Graphs :

1) Explain the unit €/Wp in the ITRPV roadmap. What is the advantage of using this
number as compared to reporting €/m2? The unit €/Wp in the ITRPV roadmap
represents the cost of photovoltaic (PV) modules per watt-peak (Wp), which is a
measure of the maximum power output of the module under standardized test
conditions. This unit takes into account the efficiency of the module, as higher
efficiency modules will produce more power per unit area and thus have a lower
cost per Wp.

2) Draw the band diagram of a semiconductor versus a metal? Label the bands with their
names. Indicate as well the work function respectively the Fermi level.
3) Draw a typical jV curve of a solar cell. Mark and label the axes and the important
physical characteristic parameters. How do you calculate the efficiency of a solar cell
knowing the photovoltaic characteristics like Voc or Jsc?

4) Draw a plot of the power of a solar cell (j*V) versus the voltage. Explain the
minimum. How is that point called?
5) Draw the “ideal” equivalent circuit of a solar cell under light and in the absence of
resistive losses

6) Draw the “realistic” equivalent circuit of a solar cell in the presence of resistive losses

7) Write down the idealistic diode equation. Explain the parameters.

8) Write down the realistic diode equation. Explain the parameters.

9) Write down the equation for determining the Voc when knowing Jsc and J0.
10) Draw the jV curve of an ideal diode vs a “shunted” diode in the dark in a linear scale
as well as semi-logarithmic scale.

11) Draw the jV curve of an ideal cell vs a shunted solar cell under light. Which parameter is
more affected – Voc or Jsc?

12) Draw the jV curve of an ideal solar cell vs a solar cell which is “significantly” limited by
a series resistance in the dark in a linear as well as logarithmic scale.
13) Draw the jV curve of an ideal solar cell versus a solar cell which is “significantly”
limited by a series resistance under light? Which parameter is more affected – Voc or
Jsc?

14) Draw the spectral irradiance as a function of wavelength. In which units is the spectral
irradiance reported? (W/m2.nm)
15) How does the maximum spectral irradiance shift with temperature? Can you
qualitatively draw a typical curve for two different temperatures (spectral irradiance as a
function of wavelength) in a double logarithmic scale.
The maximum spectral irradiance (also known as the peak wavelength) of
blackbody radiation shifts towards shorter wavelengths as the temperature
increases, according to Wien's displacement law.

16) Draw the band diagram for a first order recombination mechanism? Is this a loss
mechanism? Is this process radiative or non-radiative?
the first-order recombination process is a radiative loss mechanism because it
leads to the loss of current or voltage due to the emission of photons.
17) Draw schematically the efficiency curve of semiconductors for PV operation as a
function of bandgap. At which values of the bandgap do we observe the maximum
efficiency? What is app. the maximum efficiency in the detailed balance limit? 1,2 –
1,4 ev EFFICIENCY MAX 30%

18) Draw the 1d band diagram of a p-n junction before and after formation of the contact.
Start with the n-doped SC on the left-hand side.
a. Label the various potentials (VB, CB, Ef, vacuum level)
b. Indicate where the space charge (depletion) regime lies
c. Draw the built-in potential (Vbi)
19) Draw a Shottky contact for a highly n-type silicon wafer. Label the potentials.
Explicitly mention the work function of the metal that has to be used to create a
Shottky type junction.

20) Draw a Shottky contact for a highly p-type silicon wafer. Label the potentials.
Explicitly mention the work function of the metal that has to be used to create a
Shottky type junction.

21) Draw a Type 1 heterojunction for two intrinsic semiconductors. Label the VB, CB,
both bandgaps and the energy offset in the bands. Do you know other names for Type 1
HJ?
22) Draw a Type 2 heterojunction for two intrinsic semiconductors. Label the VB, CB,
both bandgaps and the energy offset in the bands. Do you know other names for Type 2
HJ?

23) Draw a Broken Gap heterojunction. Label the VB, CB, both bandgaps and the energy
offset in the band.

24) Is silicon a direct or indirect semiconductor. Draw the 1d band diagram (E, k), label
the potentials (VB, CB) and show the lowest Eg.
Silicon is an indirect semiconductor, meaning that it has a minimum energy point
in the conduction band at a different k-point than the maximum energy point in
the valence band.
 25) Draw schematically the absorption coefficient in [cm-1] of Silicon versus a direct
bandgap semiconductor.

26) How can you overcome rear surface recombination losses. Explain the interplay of
backside passivation and wafer diffusion length by schematically drawing the
collection probability as a function of distance from the front surface.
It’s with backside passivation. The interplay between backside passivation and
wafer diffusion length can be understood by looking at the collection
probability as a function of distance from the front surface.

27) What is a back surface field? Draw the band diagram, indicate the back surfacefield regime and
label which type of carriers are influenced how.
A back surface field (BSF) is a type of doping profile that is commonly used in
silicon solar cells to reduce recombination losses at the rear surface of the cell.
28) Explain surface recombination at the hand of a schematic band diagram, showing
explicitly the surface states and the involved processes.
How can you reduce / overcome surface / interface recombination?
Surface recombination occurs when charge carriers (electrons or holes)
recombine at the surface of a semiconductor, leading to a loss of efficiency in
the solar cell. This can happen due to the presence of surface states, which
are energy levels located at or near the surface of the semiconductor that can
trap charge carriers and promote recombination.
One way to reduce surface recombination is by passivating the surface with a
thin layer of insulating material, such as silicon dioxide (SiO2) or aluminum
oxide (Al2O3) Another way to reduce surface recombination is by using
texturing techniques to increase the surface area of the solar cell and reduce
the probability of charge carriers reaching the surface

29) Which strategies do you know to reduce reflection losses at the front surface of asilicon solar
cell? Name at least 2
In conclusion, reducing reflection losses at the front surface of a silicon solar cell can be
achieved through strategies such as applying anti-reflection coatings and texturing the
surface. These strategies can significantly improve the performance and efficiency of the
cell.

a. How do you design and optimize a V-shape antireflection layer? Which

relation between the refractive index, the central wavelength and the
thicknessof the AR layer must be obeyed
b. Schematically draw a pyramid-type AR layer and indicate the path of
incident light incl. the multiple reflections and the prolonged light path
To design and optimize a V-shape antireflection layer, the refractive index
of the material and the central wavelength of the incident light must be
taken into account. The thickness of the layer is then determined based on
the desired reduction in reflection losses.
A pyramid-type antireflection layer is shown in the schematic below. The
incident light is shown as the red arrow, and the multiple reflections in the
pyramid structure are indicated by the blue arrows. As the light enters the
pyramid, it is refracted and reflected multiple times, leading to a
prolonged path length and a reduced reflection.
30) What are the optimization criteria for the bus bars and the collection grid on the front surface of a
Si cell. What happen if you make them infinitesimal small. What happens if they become too
broad? Can you schematically draw the solar cell losses in[%] as a function of number of
collection fingers for two different widths of the finger (small / large)
The bus bars and the collection grid on the front surface of a silicon solar cell serve as
the electrical contacts to extract the generated current from the cell. The optimization
criteria for these components include: Minimizing shading losses, Minimizing series
resistance losses.
If the bus bars and collection grid become infinitesimally small, the series resistance
losses may increase, leading to a reduction in the overall cell performance. On the other
hand, if the bus bars and collection grid become too broad, the shading losses may
increase, leading to a reduction in the amount of light that can be absorbed by the cell.
Overall, the design of the bus bars and collection grid on the front surface of a
silicon solar cell should balance the trade-off between shading losses and series
resistance losses to optimize the overall cell performance.
31) Draw the schematics of an IBC cell. Explain the advantages of this concept ascompared to a
BSF silicon cell
Interdigitated back electrodes: no shading - Both surfaces passivated by SiO2 – only point
contacts at rear side Requires high quality Si for high Ln.

32) Draw the schematics of a PERC cell. Explain the advantages of this concept as
compared to a BSF silicon cell

Excellent light trapping –

Both surfaces passivated selectively for p-type and n-type – only point contacts at rear
side

32) Draw the schematics of a HIT cell. Indicate the hetoerjunctions (HJ) formed ina HIT cell.
a. Is a HIT cell based on a p/n junction?
33) Draw the LaMer diagram for the formation of perovskite particle / crystalliteformation.
Indicate the three regimes and label the three different concentrations representative for each
regime.

34) Plot schematically the resolution of a wafer based solar cell production vs the one for a printing-
based production technology as a function of productivity. Label theaxes and denote the units of
the axes.