University of Nouakchott Al-Asriya

Faculty of Science and Technology

School Year 2021-22

English
L1 BG B, L1 BG D
Yacoub Dahah
 Comparison

Grammatical constructions used for comparing adjectives

There are three forms of comparison:

 positive

 comparative

 superlative

1. Comparison with -er/-est

clean → cleaner → (the) cleanest

We use -er/-est with the following adjectives:

1.1. Adjectives with one syllable

positive comparative superlative

clean cleaner cleanest

new newer newest

cheap cheaper cheapest

1.2. Adjectives with two syllables and the

following endings:

1.2.1. Adjectives with two syllables,

ending in -y
 1.2.3. Adjectives with two syllables,
positive comparative superlative ending in -le

positive comparative superlative

dirty dirtier dirtiest

simple simpler simplest

easy easier easiest

happy happier happiest

1.2.4. Adjectives with two syllables,
ending in -ow

pretty prettier prettiest

positive comparative superlative

narrow narrower narrowest

1.2.2. Adjectives with two syllables,
ending in -er

positive comparative superlative

clever cleverer cleverest

1.3. Spelling of the adjectives using the endings -er/-est

positive comparative superlative comment

large larger largest leave out the silent -e

positive comparative superlative comment

big bigger biggest

Double the consonant after short vowel

sad sadder saddest

dirty dirtier dirtiest Change -y to -i (consonant before -y)

Here -y is not changed to -i.

shy shyer shyest
(although consonant before -y)

2. Comparison with more – most

all adjectives with more than one syllable (except some adjectives with two syllables – see 2.1.
to 2.4.)

positive comparative superlative

difficult more difficult (the) most difficult

3. Irregular adjectives

positive comparative superlative comment

good better best

positive comparative superlative comment

bad worse worst

much more most uncountable nouns

many more most countable nouns

little less least

small smaller smallest

4. Special adjectives

Some adjectives have two possible forms of comparison (-er/est and more/most).

positive comparative superlative

clever cleverer / more clever cleverest / most clever

common commoner / more common commonest / most common

likely likelier / more likely likeliest / most likely

positive comparative superlative

pleasant pleasanter / more pleasant pleasantest / most pleasant

polite politer / more polite politest / most polite

quiet quieter / more quiet quietest / most quiet

simple simpler / more simple simplest / most simple

stupid stupider / more stupid stupidest / most stupid

subtle subtler / more subtle subtlest / most subtle

sure surer / more sure surest / most sure

5. Difference in meaning with adjectives

positive comparative superlative comment

farther farthest distance

far
distance or
further furthest
time
positive comparative superlative comment

later latest

late latter x

x last

older oldest people and things

old

elder eldest people (family)

nearer nearest distance

near

x next order
 Adverbs

1. The adverbs and the adjectives in English

Adjectives tell us something about a person or a thing. Adjectives can modify nouns (here:
girl) or pronouns (here: she).

Adverbs tell us in what way someone does something. Adverbs can modify verbs (here:
drive), adjectives or other adverbs.

adjective adverb

Mandy is a careful girl. Mandy drives carefully.

She is very careful. She drives carefully.

Mandy is a careful driver. This sentence is about Mandy, the driver, so use the adjective.

Mandy drives carefully. This sentence is about her way of driving, so use the adverb.

2. Form
Adjective + -ly
adjective adverb

adjective adverb
nice nicely

dangerous dangerously
horrible horribly

careful carefully
easy easily
 Irregular forms:
adjective adverb

adjective adverb
electronic electronically

good well

fast fast

hard hard

If the adjective ends in -y, change -y to -i.

If the adjective ends in -le, the adverb ends
Then add -ly:
in -ly:

 happy – happily
 terrible – terribly

but:
If the adjective ends in -e, then add -ly:

 shy – shyly
 safe – safely
► Not all words ending in -ly are adverbs:

 adjectives ending in -ly: friendly, silly, lonely, ugly

 nouns, ending in -ly: ally, bully, Italy, melancholy

 verbs, ending in -ly: apply, rely, supply

There is no adverb for an adjective ending in -ly.

3. Use of adverbs 3.2. to modify adjectives

It was an extremely bad match.

3.1. to modify verbs

The handball team played badly last

Saturday.
3.3. to modify adverbs 3.4. to modify quantities

The handball team There are quite a lot of people here.

played extremely badly last Wednesday.
3.5. to modify sentences

Unfortunately, the flight to Dallas had

been cancelled.

4. Types of adverbs

4.1. Adverbs of manner 4.3. Adverbs of time

 quickly  now
 kindly  today

4.2. Adverbs of degree 4.4. Adverbs of place

 very  here
 rather  nowhere

4.5 Adverbs of frequency

Adverbs of frequency show you how often something happens. This can be always = 100%, or
never = 0%.

 always  often  seldom

 usually  sometimes  never

 regularly  occasionally

 normally  rarely
These adverbs can go before the main verb.

Subject Auxiliary Adverb of frequency Verb Rest

I always get up at 6.45.

Peter can usually play football on Sundays.

Mandy has sometimes got lots of homework.

or after a form of to be (am, are, is) - (was, were).

Subject Auxiliary Adverb of frequency Rest

Susan is never late.

The adverbs often, usually, sometimes and occasionally can go at the beginning of a sentence.

 Sometimes I go swimming.

 Often we surf the internet.

Sometimes these adverbs can go at the end of a sentence.

 We read books occasionally.

5. How do know whether to use an adjective or an adverb?

John is a careful driver. – In this sentences we say how John is – careful. If we want to say that
the careful John did not drive the usual way yesterday – we have to use the adverb:

 John did not drive carefully yesterday.

Here is another example:

 I am a slow walker. (How am I? → slow → adjective)

 I walk slowly. (How do I walk? → slowly → adverb)

6. Adjective or Adverb after special verbs

Both adjectives and adverbs may be used after look, smell and taste. Mind the change in
meaning.

Here are two examples:

adjective adverb

The pizza tastes good. Jamie Oliver can taste well.

(How is the pizza?) (How can Jamie Oliver taste?)

Peter's feet smell bad. Peter can smell badly.

(How are his feet?) (How can Peter smell?)

Do not get confused with good/well.

 Linda looks good. (What type of person is she?)

 Linda looks well. (How is Linda? – She may have been ill, but now she is fit again.)

 How are you? – I'm fine, thank you. /I'm good. (emotional state)

 How are you? – I'm well, thank you. (physical state)

One can assume that in the second/third sentence the adverb well is used, but this is wrong –
well can be an adjective (meaning fit/healthy), or an adverb of the adjective good.

Conclusion:

 Use the adjective when you say something about the person itself.

 Use the adverb, when you want to say about the action.
 Simple Present

1. Use of the Simple Present

1.1. repeated actions

My friend often draws nice posters.

1.2. things in general

The sun rises in the east.

1.3. fixed arrangements, scheduled events

The plane flies to London every Monday.

1.4. sequence of actions in the present

First I get up, then I have breakfast.

1.5. instructions

Open your books at page 34.

1.6. with special verbs

I understand English.

2. Signal words
 every day  always  never

 often  sometimes

3. Form

infinitive (3rd person singular he, she, it: infinitive + -s)

4. Examples

4.1. Affirmative sentences in the Simple 4.2. Negative sentences in the Simple
Present Present

Do not negates a main verb in English.

Long forms Contracted forms
Always use the auxiliary do for negations
and the infinitive of the verb.

I read books.
Long forms Contracted forms

You read books. not possible

I do not clean the I don't clean the
room. room.
He reads books.

You do not clean th You don't clean th

e room. e room.

He does not clean t He doesn't clean t

he room. he room.

4.3. Questions in the Simple Present Contracted

Long forms
forms
You need the auxiliary do/does and
the infinitive of the verb.
Do you play football?
Contracted
Long forms
forms
Does he play football?

Do I play football? not possible

 'used to' 'be used to' and 'get used to'

Do you know the difference between I used to drive on the left and I'm used to driving on the
left?
Look at these examples to see how used to, get used to and be used to are used.
I used to want to be a lawyer but then I realised how hard they work!
How's Boston? Are you used to the cold weather yet?
No matter how many times I fly, I'll never get used to take-off and landing!

Grammar explanation
Used to + infinitive and be/get used to + -ing look similar but they have very different uses.

used to

We use used to + infinitive to talk about a past situation that is no longer true. It tells us that there
was a repeated action or state in the past which has now changed.
She used to be a long-distance runner when she was younger.
I didn't use to sleep very well, but then I started doing yoga and it really helps.
Did you use to come here as a child?

be used to and get used to

Be used to means 'be familiar with' or 'be accustomed to'.

She's used to the city now and doesn't get lost any more.
He wasn't used to walking so much and his legs hurt after the hike.
I'm a teacher so I'm used to speaking in public.
We use get used to to talk about the process of becoming familiar with something.
I'm finding this new job hard but I'm sure I'll get used to it soon.
It took my mother years to get used to living in London after moving from Pakistan.
I'm getting used to the noise now. I found it really stressful when I first moved in.
Be used to and get used to are followed by a noun, pronoun or the -ing form of a verb, and can be
used about the past, present or future.
 Expressing quantity (Quantifiers)

There are many phrases used to express quantities and amounts in English. In general, "much"
and "many" are the standard quantifiers used to express large quantities. Which expression you
use will often depend on whether the noun is countable or uncountable, and whether the sentence
is negative or positive.

While "much" and "many" are among the most common, the following expressions are often
used in place of "much" and "many," especially in positive sentences:

 A lot of  A great deal of

 Lots of  A large number of
 Plenty of
These expressions can be combined with "of" in the sense of "most," "many," or "much."

A lot of people enjoy listening to jazz.

A great deal of time is spent understanding these issues.

But note that "much," "most," and "many" do not take "of."

Most people enjoy listening to some type of music. Not: Most of people...
Much time is spent understanding math. Not: Much of time is spent ...
Much We have a lot of time. Not: We have much
time.
"Much" is used with uncountable nouns:
There is a lot of wine in the bottle. Not:
There is much interest in learning English There is much wine in the bottle.
around the world.
Many
How much money do you have?
"Many" is used with countable nouns:
There isn't much butter left in the
refrigerator.
How many people came to the party?
"Much" is used in negative sentences and There aren't many apples on the table.
questions, too:
Note that "many" is used in the positive
How much money do you have? form, unlike "much:"
There isn't much rice left.
Andrew has a lot of friends / Andrew has
many friends.
Note that "much" is rarely used in the
positive form. English speakers generally A lot of my friends live in New York / Many
use "a lot of" or "lots of" with of my friends live in New York.
uncountable nouns.
A Lot of / Lots of / Plenty Of

"A lot of" and "lots of" can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns. "A lot of" and
"lots of" are used in positive sentences:

There is a lot of water in that jar.

He's got lots of friends in London.

Note that generally speaking, "lots of" sounds less formal than "a lot of."

A Little / A Few
Little / Few
"A little" and "a few" indicate a quantity or
"Little" and "few" indicate a limited
number.
quantity.
Use "a little" with uncountable nouns:
Use "little" with uncountable nouns:
There is a little wine in that bottle.
I have little money to spend.
There is a little sugar in my coffee.
She found little time for work.
Use "a few" with countable nouns.
Use "few" with countable nouns:
He has a few friends in New York.
He has few students in his class.
We bought a few sandwiches on our way to
Jack finds few reasons to stay.
the park.
Some
Any (Questions)
Use "some" in positive sentences when there
Use "any" in questions to ask if someone has
is neither a lot nor a little.
something.
"Some" can be used with both countable and
"Any" can be used with both countable and
uncountable nouns.
uncountable nouns:
We have some friends who work in Los
Do you have any friends in San Francisco?
Angeles.
Is there any pasta left?
I've saved some money to spend on vacation
this summer.
**Note that when offering or requesting something use "some" instead of "any" for polite
questions.

Would you like some shrimp? (offer)

Would you lend me some money? (request)
Any (Negative Sentences)

Use "any" with countable and uncountable nouns in negative sentences to state that something
doesn't exist.

We won't have any time for shopping today.

They didn't have any problems finding our house.
Enough
Not Enough
Use "enough" with countable and
Use "not enough" when you are not satisfied
uncountable nouns to state that you are
with the amount of something.
satisfied with the amount of something.
I'm afraid there's not enough time to
She has enough time to visit her friends in
continue this conversation.
Dallas.
There are not enough people working at the
I think we have enough hamburgers for
moment.
tomorrow's grill.
Each / Every

Use "each" or "every" when referring to the individuals in a group.

I think every person in this room would agree with me.

I'm sure each step of this process is important.
Large / Big / Vast / Huge Amount of
Tiny / Small / Minuscule Amount of
Use these adjectives with "amount of" with
Use these similar adjectives with "amount
uncountable and countable nouns to express
of" to express very small quantities. This
large quantities. This form is often used to
form is often used in exaggeration to express
exaggerate just how much there is.
how little there is of something.
There is a huge amount of work to be done
Peter has a small amount of patience, so
to today.
don't joke around with him.
Tom has a vast amount of knowledge about
There is a minuscule amount of time left to
the subject.
register. Hurry up!
 Present Progressive

1. Use

1.1. actions happening at the moment of I am working in Rome this month.

speaking

1.4. actions happening around the

Peter is reading a book now.
moment of speaking (longer actions)

1.2. fixed plans in the near future My friend is preparing for his exams.

We are going to Basel on Saturday.

1.5. trends

1.3. temporary actions More and more people are using their
computers to listen to music.

2. Signal words
 now  Look!

 at the moment  Listen!

3. Form: to be (am, are, is) + Infinitiv + -ing

4. Examples

4.1. Affirmative sentences in the Present Progressive

Long forms Contracted forms

I am playing football. I'm playing football.

You are playing football. You're playing football.

Long forms Contracted forms

He is playing football. He's playing football.

4.2. Negative sentences in the Present

Progressive

Long forms Contracted forms

4.3. Questions in the Present Progressive

I am not playing fo I'm not playing fo

otball. otball. Contracted
Long forms
forms

You're not playing

football. Am I playing football?
You are not playin
g football.
You aren't playing Are you playing football? not possible
football.

Is he playing football?
He's not playing f
ootball.
He is not playing fo
otball.
He isn't playing fo
otball.