=1
b y 17 a cos 7x + cos 3x = cos (5x + 2x) + cos (5x – 2x)
= cos 5x cos 2x – sin 5x sin 2x + cos 5x cos 2x +
sin 5x sin 2x = 2 cos 5x cos 2x
b __37 sin 7x + sin 3x + c
18 m=3
19 a A = __12 , B = 2, C = −1
(0, 4)
1
b __12 ln |x| + 2 ln |x − 1| + _____ + c
x−1

x
f(x) dx = [__ ln |x| = 2 ln |x − 1| + _____]
O 9 1 1
9
c
2 x−1 4
c gf(x) ù 0 4

= (__ ln 9 + 2 ln 8 + __) − (__ ln 4 + 2 ln 3 + __)

d −0.418 (3 s.f.) 1 1 1 1
9 a 2 8 2 3
y
= (ln 3 + ln 64 + __) − (ln 2 + ln 9 + __)
y x 1 1
8 3
y ln x
= ln (_______) − ___ = ln (___) − ___
3 3 64 5 32 5
239 24 3 24
5x + 3 3 1
20 a ______________ ≡ _______ + _____
(2x − 3)(x − 2) 2x − 3 x + 2
O 1 x b ln 54
21 __19 (2e3 + 10)
22 a g(1.4) = −0.216 < 0, g(1.5) = 0.125 > 0
Sign change implies root.
2x − ln x 2x + x b g(1.4655) = −0.00025… < 0
b x = − ln x ⇒ ________ = ______ = x
3 3 g(1.4655) = 0.00326… > 0
c 0.56714 (5 d.p.) Sign change implies root.
dy 23 a p(1.7) = 0.0538… > 0, p(1.8) = 0.0619… < 0
10 ___ = x − 4 sin x Sign change implies root.
dx
π dy π π2 1 b p(1.7455) = 0.00074… > 0
x = __, ___ = __ − 4, y = ___, m n = − ______
π
2 dx 2 8 __ −4 p(1.7465) = −0.00042… < 0
2 Sign change implies root.
π π
( 2)
2 1
y − ___ = − ______
π x − __ 24 a ex–2 – 3x + 5 = 0 ⇒ ex–2 = 3x – 5
8 __ −4
2 ⇒ x – 2 = ln (3x – 5) ⇒ x = ln (3x – 5) + 2
⇒ 8y(8 − π) − 16x + π(π 2 − 8π + 8) = 0 b x0 = 4, x1 = 3.9459, x2 = 3.9225, x3 = 3.9121
dy 2 dy 25 a f(0.2) = −0.01146… < 0, f(0.3) = 0.1564… > 0
11 ___ = 3e 3x − __ , x = 2, y = e 6 − ln 4, ___ = 3e 6 − 1 Sign change implies root.
dx x dx
y − e 6 + ln 4 = (3e 6 − 1)(x − 2) 1 1
b _______3 + x2 = 0 ⇒ _______3 = –4x2
⇒ y − (3e 6 − 1)x − 2 + ln 4 + 5e 6 = 0 (x – 2) (x – 2)
____

√
dy –1 3 –1
12 a ___ = 4(2x − 3)(e 2x) + 2(2x − 3) 2(e 2x) ⇒ ____2 = (x – 2)3 ⇒ ____2 + 2x
dx 4x 4x
= 2(e 2x)(2x − 3)(2x − 1) c x0 = 1, x1 = 1.3700, 75, x2 = 1.4893,

b (__ , 0) and (__ , 4e)

3 1 x3 = 1.5170, x4 = 1.5228
2 2 d f(1.5235) = 0.0412… > 0, f(1.5245) = −0.0050… < 0
dy (x − 1)(2 sin x + cos x − x cos x)
13 a ___ = ____________________________ Challenge
dx sin 2 x 1 8x + 36y + 19 = 0
π π 2 dy π 2 a f(0) = 03 − k(0) + 1 = 1; g(0) = e2(0) = 1; P(0, 1)
(2 ) dx (2 )
b x = __ , y = __ − 1 , ___ = 2 __ − 1
2 b __12
π π
(2 ) ( 2)
2
y− __ − 1 = (π − 2) x − __
3 __
18
r

⇒ y = (π − 2)x + (1 − )
π 2
___
4
Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.
 ANSWERS 213

Exam practice c y
x+7
_______
1
2x − 1
2 a 200 < V ≤ 2000 A9(1, 4)
b After 15 years the value of Maria’s saxophone is
decreasing at 30 euros per year.
c 10 ln (__)
4 y = 2f(3x)
3
(0, 2)
a A = (__, __ e 2 )
1 5 __1
3
5 2
5 __1
b 0 < f(x) < __ e 2
3 O x
c y

y = | f( x)| 5 a f(x) = sin2 x + 2(sin2 x + cos2 x) = sin2 x + 2

1 − cos 2x 1 − cos 2x 5 − cos 2x
sin2 x = __________ ⇒ f(x) = __________ + 2 = __________
2 2 2
5π − 2
(0, 4) b _______
8
dy π π
(2 )
O x 6 a ___ = 2x + __ cos __ x
( 43 , 0) dx 2
x+1
b y = _____
4 a y 2
1
7 k = ___
12
A9(–3, 3)
4 1
8 f(x) = 3x + 2 + _____ + _______2
(0, 2) x − 2 (x − 2)
y = f(–x) + 1
9 a f(3.9) = 13, f(4.1) = −7
b There is an asymptote at x = 4 which causes the
change of sign, not a root.
O x y
c α = __
13
3
b y
f(x)
3
y = f(x + 3) + 2 A9(0, 3)

O 4 x

e4x + 3
10 a ______ + c
O x 4
e−sin4x
b − ______ + c
4
214 INDEX

INDEX
A identities 57–8, 59–61
using 53–4, 56–7
absolute value function see modulus functions
cot x
addition, algebraic fractions 3–5
definition 47
addition formulae 70–96, 100
differentiating 138
definition 71
exact values 48
double-angle formulae 78–85
graph 50–1, 52–3
finding exact values of trigonometric functions 75–7
identities 5 7–8, 59–61
proving 71–5
using 53–7
proving other identities 90–3
curves
simplifying expressions 85–90
combined transformations 32–5
solving equations 81–5
gradient 130–1, 133
algebraic fractions 1–5, 8–9, 97, 172
reflection 28–32
adding 3–5
sketching 106–7
converting improper to partial 5–8
stationary points on 124, 125, 134–6
dividing 2–3, 5–6, 7
multiplying 2–3
subtracting 3–5 D
algebraic long division 5–6, 7 decreasing function 103
algebraic methods 1–9 degree of polynomial 5
answers to questions 178–213 derivatives
arccos x 63–5, 139–40 exponentials 105–6, 126
arcsin x 62, 63, 64–5, 139–40 integrating standard functions 147
arctan x 63–5, 139–40 logarithms 126
argument of modulus 12–13 standard trigonometric 123–4, 137–8
asymptotes 49–50, 106–7, 108, 159 differentiation 122–45, 171–2, 173
chain rule 128–31, 137–40
C composite functions 128–31
exponentials 105–6, 126–8
CAST diagram 55, 58, 60, 63–4
from first principles 123
chain rule 128–31, 137–40
inverse trigonometric functions 139–40
reversed 149–51, 152, 153–6
logarithms 126–8
change of sign rule 159–62
product rule 132–4, 137
cobweb diagram 163
quotient rule 134–6, 137, 138, 140
common denominator 3–4
trigonometric functions 123–5, 137–42
common factors, cancelling 2
divergent iterations 163, 165
common multiple 3–4
division
composite functions 20–3, 128–31
algebraic fractions 2–3
compound-angle formulae see addition formulae
algebraic long division 5–6, 7
continuous functions 159, 164
domain
convergent iterations 163, 164
inverse functions 24–7, 62–4
cos x
inverse trigonometric functions 62–4
differentiating 123–5
mappings and functions 15–20
exact values 47, 76–7
restricting 62
graph 9, 55
trigonometric functions 50–1, 62–4
inverse function 63–5, 139–40
double-angle formulae 78–85
reciprocal see sec x
simplifying expressions 53–4
solving equations 54–5 E
see also trigonometric identities exam practice 174–5
cosec x exponential functions 102–21, 170–1
definition 47 definition 103
differentiating 1 38 derivatives 105–6, 126
exact values 47–8, 76 differentiating 105–6, 126–8
graph 50, 51, 52, 53 graphs 103–8, 116–18
 INDEX 215

integrating 147, 148–9 and logarithms 147, 148

modelling with 116–18 reverse chain rule 149–51, 152, 153–6
natural exponential function 105–8, 126, 147, 149 standard functions 147–9
and natural logarithms 108–10, 126 trigonometric functions 147, 148–9
using trigonometric identities 151–3
F intersection 12–14
inverse functions 24–7
factorise algebraic fractions 2
fixed point iteration 163–7 trigonometric 62–5, 139–40
fractions see algebraic fractions iteration 163–7
functions 10–45, 97–9, 101, 171
combining transformations 32–5 L
composite 20–3, 128–31 logarithms 108–16, 118–21, 170–1
differentiating see differentiation differentiating 126–8
domain see domain and exponential functions 108–10
integrating see integration integration 147, 148
inverse 24–7 natural 108–10, 126
many-to-one 15–17 and non-linear data 110–16
and mappings 15–20 lowest common multiple 3–4
one-to-one 15–17, 24–7, 62
piecewise-defined 17–18
problem solving 35–40
M
many-to-one functions 15–17
product of 132–4 mappings 15–20, 24
quotient of 134–6 mixed fractions 5–8
range see range modelling, exponential 116–18
roots of 159–69 modulus functions 11–15
see also exponential functions; modulus functions; graph of y = f(|x|) 28–32
trigonometric functions graph of y = |f(x)| 28–32
transforming 35–40
G multiplication, algebraic fractions 2–3
geometric construction 71–2, 73, 75
glossary 176–7
gradient 110–13, 123
N
natural exponential function 105–8, 126, 147, 149
curves 130–1, 133 natural logarithms 108–10, 126
gradient functions 105 non-linear data 110–16
graphs 10–45, 97–9, 101, 171 numerical methods 158–69, 171, 172–3
composite functions 22 fixed point iteration 163–7
exponential functions 103–8 locating roots 159–62
exponential modelling 116–18
inverse functions 24–7, 62–5
inverse trigonometric functions 62–5
O
one-to-many mapping 15, 16
locating roots 159–62
one-to-one functions 15–17, 24–7, 62
logarithms 108, 111–16
mappings 15–20
modulus functions 11–15, 28–32 P
reciprocal trigonometric functions 49–53 partial fractions 5–8
transformations 32–6, 51–2, 87 piecewise-defined function 17–18
trigonometric functions 49–53, 55, 62–5 polynomial, degree of 5
product rule 132–4, 137
I
identities 5–6 Q
see also trigonometric identities quotient rule 134–6, 137, 138, 140
improper algebraic fractions 5–8
increasing function 103 R
integration 146–57, 172 radians 123
complex functions 153–6 range
exponentials 147, 148–9 inverse functions 24–7, 62–4
function in form f(ax + b) 149–51 inverse trigonometric functions 62–4
216 INDEX

mappings and functions 15–20 stationary points 124, 125, 134–6

solving problems 35–9 straight line 11–14, 110–16, 121
trigonometric functions 50–1, 62–4 stretch 36, 51–2, 104
real numbers 1 6 combining transformations 32–3, 87, 106–7
reciprocal (fractions) 2 subtraction, algebraic fractions 3–5
reciprocal trigonometric functions 47–57
reflection 32–5
inverse functions 24–6, 62–3, 103, 108
T
tan x
modulus function 11–14, 28–32, 35–7 differentiating 137–8
reverse chain rule 149–51, 152, 153–6 exact values 76–7
review exercises 118–20, 170–3 inverse function 63–5, 139–40
addition formulae 93–6, 100 reciprocal see cot x
algebraic fractions 8–9, 97, 172 simplifying expressions 55
differentiation 142–3, 171–2, 173 see also trigonometric identities
exam practice 174–5 transformations 32, 103–4, 106–7
exponentials and logarithms 118–20, 170–1 combining 32–6, 51–2, 87
functions and graphs 41–4, 97–9, 101, 171 modulus functions 35–40
integration 156–7, 172 translation 32–3, 35–6, 104, 107
numerical methods 167–9, 171, 172–3 trigonometric equations 54–7, 81–5
trigonometric functions 66–8, 99–100, 101 trigonometric expressions 53–6, 85–90
roots 38 trigonometric functions 46–69, 99–100, 101
iterative methods for finding 163–7 differentiating 123–5, 137–42
locating 159–62 domain 50–1, 62–4
graphs 49–53, 55, 62–5
S integrating 147, 148–9
sec x inverse 62–5, 139–40
definition 47 proving identities 54, 56–8, 59, 71–5, 90–3
differentiating 138 range 50–1, 62–4
exact values 47–8 reciprocal 47–57
graph 49–50, 51–3 simplifying expressions 53–6
identities 57–9, 60–1 solving equations 54–7
using 53–7 see also addition formulae
sin x trigonometric identities 57–61, 71–96
differentiating 123–5 addition formulae 7 1–7
exact values 5–7 double-angle formulae 78–85
inverse function 62, 63, 64–5, 139–40 geometric construction 71–2, 73, 75
reciprocal see cosec x integration using 151–3
simplifying expressions 53–4 proving 54, 56–8, 59, 71–5, 90–3
see also trigonometric identities simplifying expressions 85–90
staircase diagram 163 solving equations 81–5
standard functions 147–9 substituting 72–3, 82–3, 137, 139, 152
standard trigonometric derivatives 123–4, 137–8
217
218
219
220
221
222
PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL A LEVEL

PURE MATHEMATICS 3
STUDENT BOOK
Pearson Edexcel International A Level Pure Mathematics 3 Student Book provides comprehensive coverage of the Pure
Mathematics 3 unit. This book is designed to provide students with the best preparation possible for the examination:
• Content is fully mapped to the specification to provide comprehensive coverage and easy reference
• Engaging and relevant international content in a real-world context
• Exam-style questions at the end of each chapter, and an exam practice paper at the end of the book, provide practice
for exam writing technique
• Signposted transferable skills prepare for further education and employment
• Reviewed by a language specialist to ensure the book is written in a clear and accessible style
• Glossary of key Mathematics terminology, and full answers, included at the back of the book
• Interactive practice activities also included

An Online Teacher Resource Pack (9781292244938) provides further planning, teaching and assessment support.

This Student Book supports the following qualifications:

Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Level in Mathematics (YMA01)
Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Level in Pure Mathematics (YPM01)
For first teaching September 2018

IAL PURE MATHS 1 IAL PURE MATHS 2 IAL PURE MATHS 4

Student Book Student Book Student Book
ISBN: 9781292244792 ISBN: 9781292244853 ISBN: 9781292245126

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