GEOGRAPHY RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT

Resources and Development

Natural Resources and their Classification

Resources are an indispensable part of human development. Everything which is available in our
environment and which can be technologically and economically exploited for satisfying human wants are
known as resources.

Classification of Resources
Resources can be classified on the basis of
Origin Biotic and abiotic Biotic resources: These resources are obtained from
nature and have life. Examples: Humans, forests,
fisheries, livestock
Abiotic resources: These resources are obtained
from nature but are made of non-living things.
Examples: Metals, air, soil
Exhaustibility Renewable and non- Renewable resources: These resources are available in
renewable plenty in nature and can be replenished. Examples:
Sunlight, wind, water
Non-renewable resources: These resources are present
in nature and are formed after millions of years. They can
be exhausted or depleted after a particular period of time.
Examples: Coal, petroleum
Ownership Individual, Individual resources are owned privately by a person
community-owned such as farmlands and houses.
national and Community resources are owned by a community and
international are accessible to the members of that community such as
resources grazing lands and burial grounds.
National resources belong to a nation. Examples: Water
resources, forests, minerals
International resources are regulated by international
laws and regulations. Example: Oceanic resources
beyond 200 nautical miles of the Exclusive Economic
Zone
Status of Development Potential resources, Potential resources: These resources are available in the
developed region but are not fully used such as wind energy and
resources, stock and solar energy.
reserves Developed resources: These resources are surveyed and
their quantity and quality are known. Examples: Coal
mines, oil wells
Stock: These resources can satisfy human needs but
humans do not have the required technology to access
and harness them. Examples: Geothermal power,
hydrogen fuel
Reserves: The use of such resources has not been fully
started and they are used only up to a limited extent.
Example: Dams
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Resources are often centred in a few hands. This has led to a wide gap between the rich and the poor.
Indiscriminate use of resources has resulted in its depletion and global ecological crises.

Resource Planning in India

Resource planning in India involves the following processes:

 To identify and make a list of existing resources across the country by surveying and mapping
 To frame a planning structure with the estimates of the level of technology, skill sets and
institutions which are required for harnessing these resources
 To map the resource development plans with the national development plans

Land Resource

Land is one of the most important natural resources as we perform our economic activities on land. Land
is used for the following purposes:

Land Use Pattern in India

The forest cover of the country is less than the prescribed 33% of the total country’s land. Forests occupy
about 23.81% of the total land surface in India.
The total net sown area of India is 46.24% of the total land in the country. The net sown area differs from
state to state. While in Punjab and Haryana, the net sown area is more than 80% of the total land in the
state, it is less than 10% in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
3.38% of the total land is used for grazing, while the remaining lands are fallow and waste lands.

Reasons for the Degradation of Land in India

1. Deforestation
2. Mining

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3. Erosion of land because of flooding

4. Overgrazing
5. Industrial effluents
6. Excess irrigation of lands
Mining and deforestation have deteriorated the quality of land in Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh,
Jharkhand and Odisha. Overgrazing is one of the main reasons for the land degradation in Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. In Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh, excess
irrigation has resulted in water logging leading to increased soil salinity. In major metropolitan cities,
industrial effluents have degraded the land.

Methods to Conserve Land

1. Afforestation
2. Proper management of grazing and wastelands
3. Control on unrestricted mining
4. Proper treatment of industrial effluents

Soil Resource

Soil is a renewable natural resource. It supports various living organisms and is a medium of plant growth.
Topsoil is the uppermost layer of the Earth. It consists of humus. Factors such
as variation of temperature, parent rock, decomposers and running water
affect the formation of soil. Soil in India can be classified based on their
texture, thickness, age, chemical and physical properties.

Classification of Soils
Alluvial Soil: It is the most widely spread soil in India. It has been deposited
by three Himalayan river systems—Ganga, Indus and Brahmaputra. Alluvial
soil is composed of sand, silt and clay particles. The entire North Indian Plains
are made of this soil. It is also found in the eastern coastal plains and some
parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat. The soil is suitable for the cultivation of paddy, wheat, sugarcane and
other cereal and pulse crops.
On the basis of age, soil can be classified as bangar and khadar soils.

Differences between bangar and khadar soils

Bangar Soil Khadar Soil
It is an old alluvial soil. It is a new alluvial soil.
It has higher concentration of kankar It has less concentration of kankar nodules.
nodules.
It is comparatively less fertile. It is more fertile.

Black Soil:
 This soil is black and is also known as regur. Because the soil is ideal for growing cotton, it is also
known as black cotton soil.

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 This soil is found in the plateau regions of

Saurashtra, Maharashtra, Malwa and
Chhattisgarh. The soil is made of fine clayey
material and is known for holding moisture.
 The soil is rich in calcium carbonate,
magnesium and potash. It is most suitable
for growing cotton.

Red and Yellow Soils:

 These soils are found in parts of Odisha,
Chhattisgarh, southern parts of middle
Gangetic plains and some parts of Western
Ghats.
 The soil becomes reddish because of the
presence of iron oxides. It looks yellow in a
hydrated form. Potatoes, maize and cotton
are crops which are grown in red soil.
Vegetables, tobacco and citrus fruits such as
grapes are grown in yellow soil.

Laterite Soil:
 This soil is found in areas of high Major Soil Types in the country
temperature and heavy rainfall. This soil has
low humus content as most of microorganisms get destroyed because of high temperature.
 This soil is found in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and hilly regions of Assam.
 This soil is suitable for growing tea and coffee. Cashew nuts are grown in red laterite soils of Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala.

Arid Soils:
 These soils are sandy in texture and saline in nature. They are found in areas of high temperature and
dry climate.
 Because of dry climate, the moisture and humus content of the soil is very low. In some areas,
common salt is obtained by evaporating the water from the soil.
 These soils are not fertile but can become fertile after adequate irrigation of the soil.
 The arid soil is found in Rajasthan and in the northwestern parts of Gujarat.

Forest Soil:
 This soil is found in the hilly and mountainous regions. It is made of sand and silt. In the snow regions
of the Himalayas, the soil lacks humus content because of the loss of top cover of the soil.
 The forest soil found in the lower parts of the Himalayas is fertile.

Soil Erosion
The wearing away (because of the action of winds) and washing down of soil cover (because of running
water) is known as soil erosion. Because the processes of erosion and soil formation occur

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simultaneously, there is a balance between the two. However, overgrazing and deforestation at a rapid
pace can disturb this balance. Different kinds of erosions are
Gully Erosion: This occurs when running water cuts through the soil making deep channels. The land
thus becomes unsuitable for cultivation and is known as bad land.
Sheet Erosion: The washing away of the topsoil because of the flowing of water as a sheet over large
areas is known as sheet erosion.
Wind Erosion: When the wind blows away the topsoil, it is known as wind erosion.

Soil Conservation
Soil can be conserved in the following ways:
 Contour Ploughing: When one ploughs along the contour lines, it is called contour ploughing. It
decreases the flow of water down the slopes and thus helps in soil conservation.
 Terrace Farming: When steps are cut out on the slopes of the hills making terraces, it reduces soil
erosion.
 Strip Cropping: When strips of grass are grown between the strips of crops, it is known as strip
cropping. It breaks down the speed of winds.
 Shelter Belts: When trees are planted in a row, it breaks the force of winds. This method has proved
very useful in destabilising the sand dunes in the deserts of western India.

Terrace farming Strip farming

Shelter belt

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 GEOGRAPHY FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES

Forest and Wildlife Resources

Forests are an important resource for any country. They not only provide a habitat to various
organisms but are also the primary producers of all resources on which all the other living beings
depend.

Flora and Fauna in India

India is known for its rich biodiversity. The term ‘biodiversity’ is used to describe various life forms which
are found on the Earth. This includes flora, fauna and various ecosystems in which species live or depend
on one another.
Because of deforestation, the demand for hides and horns of animals and for medicinal plants,
commercialisation etc., many species of plants and animals are on the verge of extinction at present.
According to their present numbers, various species of plants and animals can be categorised into the
following divisions:

Normal Species: Those species whose numbers are considered normal for their survival are known as
normal species. Some examples are sal, pine, rodents and cattle.

Extinct Species: Extinct species are those species of plants and animals which cannot be found in the
wild or in captivity in areas where they may occur. For example, the cheetah in India and the dodo bird in
the world have become extinct.

Endangered Species: Species which are facing a grave threat to their lives and are in danger of
becoming extinct are known as endangered species. Black buck and Indian rhino are examples of such
species.
Vulnerable Species: These species can become endangered if positive steps are not taken to improve
their numbers. Desert fox and Asiatic elephants are examples of such species.

Rare Species: Species which are very uncommon or scarce in numbers are called rare species. They
can become vulnerable or endangered if their numbers continue to decline. Some examples of this
species are wild Asiatic buffalo, hornbill and desert fox.

Endemic Species: These kinds of species are only found at a particular region, range or location in the
world. Andaman wild pig and Nicobar pigeon are examples of such species.

Factors Leading to the Depletion of Flora and Fauna

Factors which have contributed to the decline in various species of plants and animals:
 The Indian forests were greatly damaged during the colonial period. The British brought many areas
under cultivation to earn revenues. The expansion of railways led to the destruction of huge chunks of
forests. Reckless mining and commercial forestry have further led to the destruction of forests.
 In the post-independence period, the expansion of cultivation continued. This also led to the
destruction of forests and consequently the depletion of various species.

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 Many river valley projects have resulted in the loss of forest lands. For example, the Narmada Sagar
Project in Madhya Pradesh has resulted in the reduction of forest cover of the region.
 Uncontrolled mining has resulted in deforestation. Mining not only disturbs the habitat of many species
but also blocks the migration route of several animals. For example, dolomite mining has threatened
the tigers in the Buxa Tiger Reserve in West Bengal.
 According to many environmentalists, the collection of fuel wood and the grazing of animals have also
depleted the forest ecosystems.

Types of Forests in India

Forests in India are controlled by the Indian Forest Department, which has divided forests into
Reserved Forests: In India, more than half of the total forest land has been declared as reserved forests.
Protected Forests: Protected forests are protected from any further destruction of forest cover.
Unclassed Forests: This class of forests include the forests and wetlands which are owned by the
Government, privately or jointly by communities.
Reserved and protected forests are also known as permanent forest estates. Madhya Pradesh has the
largest area under permanent forests.
Biodiversity is the variety of life found on the Earth. An ecosystem which has rich biodiversity has several
species of plants and animals which are closely connected to each other through biotic and abiotic
factors.
Biodiversity helps in boosting the productivity of the ecosystems in which each species plays an important
role. For example, a large number of plant species results in greater varieties of crops. Similarly, many
microorganisms play an important role in biodiversity. They fertilise the soil and play a role in recycling of
many minerals (e.g. carbon) in the environment. This helps in sustaining and improving human lives.

Conservation of Forests and Wildlife in India

Efforts of the Government towards Protecting Forests and Wildlife in India

 In 1972, the Indian Wildlife Act was passed. In this Act, various provisions were made to preserve the
endangered species of animals by banning hunting, restricting trade in wildlife and providing legal
protection to wildlife habitats.
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 As a result, many wildlife sanctuaries and national parks were established by the state and the Central
Government to preserve the habitat of many wild animals.
 Many animals such as tigers, one-horned rhinoceros, saltwater crocodile, black buck and snow
leopard have been give protection against hunting and trading in the country.
 Many conservation projects of the Government are now focusing on the preservation of biodiversity of
the country rather than just protecting certain species of plants and animals.

Role of Communities towards Conservation

 In India, apart from the Government and Forest Departments, various communities have played an
important role in conserving and protecting forests. The Chipko Movement was an example of
communities coming together to save forests from the reckless felling by private contractors.
 Sacred groves are an example of the conservation of forests by tribal and village communities. Many
forest areas are considered sacred by these communities, and any kind of activity or human
interference in these patches of forests is banned.
 Similarly, villagers of the five villages in the Alwar district have declared 1,200 hectares of forests
protected and do not allow any kind of interference, hunting or poaching in the forest area.
 Joint Forest Management is a programme in India which involves local communities in the
management of forest lands. In this programme, local village communities undertake management of
degraded parts of forests which are managed by the Forest Department. In return for their help, the
communities are allowed to have a share in non-timber and timber products which are harvested by
the joint efforts of the local communities and the Forest Departments. Odisha was the first state in
India to pass the Joint Forest Management programme.

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 GEOGRAPHY Water Resources

Water Resources

Water is one of the most important resources on the Earth. Although 71% of the total surface of the Earth
is covered with water, only 1% of freshwater is available for direct human use. Evaporation of water from
oceans and precipitation in the form of rainfall—parts of the water cycle—ensure the continuous
availability of freshwater. However, water is becoming a scarce resource. India is facing an acute
shortage of water supply. India receives about 4% of the global precipitation and ranks 133 in the world in
terms of availability of water per person in a year.

Reasons for Scarcity of Water in India

The following reasons can be attributed to the scarcity of water in India:
 A large and growing population has resulted in the scarcity of water resources in the country.
 To provide food resources for such a vast population, water resources are overused to irrigate
agricultural fields. Indiscriminate use of wells and tube wells has led to a considerable decline in the
water table.
 The establishment of various industries has resulted in the further exploitation of water resources. The
discharge of industrial effluents has also degraded the quality of water.
 In India, generation of hydroelectricity on a large scale has also put pressure on the water resources.
 Urban centres have multiplied in the country. Many houses and housing societies have their own
independent boring devices. This has further depleted the water table.
 In India, many places or regions may have sufficient water resources but may still suffer from water
scarcity. This may be because of the deterioration in the quality of drinking water. Disposal of
household and industrial wastes and the use of insecticides and pesticides in agriculture may result in
worsening of the quality of water.

Negative Impact of Building Big Dams

At present, many big dams are constructed in our country. These are called multipurpose dams as they
help in the generation of electricity and provide water for irrigation and industrial uses. Recently, these
multipurpose dams have come under attacks from environmentalists because of the following reasons:
 Damming of rivers and regulating their flow result in excessive sedimentation at the bottom of the
reservoir. This may hamper aquatic life and their migration to other water bodies.
 Building of dams result in the submergence of land and vegetation. This results in the decomposition
of vegetation.
 Construction of large dams results in the displacement of villagers and communities. The villagers
have to give up their lands and their means of livelihood.
 Large forest areas are also submerged because of the building of dams. This threatens our
biodiversity.
 As dams provide water for irrigation, intensive irrigation leads to salinity of soil.
 Frequently, the water in large dams is used for the benefit of the urban population and the rural
population is often left out. This further widens the gap between the rich and the poor.
 Dams which were initially built to control floods are now causing floods because of sedimentation. In
case of excessive rainfall, the release of water from dams often floods the area, causing damage to
lives and property.
 Land degradation, water-borne diseases and pollution are some other effects of building large dams.

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It has been stressed that it is more beneficial to build small check dams and small reservoirs in order to
deal with the problem of water scarcity. It not only provides water for irrigation at the time of need but also
recharges groundwater.

Hydraulic Structures in Ancient India

 Dams, lakes and reservoirs were built at the time of the rule of Chandra Gupta Maurya.
 Evidences of irrigation works have been found in Kalinga (Odisha), Nagarjunakonda in Andhra
Pradesh, Santhebennur in Karnataka and Kolhapur in Maharashtra.
 Bhopal Lake was built in the 11th century.
 In the 14th century, a tank in Hauz Khas was built in Delhi by Iltutmish.

Rainwater Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting is a technique of collecting and storing rainwater for domestic use. It is done in the
following ways:
 Rainwater on the rooftop is first collected using a PVC pipe. Water is then filtered by using sand and
bricks.
 Water is then taken down either to a
sump (a hollow structure or a
depression where liquids collect) for
immediate use or to a well or any
other structure which is dug in the
premises of a house.
 Water from this well can be used later
for domestic consumption. It also
recharges the water table.

India has a long tradition of water

harvesting. The technique differed from
regions to regions and was also called by
different names. Rain roof water Technique of Rainwater Harvesting
harvesting was practised in Rajasthan
and in Bengal. Long canals were taken out from large rivers which received water during flooding of the
river (inundation canals) in dry regions of western India. Agricultural fields were converted into rain-fed
storage structures. This helped the soil to gain moisture. In Rajasthan, many houses had underground
storage tanks (known as ‘tanka’). Rainwater from the sloping roofs of the house was collected into these
underground tanks through pipes.

Rainwater harvesting is one of the most important methods to deal with the scarcity of water. It not only
provides water for domestic use during the summer but also recharges the water table.

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 GEOGRAPHY AGRICULTURE

Agriculture

India is predominantly an agricultural country. Agriculture is a primary activity as it produces not only the
food which we directly consume but also the raw materials which are used in various industries.

Types of Farming

In India, various kinds of agricultural practices are followed.

Primitive Subsistence Farming

 This type of farming is also known as ‘slash and burn agriculture’. Farmers first clear a patch of forest
land by burning plants and trees. Food crops are then grown on this patch of land.
 Farming is carried out on small land holdings with primitive or age-old tools such as hoe and digging
sticks.
 When the fertility of the soil decreases, another patch of land is cleared for cultivation.
 Because fertilisers and modern tools of cultivation are not used in this type of farming, the production
is low. This type of farming is also known as shifting cultivation and is also known by different names
in different parts of the country.

Intensive Subsistence Farming

 It is labour-intensive farming and is generally carried out in areas of high population.
 Because the land holdings are not large, farmers use fertilisers and irrigate the fields to increase the
productivity of land.

Commercial Farming
 In this type of farming, the land holding is comparatively large. High-yielding variety seeds, pesticides
and insecticides are used in order to increase production.
 Plantation is also a type of commercial farming. In plantations, a single crop is grown on a large area.
Huge capital is invested, and fertilisers and irrigation methods are used to increase the productivity of
land. The produce of the plantations is used as a raw material in various industries. Tea, coffee and
rubber are some important plantation crops.
 The plantation fields are well connected with industries, transport and well-laid roads as plantation
crops are mainly produced for the consumption by the markets.

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In India, there are three main types of cropping seasons. They are rabi, kharif and zaid.

Types of Cropping Sowing Period Harvesting Main Crops or Seasonal Conditions

Seasons Period Fruits
Rabi Winter Summer (April– Wheat, barley, Rainfall during the winter
(October– June) peas, gram, months in northern India
December) mustard because of western
temperate cyclones
helps in the growth of
crops.
Kharif Beginning of September– Rice, maize, Much needed moisture is
monsoon (July) October jowar, provided by the monsoon
groundnut, tur, rains in India.
cotton
Zaid March–April May–June Watermelon, These crops are grown
cucumber, between the rabi and
vegetables, kharif seasons. They
fodder crops require warm weather to
grow.

Major Crops

In India, many food and non-food crops are grown in different parts of the country.

Rice: It is a staple food crop of majority of the people of India. It is a kharif crop which is grown
extensively in the northern plains, northeastern parts of the country and coastal and deltaic regions. Rice
requires high temperature (above 25°C) and high rainfall (above 100 cm). India is the second largest
producer of rice in the world after China.

Wheat: This is another important crop in India. It is the main food crop
consumed by people living mainly in north and northwestern parts of the
country. It is a rabi crop which requires cool climate. It requires about
50–75 cm of rainfall evenly distributed throughout the growing period.
The Ganga Satluj plains in the northwest and the black soil region in the
Deccan are the two main wheat-growing belts in the country. Punjab,
Wheat is a rabi crop which is sown
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan are major wheat-producing
during winters and harvested during
states. summers

Millets: Jowar, bajra and ragi are some important millets which are grown in India. These have high
nutritional value. Ragi is rich in calcium and iron. It is grown in the dry regions of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Sikkim. Jowar is the third most important food crop grown in India in
regard to production. It is grown in the humid areas of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.
Bajra grows on sandy soils. Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan are major producers of bajra.

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Maize: It is a food and a fodder crop. It is a kharif crop (it grows in the rabi season in Bihar) and requires
temperatures between 21°C and 27°C. It grows well in the old alluvial soil. Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh are some important maize-growing states.

Pulses: Major pulses grown in India are tur, urad, moong, peas and gram. Pulses can be grown even in
dry conditions. With the exception of tur, all pulses are leguminous crops which help in restoring nitrogen
to the soil. Thus, they are grown in rotation with the other crops. India is the largest producer and
consumer of pulses in the world. Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Karnataka
are major producers of pulses in the country.

Sugarcane: It grows well in the tropical and sub-tropical regions. It requires

temperatures between 21°C and 27°C and rainfall up to 100 cm annually. It
is a labour-intensive crop. India is the second largest producer of sugarcane
in the world after Brazil. Apart from sugar, khandsari, gur and molasses are
some important products of sugarcane. Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh are some important sugarcane-producing Sugarcane - a tropical and sub-tropical
crop
states.

Oil Seeds: Groundnuts, mustard, coconut, sesame, cotton seeds and sunflower seeds are some
important oil seeds which are grown in India. Most of these seeds are used in cooking. Some seeds are
also used as raw materials for the manufacturing of soaps, cosmetics and ointments. Gujarat and Andhra
Pradesh are two major producers of groundnuts in India.

Tea: It is plantation labour-intensive crop. It grows well on well-drained fertile soil in tropical and sub-
tropical regions. It requires warm and moist-free climate throughout the year. It requires rainfall spread
throughout the year. Frost is extremely harmful to plants. In India, tea is grown in Assam, West Bengal,
Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Coffee: India is known for growing the Arabica brand of coffee. In India, coffee is grown in Karnataka,
Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Horticulture
The cultivation of fruits, flowers and vegetables is known as horticulture. India is known for producing
varieties of fruits such as mango, litchi, grape and guava. India produces about 13% of the world’s
vegetables.

Non-Food Crops
Rubber: It requires moist and humid climate with temperatures above 25°C and more than 200 cm of
rainfall. It is grown in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Fibre Crops: Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are some fibre crops. Cotton grows well in the black
cotton soil of the Deccan Plateau. It needs high temperature, light rainfall and about 210 frost-free days.
Major cotton-producing states are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and
Uttar Pradesh.
Known as the golden fibre, jute grows well in the fertile soils of the floodplains. It is used in making bags,
ropes, mats and carpets. West Bengal, Bihar, Assam and Odisha are some major jute-producing states.

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The rearing of silkworms for the production of silk is known as sericulture. Karnataka and West Bengal
are two important silk-producing states.

Technological and Institutional Reforms

The Government of India introduced various reforms to improve productivity and the conditions of farmers.
Some of these reforms were
 Five Year Plans were passed whereby importance was given to land reforms. Green Revolution and
White Revolution were started to improve agriculture and milk production. However, it benefited only
few farmers.
 To provide cheap loans to the farmers, many ‘Grameen banks’ or cooperative credit societies have
been established in various villages.
 Farmers are provided insurance for crop protection, droughts, floods, fire and diseases. Apart from
these, Kisan Credit cards and Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS) have also been initiated
by the Government.

However, it is to be noticed that despite these reforms, the share of agriculture in the country’s GDP is
declining. It is also not generating enough employment opportunities. Various subsidies provided to the
farmers by the Government are on the decline. This has led to increased production costs. Reduction in
import duties on agricultural crops has further deteriorated the conditions of the farmers. Farmers are
increasingly growing fruits, vegetables and oil seeds. This has reduced the net sown area under the
cultivation of cereals and pulses. Excessive irrigation and too much use of pesticides and insecticides
have deteriorated the quality of soil resulting in low food production.

Food Security
India is a welfare state. To ensure the availability of food to all people, the Government of India has
started a food security system. Food security consists of two components:
a. Buffer stock
b. Public distribution system (PDS)

The Food Corporation of India (FCI) has the responsibility of purchasing and storing of food grains. It
purchases food grains from the farmers at the minimum support price (MSP) fixed by the Government.
The distribution of food grains is managed by the PDS.
As MSP subsidies of paddy and wheat are comparatively higher, these crops are grown more. This has
created an imbalance in the cropping patterns.
The Government has divided consumers into two categories—below poverty line (BPL) and above
poverty line (APL). These two categories get food grains at prices fixed by the Government.

However, the declining crop cultivation in the country has raised questions about the food security
programme.

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 GEOGRAPHY MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES

Minerals and Energy Resources

Minerals have become an important part of our lives. From the smallest articles such as pins to
the biggest products such as aeroplanes and railways are made of minerals. Most minerals are
found in the Earth’s crust.

Occurrence of Minerals

Minerals are naturally occurring, homogeneous substances with a definite chemical composition.
Minerals occur in the following forms:
a. In metamorphic and igneous rocks, minerals are obtained from cracks, faults and joints. The smaller
cracks where minerals occur are called veins, while bigger fissures, crevices or joints are called
lodes. When minerals in liquid and gaseous forms are forced upwards through cracks and fissures of
the rocks, they cool and solidify. Examples: Copper, zinc, tin, lead
b. Minerals occur in the layers of sedimentary rocks. They are formed as a result of deposition and
concentration in horizontal layers under extreme heat and pressure. Examples: Coal and iron ore.
Minerals such as sodium salt and gypsum are formed as a result of evaporation in dry regions.
c. When the surface of the rocks decomposes, weathered materials are left behind resulting in the
formation of minerals. Example: Bauxite
d. Some minerals occur as alluvial deposits at the base of hills or on the valley floor. Examples: Gold,
silver, platinum
e. Many minerals are found in the oceans. Examples: Magnesium, bromine, common salt

India is rich in minerals, and varieties of minerals are found here.

Types of Minerals
There are ferrous, non-ferrous, metallic and non-metallic minerals. Ferrous minerals contain iron and
have a tendency to corrode. Non-ferrous minerals do not contain iron, are not magnetic and are
resistant to corrosion.
Differences between metallic and non-metallic minerals:

Metallic Minerals Non-metallic Minerals

Metallic minerals contain metal in raw form. Non-metallic minerals do not contain metals.
These metals are associated with igneous These metals are associated with sedimentary
rocks. rocks.
They are usually hard and have a shine of They are not usually hard and have no shine of
their own. their own.
Examples: Iron, copper, bauxite, tin Examples: Salt, coal, mica, clay

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 GEOGRAPHY MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES

Major Minerals and their Occurrence in India

Names of Properties Importance Occurrence

Minerals
Iron Ore Ferrous, heavy Magnetite is of the finest quality. It  Odisha–Jharkhand Belt
metal is used in electrical industries.  Durg–Bastar–Chandrapur
Hematite ore is the most important belt in Chhattisgarh and
industrial iron ore. Maharashtra
 Bellary–Chitradurga–
Chikmaglur–Tumkur belt in
Karnataka
Manganese Ferrous mineral It is used in the manufacturing of Odisha is the largest producer of
steel and ferro-manganese alloy. It manganese ore in India.
is also used in the manufacturing
of bleaching powder, insecticides
and paints.
Copper Non-ferrous It is used in electrical cables, Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh,
mineral, ductile electronics and chemical Khetri Mines in Rajasthan and
and good industries. Singbhum district of Jharkhand
conductor of
electricity
Bauxite Non-ferrous Aluminium obtained from bauxite is Odisha is the largest producer of
mineral; used largely in the aviation industry bauxite in India. Panchpatmali
aluminium is and automobile industry. deposits are the most important
obtained from it. bauxite deposits in the state.
Mica Non-metallic It is used in the electric and Koderma–Gaya–Hazaribagh belt of
mineral; electronic industry. Jharkhand, Northern Chota Nagpur
resistant to high Plateau, areas around Ajmer,
voltage. Nellore in Andhra Pradesh

Energy Resources - Conventional and Non-Conventional

Energy resources are divided into conventional and non-conventional resources. Major conventional
sources of energy are
Coal
 Coal is a major source of energy in India. It is formed as a result of compression of plant material over
millions of years.
 Anthracite is the finest quality of coal. Bituminous coal is used for commercial purposes. High-quality
bituminous coal is used in blast furnaces for smelting iron. Lignite is an inferior quality of coal which
has high moisture content.
 In India, coal occurs in the Damodar Valley in West Bengal and Jharkhand, Jharia, Raniganj and
Bokaro. Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys also contain coal deposits. Because coal loses
weight, heavy industries and thermal power stations are located close to coal fields.

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 GEOGRAPHY MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES

Petroleum
 It is another major source of energy in India. It is
used for heat and lighting, lubricants for
machinery and as raw material for many
manufacturing industries.
 Petroleum is found in the fault traps between
porous and non-porous rocks. Gas occurs above
the oil.
 Mumbai High, Gujarat and Assam are important
petroleum-producing regions in the country.
Ankleshwar in Gujarat, and Digboi and
Naharkatiya are important oil fields in Assam.

Natural Gas
 It is an environment-friendly source as it emits
carbon dioxide in low quantities. It may occur with
or without petroleum. It is used as raw material in
petrochemical industries and as a source of
energy.
 The Krishna-Godavari Basin has large reserves
of natural gas. Mumbai High, Gulf of Khambhat
and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands also have
large reserves of natural gas. Map of India showing coal fields and coal mines

Electricity produced by using coal, petroleum and

natural gas is known as thermal electricity.
Electricity produced by using fast-flowing water is known as hydroelectricity.

Non-conventional Sources of Energy

Nuclear Energy
 It is produced by altering the atoms in an atomic reactor.
 Uranium and thorium used for the production of nuclear energy are found in Jharkhand, Aravalli
ranges of Rajasthan and Monazite sands of Kerala.

Solar Energy
 Because India is a tropical country, there are immense possibilities to harness solar energy. Solar
plants are being set up in various parts of the country.
 Various residential apartments have also installed solar cell panels on their roofs for generating
electricity.

Wind Power
 Windmills are used for generating electricity. India has a great potential of becoming a wind power.
 Windmills are located from Nagercoil to Madurai in Tamil Nadu. Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala,
Maharashtra and Lakshadweep Islands have important wind farms.
 Nagercoil and Jaisalmer have made effective use of wind energy.

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 GEOGRAPHY MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES

Biogas
 Farm wastes, shrubs and animal wastes are used to produce biogas. Biogas is used for the production
of electricity.
 Many biogas plants have been set up at municipal and village levels. Many plants use cattle dung to
produce electricity.

Tidal Energy
 When energy of the oceanic tides is used for the generation of electricity, it is known as tidal energy.
 Floodgates are built across inlets. When water flows in during high tides, it gets trapped. After the
gated are closed, this water goes back to the sea through pipes passing through power-generating
turbines.
 Gulf of Khambhat and Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat and the Gangetic delta in the Sundarban region in West
Bengal can be used for the generation of electricity.

Geo-thermal Energy
 When heat emanating from the interior of the Earth is used for the generation of electricity, it is called
geo-thermal energy.
 When groundwater under the surface of the Earth becomes hot because of the existence of high
temperature, hot water rises on the surface of the Earth in the form of steam. This steam is then used
to generate electricity.
 Two geothermal projects have been started in India—one in Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and the
other in Puga Valley in Ladakh.

Differences between Conventional and Non-conventional Sources of energy

Conventional Sources Non-conventional Sources

Conventional sources of energy such as Non-conventional sources of energy such as solar
coal, petroleum and natural gas are non- and wind energy are renewable sources of energy.
renewable sources of energy.
They have been in use since a long time. These sources have been recently developed and
Examples: Firewood, coal are still developing. Example: Technology for
producing electricity from solar panels
Most of these energy sources cause They do not cause any pollution. Examples: Solar
pollution when used. Examples: Firewood, energy, geothermal energy
coal, petrol
They are common and widely used They are comparatively new sources of energy and
sources. Example: Thermal power hence are not widely used. Examples: Solar panels,
windmills

Conservation of Minerals
 Conservation of mineral resources is essential because they are a country’s valuable possession.
They are used as raw materials in many industries and help in the economic development of a nation.
Some methods by which we can conserve minerals are
 Minerals should be used in a planned and sustainable manner.
 Technology should be upgraded to allow the use of low-grade ore at low costs.
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 GEOGRAPHY MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES

 Recycling of metals also results in the conservation of mineral resources.

 Non-conventional sources of energy should be harnessed for the generation of electricity.
 Small steps should be taken by every individual such as using public transport, car pooling and
switching off lights and fans when not in use. Using power-saving devices also go a long way in
conserving minerals and energy resources.

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Manufacturing Industries

Industries contribute tremendously to the growth of the country. Industries are included in the secondary
sector because they manufacture finished goods from raw materials.

Classification of Industries

Industries are classified into various categories on the basis of ownership of products, capital investments
and nature of raw materials

Industries Classification on the basis of Examples

Agro-based Raw materials (forest and agricultural Cotton textiles, jute textiles, tea
raw materials are used)
Mineral-based Raw materials (minerals such as iron, Iron and steel companies,
bauxite are used) petrochemicals
Small-scale industries Capital Investments Cottage industries
Large-scale industries Capital Investments TISCO
Public Sector Ownership (owned by the BHEL, SAIL
Government)
Private Sector Ownership (owned privately by Reliance, TISCO
individuals)
Joint Sector Ownership (owned by the Government Oil India Ltd.
and private individuals)
Cooperative Sector Ownership (owned and operated by Amul
producers and suppliers)
Heavy Industries Weight and bulkiness of raw materials Automobile industries
Light Industries Weight and bulkiness of raw materials Electrical industries

Agro-based Industries
Cotton textiles, woollen textiles, jute and sugar industries are known as agro-based industries as they use
agricultural products as raw materials.
Textile Industries
It contributes 14% to industrial production in India and the second largest provider of employment
opportunities after agriculture. It contributes 4% towards the GDP of the country.

Cotton Textiles
 It is one of the traditional industries of India. About 80% of the industries are owned privately, while
20% are owned by the Government and cooperative societies.
 Most of the cotton industries earlier were centred in Maharashtra and Gujarat because of the
existence of humid climate and the availability of cotton, markets, transport facilities and cheap labour.
 Weaving is done by handloom, power looms and in mills. Khadi industries also provide employment
opportunities to a large section of society.
 USA, UK, Russia, France, Singapore, Sri Lanka and many African countries import cotton textiles from
India. We also export yarn to Japan.
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 Some drawbacks of the cotton

industries are that spinning and
weaving units of the country
cannot use high-quality yarn
produced in the country.
Production takes place in small
factories which cater to only
local markets. This is the
reason that while we export
cotton yarn, fabrics have to be
imported. Low productivity of
labour, irregular supply of
electricity and tough
competition from the synthetic
fibre industry have hit the
cotton textile industries hard.

Jute Textiles
 India is the largest producer of
raw jute and the second largest
exporter of jute products in the
world after Bangladesh.
 Most jute mills are located in
West Bengal along the Hugli
River. This is because this area
has many jute-growing fields,
cheap water transport, cheap Map showing the location of various textile industries in India
labour and a good network of
railways and roadways. Kolkata provides financial assistance to the jute industries.
 The jute industry in India is currently facing many problems. There is stiff competition from
Bangladesh, Brazil, Egypt and Thailand. Synthetic fibres have also hit the industry hard. To improve
the condition of jute industries, the Government formulated the National Jute Policy. Main countries
which import jute products are USA, Canada, Australia and the United Arab Emirates.

Sugar Industry
 India is the second largest producer of sugar in the world and the largest producer of gur and
khandsari.
 Sugar mills are located close to the sugar fields. This is because sugar is bulky to transport and can
quickly lose sucrose content.
 Most of the sugarcane mills are located in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh and Gujarat. Old and inefficient methods of production and delay in transport of raw materials
are two main causes which are hitting the sugarcane industries hard.

Mineral-based Industries
Industries which are using minerals as raw materials are known as mineral-based industries. Some
important mineral-based industries are

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Iron and Steel Industry

 India is the fourth largest producer of
steel in the world and the largest
producer of sponge iron.
 It is known as a basic industry as
steel is needed for machinery of all
industries whether heavy, medium or
light. Steel is also required for
manufacturing a variety of
engineering, construction and
defence goods. Day-to-day
consumer goods such as containers
and safety pins are made of steel. It
is also a heavy industry as all its raw
materials and finished goods are
heavy and bulky.
 Many iron and steel industries are
located in the Chotanagpur Plateau
as many iron ore fields are located in
the surrounding regions. Availability
of cheap labour and growth potential
have led to the concentration of
industries in the region.
 Despite India being a major producer
of iron and steel, it is not able to
perform to its potential. This is due to
many reasons such as high costs and Map showing the location of major iron and steel plants in India
limited availability of coking coal,
irregular supply of electricity and poor infrastructure facilities. However, liberalisation and foreign direct
investments have given the industry a much-needed boost.

Aluminium Smelting
 It is the second most important metallurgic industry in India. Because aluminium is light in weight, a
good conductor of electricity, resistant to corrosion and easily malleable, it is used in the
manufacturing of aircraft. It is also used in making utensils and wires.
 Bauxite is the main raw material in the industry. Aluminium smelting plants are mostly located in
places where there is a regular supply of electricity and steady assurance of raw materials.
 Aluminium smelting plants are mainly located in Odisha, West Bengal, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.

Chemical Industries
 It is one of the fastest growing industries in India. It contributes about 3% to India’s GDP. It is the third
largest in Asia and twelfth largest in the world.
 Chemical industries in India produce both organic and inorganic chemicals. Inorganic chemicals are
used as raw materials for manufacturing many finished goods. These include synthetic fibres, plastics,

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 GEOGRAPHY MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

paints and adhesives. Sulphuric acid is used for manufacturing fertilisers, while soda ash is used for
making glass, soaps and detergents.
 Organic chemicals include petrochemicals which are used for making synthetic fibres, plastics and
dyes.

Fertiliser Industry
 The fertiliser industries mainly produce fertilisers which contain nitrogen, potash and ammonium
phosphate. India is the third largest producer of nitrogenous fertilisers.
 The fertiliser industry expanded after the Green Revolution. Some main plants are located in Gujarat,
Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Odisha and Rajasthan.

Cement Industry
 The cement industry is an important industry as it is important for the construction of houses,
buildings, offices, bridges and dams.
 The industry uses bulky raw materials such as silica, limestone, alumina and gypsum. Coal, regular
electric supply and good infrastructure facilities are other important requirements of the industry.
 The first cement plant was established in Chennai in 1904. Since then, it is continuously expanding
because of many reasons. Decontrol of prices; promulgation of many reform movements related to the
industry; the requirement of cement in building of roads, houses, railways and bridges; and the
availability of international markets are some factors which have led to the development of cement
industries in India.
 Indian cement is exported to the Middle East, East Asia, South Asia and Africa.

Automobile Industry
 Many vehicles such as cars, trucks, motor cycles and three wheelers are manufactured in India. The
demand for cars has drastically increased in the country.
 Foreign direct investments have brought new technology into the country.
 Automobile industries are located in Gurgaon, Delhi, Pune, Chennai, Mumbai, Indore, Jamshedpur
and Bengaluru.

Electronics Industry and Information Technology

 In India, there is a great demand for electronic products such as televisions, phones, pagers, radars
and computers. The electronics industry is critical for the defence of the country.
 India has become a major hub of the information industry. Important technology parks are present in
Bengaluru, Pune and Hyderabad.
 About 30% of this industry’s workforce consists of women. The IT industry has been a major earner of
foreign exchange for the country.

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Industrial Pollution

Four types of pollution are caused by industries. These are

Type of Sources Impact
Pollution
Air Pollution Release of gases such as sulphur dioxide Hazardous to human health,
and carbon monoxide by industries and animals and plants. Can cause
vehicles. irritation and respiratory problems
Water Release of chemical discharges into rivers or Dangerous for human, aquatic
Pollution lakes mainly by paper, chemical and heavy organisms and plants.
industries and refineries.
Land Pollution Dumping of industrial wastes causes the Loss of soil fertility which further
degradation of soil. Rainwater seeps into the
reduces agricultural production and
soil carrying these pollutants underground.
deterioration of the quality of
underground water.
Thermal and Thermal plants cause thermal pollution when Thermal pollution affects marine
Noise they discharge hot water into water bodies. and plant life. Noise pollution can
Pollution Noise pollution is caused by construction cause hearing impairment, increase
activities, heavy industries and generators. in heart rate and blood pressure.

Steps to Control Environment Degradation

 Reuse and recycle water
 Harvesting of rainwater
 Treating hot water before releasing it into water bodies
 Make laws to make it mandatory for factories to install electrostatic precipitators, scrubbers and
separators for reducing the quantity of industrial smoke.
 Machinery and generators should be fitted with silencers to reduce noise pollution.

Efforts Made by NTPC towards Cleaning the Environment

National Thermal Power Corporation is a major power-providing corporation in India. The corporation has
taken many steps to preserve the natural environment and resources in India.
i. NTPC has been using the latest techniques and has upgraded its existing equipment. This has helped
in reducing wastage of resources.
ii. It has been able to minimise the generation of waste materials by maximising the use of ash.
iii. It has been making efforts to reduce environmental pollution by liquid waste management and ash
water recycling systems.
iv. NTPC also supervises and reviews ecological parameters of the surrounding areas where its power
stations are located.
v. It has laid down green belts to maintain ecological balance in regions surrounding its power stations.

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Lifelines of National Economy

Transport plays a crucial role in the development of any economy. Modern means of transport have
become the lifelines of our nation.

Roadways

India has one of the largest networks of roadways in the world. The length of road per 100 sq km. of area
is known as the density of roads. Kerala has the highest density of roads.
The network of roads in India is denser than the railways because of the following reasons:
 Compared to the railways, the construction cost of roads is less.
 It is easier to build roads in the hilly and forested regions.
 Road transport is cheaper than the railways in the case of transport of goods over short distance. Cost
of loading and unloading of goods is also less.
 Roads provide door-to-door services unlike railways. Roads also link railway stations, airports and sea
ports.

Classification of Roads in India

In India, roads are classified into six major categories.

Types of Roads Names/Projects Significance Maintenance Authority

Golden The north–south corridors linking Link various important National Authority of
Quadrilateral Srinagar and Kanyakumari, and the cities and reduce the India (NAI)
Superhighways east–west corridors linking Silchar time of travel and
in Assam to Porbandar in Gujarat. distance between mega
A project is on to link Delhi, cities.
Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai by
six-lane superhighways.
National National highways connect cities Connect various cities Central Public Works
Highways and states to one another. Sher across one or more Department (CPWD)
Shah Suri Marg is called National states.
Highway No. 1 and runs between
Delhi and Amritsar.
State Highways The state highways connect capital Connect various cities State Public Works
cities with district headquarters in a within a state. Department (PWD)
state.
District Roads They connect district headquarters Link various towns and Zilla Parishad
with other places in a district. cities in a district.
Other Roads They connect various villages and Connect villages to one Local bodies and funds
towns. and other and to towns. are also allocated by
Crucial to the transport the Central and State
of agricultural products Governments.
to markets.
Border Roads They are built along the borders of Strengthen defences of Border Road
our country. the country. Organisation (works
under the Central
Government)
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Problems faced by Roads in India:

a. Inadequate network of roads keeping in mind the huge population of the country.
b. About half of the roads are not metalled and hence become unusable during the rainy season.
c. Roads are congested in the cities.

Railways

Railways are an important means of transport for carrying passengers and goods over a long distance.
They bind the entire country together. They have contributed to the growth of the national economy by
transporting agricultural and industrial products all over the country. The Indian Railways is organised into
16 zones.
Some problems faced by the railways in India are
 It is difficult to lay railway lines over rivers. It can be done by building bridges which is costly.
 It is extremely difficult to lay railway lines in hilly regions because of rugged terrains and steep slopes
of the mountains.
 It is not easy to construct railway lines on the sandy plains of Rajasthan, swampy areas of Gujarat and
forested regions of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand.
 Many people travel without tickets causing loss to the Indian Railways. Damage and theft of railway
property has also harmed the Indian Railways.
However, despite all the above problems, the railways have immensely contributed to the growth of our
economy. More railway lines are being laid to link inaccessible parts of the country. For example, the
development of Konkan Railway along the west coast has made the movement of people and goods
easier in the region.

Waterways

Waterways are the most important means of transporting bulky and heavy goods. It is a fuel-efficient and
environmental friendly means of transport. Inland waterways connect rivers, canals, backwater and creeks
within the country. The following waterways have been declared as national waterways by the
Government:
 River Ganga between Allahabad and Haldia
 River Brahmaputra between Sadiya and Dhubri
 The West Coast Canal in Kerala
Apart from the Ganga and Brahmaputra, the Godavari, Krishna, Buckingham Canal and East West Canal
are important inland waterways.

Sea Ports
India is a peninsular country and has a long coast line. There are 12 major and 187 minor sea ports in the
country. Some famous sea ports are
 Mumbai is the biggest port. Jawaharlal Nehru Port was built in order to decongest the Mumbai port.
 Mormugao Port in Goa is an important iron ore-exporting port in the country.
 New Mangalore Port exports iron ore which is concentrated in the Kudremukh mines.
 Kochi Port is located in the extreme southwestern part of the country. It has been developed alongside
a natural harbour.
 Tuticorin Port in Tamil Nadu has a natural harbour and exports cargos to our neighbouring countries.
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 Chennai is one of the oldest artificial ports of our country. It is next to Mumbai in terms of trading
activities.
 Vishakhapatnam is the deepest landlocked port.
 Kolkata is an inland riverine port. Haldia Port was developed to reduce pressure of the Kolkata Port.

Airways

The airways is a fast-developing means of transport in India. Government-owned Indian Airlines and other
private airlines provide domestic air services. Pawan Hans Helicopters Ltd. provides helicopter services to
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation for its off shore operations.

Advantages of Airways
 It is the fastest means of communication. It has greatly reduced travelling time.
 It can easily travel across mountainous regions, deserts, dense forests and great oceanic stretches.
 During natural calamities such as floods or landslides, it helps in providing relief to affected people
who inhabit difficult terrains.
The greatest disadvantage of air travel is that it is an expensive means of transport and is not within the
reach of common people. Only in the northeastern parts of the country, special provisions are provided to
the people.

Pipelines

Pipelines are used to transport crude oil, petroleum products and natural gas from fields to refineries,
fertiliser factories and thermal power plants. The cost of laying pipelines is high, but the running costs are
nominal. Three important networks of pipelines in the country are
 From the oil fields in Upper Assam to Kanpur
 From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in Punjab
 From Hazira in Gujarat to Jagdishpur in Uttar Pradesh

Communication

 Some important means of communication are television, radio, press, newspapers and telecom. The
Indian postal network is the largest in the world. It handles parcels and written communications.
 First class mail includes cards and envelopes and second class mail includes books and newspapers.
Six mail channels have been opened to ensure quick transport of mails. They are Rajdhani channel,
Metro channel, Green channel, Business channel, Bulk mail channel and Periodical channel.
 India has one of the largest telecom networks in Asia. STD facilities have now been provided to even
far-off villages.
 Mass communication such as radio, TV and newspapers creates awareness among people about
various policies of the state and country. Many programmes in local languages are broadcasted
across various regions of the country.
 Doordarshan is the national television channel of India and is one of the largest terrestrial networks in
the world.

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 Several newspapers, magazines and periodicals are published in several local languages across the
country.

International Trade

 The exchange of goods across states and countries is

known as trade. Trade between two countries is known
as international trade.
 International trade determines the economic prosperity of
the country.
 Balance of trade is the difference between the exports
and imports of a country. When exports are more than
imports, it is known as favourable balance of trade.
When imports are more than exports, it is known as
unfavourable balance of trade.
 Major exports of India include agriculture and allied
products, minerals and ores, gems and jewellery and
coal. India mainly imports petroleum and petroleum
products, pearls and precious stones, coal, coke and
machinery. The IT industry of India earns a large amount
of foreign exchange for the country.
 Tourism is also an important industry. More than 5.78
million foreign tourists visited India in 2010. The tourism
industry employs more than 15 million people in the
country. Map of India showing Paradip Sea Port, Kochi Sea Port, Northern
 It also provides support to the handicrafts sector and terminal of the North South Corridor and the Southern Terminal of
the National highway No. 7
promotes our culture.
 Some important tourist states of India are Jammu and
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Rajasthan and the temple towns of south India.

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