GOING BACK TO THE BASICS 3. VERB expresses action or being.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH jump... is... write... become

There are eight parts of speech in the English - There is a main verb and sometimes one or more
language: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, helping verbs. ("She can sing." Sing is the main
preposition, conjunction, and interjection. The part of verb; can is the helping verb.)
speech indicates how the word functions in meaning as - A verb must agree with its subject in number
well as grammatically within the sentence. An (both are singular, or both are plural).
individual word can function as more than one part of - Verbs also take different forms to express tense.
speech when used in different The young girl brought me a very long letter from the
circumstances. Understanding parts of speech is teacher, and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
essential for determining the correct definition of a 4. ADJECTIVE modifies or describes a noun or
word when using the dictionary. pronoun.
1. NOUN is the name of a person, place, thing, or pretty... old... blue... smart
idea. - used to modify or describe a noun or a pronoun.
man... Butte College... house... happiness - usually answers the question of which one, what
- often used with an article (the, a, an), but not kind, or how many.
always. - (Articles [a, an, the] are usually classified as
- can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. adjectives.)
- show possession by adding 's. The young girl brought me a very long letter from the
- can function in different roles within a sentence; teacher, and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
for example, a noun can be a subject, direct object, 5. ADVERB modifies or describes a verb, an
indirect object, subject complement, or object of a adjective, or another adverb.
preposition. gently... extremely... carefully... well
*Proper nouns always start with a capital letter; - describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or
common nouns do not. another adverb, but never a noun.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from - usually answers the questions of when, where,
the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my! how, why, under what conditions, or to what
2. PRONOUN is a word used in place of a noun. degree.
She... we... they... it - often end in -ly.
- usually substituted for a specific noun, which is The young girl brought me a very long letter from the
called its antecedent. teacher, and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
- In the sentence above, the antecedent for the 6. PREPOSITION a word placed before a noun or
pronoun she is the girl. pronoun to form a phrase modifying another word
- further defined by type: personal pronouns refer to in the sentence.
specific persons or things; possessive pronouns by... with.... about... until
indicate ownership; reflexive pronouns are used to (by the tree, with our friends, about the book, until
emphasize another noun or pronoun; relative tomorrow)
pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and - a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a
demonstrative pronouns identify, point to, or refer phrase modifying another word in the sentence.
to nouns. - Therefore, a preposition is always part of a
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the prepositional phrase.
teacher, and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
  A sentence follows Subject + Verb + Object
- The prepositional phrase almost always functions
word order.
as an adjective or as an adverb. o He (subject) obtained (verb) his
- The following list includes the most common degree (object).
 A sentence must have a complete idea that
prepositions: stands alone. This is also called an
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the independent clause.
o He obtained his degree.
teacher, and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
7. CONJUNCTION joins words, phrases, or DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES OF BASIC
clauses. SENTENCE ELEMENTS
and... but... or... while... because Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green underline =
- joins words, phrases, or clauses, and indicates the verb, blue, italics = object, pink, regular font =
prepositional phrase
relationship between the elements joined.
- Coordinating conjunctions connect grammatically Independent clause: An independent clause can stand
equal elements: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet. alone as a sentence. It contains a subject and a verb
- Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses that and is a complete idea.
are not equal: because, although, while, since, o I like spaghetti.
etc. o He reads many books.

- There are other types of conjunctions as well. Dependent clause: A dependent clause is not a
complete sentence. It must be attached to an
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the
independent clause to become complete. This is also
teacher, and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
known as a subordinate clause.
8. INTERJECTION is a word used to express o Although I like spaghetti,…
emotion. o Because he reads many books,…
Oh!... Wow!... Oops! Subject: A person, animal, place, thing, or concept
- a word used to express emotion. It is often that does an action. Determine the subject in a sentence
followed by an exclamation point. by asking the question “Who or what?”
o I like spaghetti.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the o He reads many books.
teacher, and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my! Verb: Expresses what the person, animal, place, thing,
9. DETERMINER word makes the reference of the or concept does. Determine the verb in a sentence by
noun more specific asking the question “What was the action or what
(e.g., his, her, my, their, the, a, an, this, these, …). happened?”
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.
teacher, and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my! o The movie is good. (The be verb is also
sometimes referred to as a copula or a linking
ENGLISH SENTENCE STRUCTURE verb. It links the subject, in this case "the
movie," to the complement or the predicate of
The following statements are true about sentences in the sentence, in this case, "good.")
English: Object: A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that
 A new sentence begins with a capital letter.
o He obtained his degree.
receives the action. Determine the object in a sentence
 A sentence ends with punctuation (a period, a by asking the question “The subject did what?” or “To
question mark, or an exclamation point). whom?/For whom?”
o He obtained his degree. o I like spaghetti.
 A sentence contains a subject that is only given o He reads many books.
once.
o Smith he obtained his degree.
Prepositional Phrase: A phrase that begins with a
 A sentence contains a verb or a verb phrase. preposition (i.e., in, at for, behind, until, after, of,
o He obtained his degree. during) and modifies a word in the sentence. A
prepositional phrase answers one of many questions. sentence begins with an independent clause, there is
Here are a few examples: “Where? When? In what not a comma separating the two clauses.
way?”
o I like spaghetti for dinner. Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma
o He reads many books in the library. = pink, regular font; dependent clause = blue, italics

TYPES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO Here are a few examples:

STRUCTURE  Although she completed her literature
review, she still needed to work on her
SIMPLE SENTENCES
methods section.
A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it o Note the comma in this sentence
may also have an object and modifiers. However, it because it begins with a dependent
clause.
contains only one independent clause.
 Because he organized his sources by theme, it
Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green underline = was easier for his readers to follow.
verb, blue, italics = object, pink, regular o Note the comma in this sentence

font =prepositional phrase because it begins with a dependent

clause.
Here are a few examples:
 She wrote.  They studied APA rules for many hours as
 She completed her literature review. they were so interesting.
 He organized his sources by theme. o Note that there is no comma in this
 They studied APA rules for many hours.
sentence because it begins with an
independent clause.
COMPOUND SENTENCES
*Using some complex sentences in writing allows for
A compound sentence contains at least more sentence variety.
two independent clauses. These two independent
COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES
clauses can be combined with a comma and
Sentence types can also be combined. A compound-
a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon. complex sentence contains at least two independent
clauses and at least one dependent clause.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma or
semicolon = pink, regular font; coordinating Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma or
semicolon = pink, regular font; coordinating
conjunction = green, underlined
conjunction = green, underlined; dependent clause
Here are a few examples: = blue, italics
 She completed her literature review, but she
 She completed her literature review, and she
created her reference list. still needs to work on her methods
 He organized his sources by theme; then, he
section even though she finished her methods
updated his reference list. course last semester.
 Although he organized his sources by
 They studied APA rules for many
hours, but they realized there was still much theme, he decided to arrange them
to learn. chronologically, and he carefully followed
the MEAL plan for organization.
*Using some compound sentences in writing allows  With pizza and soda at hand, they studied
for more sentence variety. APA rules for many hours, and they decided
that writing in APA made sense because it
was clear, concise, and objective.
COMPLEX SENTENCES
A complex sentence contains at least one independent  Using some complex-compound sentences in
clause and at least one dependent clause. Dependent writing allows for more sentence variety.
 Pay close attention to comma usage in
clauses can refer to the subject (who, which) the complex-compound sentences so that the
sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements reader is easily able to follow the intended
(because, if) of the independent clause. meaning.
If a sentence begins with a dependent clause, note the Sources:
comma after this clause. If, on the other hand, the *https://www.butte.edu/departments/cas/tipsheets/
grammar/parts_of_speech.html
*https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/
“and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet” (e.g. “She
grammar/sentencestructure
went away, yet her heart never did.”
 After a dependent clause that’s used to start a
ROLE OF PUNCTUATION MARKS IN
LANGUAGE sentence (e.g. “After a thorough review, she
PUNCTUATION MARKS published the report.”)
- symbols that add clarity and order to written  To separate the name of a city from the name
language. of its state (e.g. “I was born in San Diego,
- often misunderstood and misused by writers. California.”)
- punctuation marks will help you avoid common  To separate a statement from a question (e.g.
mistakes that can lead to reader confusion. “They all came home in the end, right?”)
LIST OF PUNCTUATION MARKS  To introduce or to end a direct quotation (e.g.
Punctuation Marks that are Used at the end of “Call her again,” he insisted)
Sentences:  When necessary to eliminate confusion (e.g.
1) The Period: used to indicate the end of a sentence “The travelers, who missed their connection,
containing a statement of thought, opinion or fact, a were given meal vouchers”–i.e. all travelers
story, or any written account of events. It’s also used were given meal vouchers–has a completely
at the end of abbreviations (e.g. “Johnson Ave.”) different meaning than “The travelers who
2) The Exclamation Mark: used to express strong missed their connection were given meal
feelings, a strong emotion, for emphasis or to indicate vouchers”–i.e. only some travelers were given
screaming or shouting (e.g. “Apologize right now!”) meal vouchers.)
3) The Question Mark: used to end interrogative 5) The Colon: primarily follows an independent
sentences. In works of fiction, it can also be used to clause with more information that expands on the
express doubt (e.g. “I’m supposed to say that?”) original clause.
Punctuation Marks that are Used in the Middle of Colons have many applications in written language.
Sentences: For example, they can be used:
4) The Comma: used as follows:
 To separate a title from a subtitle (e.g. “The
 To separate three or more elements in a
Space Race: From Sputnik to Spacex”)
sentence that are related in some way (e.g.
 To explain a subject (e.g. “This is how to mix
“The grocery list included apples, bananas,
the batter for better results: first, you…”)
strawberries, grapes, and oranges.”)
 To describe a situation (e.g. “There are two
 After introductory words before stating a main
alternatives to this approach: assemble the
clause (e.g. “In other words, the best way to
parts first and then paint them or paint all parts
find it…”)
at the factory.”)
 To create a pause (e.g. “She implied that,
 Before a definition (e.g. “Here’s what XXX
without any doubt, he was going to be the
means: <explanation goes here>”)
suspect.”)
 To create a list of items (e.g. “This recipe
 To separate two interchangeable adjectives
requires: 3 eggs, ¼ lb of butter, 2 cups of
(e.g. “He moved that large, bulky load down
flower,…”)
the street.”)
 For literary references in some religious texts
 To separate two independent clauses that are
(e.g. “Genesis 1:2”)
joined by the connectors
  To highlight statements made by characters in 9) Parentheses: used to add secondary context to the
literary works (e.g. “To all of you: I never said information in a sentence—e.g. “The main thruster
that!”) (which was designed to be expendable) was not
 To separate hours, minutes and/or seconds recovered.”
(e.g. “9:30 AM,” “10:45:12”) 10) Square Brackets: a specialized form of
 After a salutation (e.g. “Dear John:”) parentheses that is used:
 To express mathematical ratios (e.g. “1:3”)  To show parentheses within parentheses—e.g.
6) The Semi-Colon: primarily used to combine two “(this study was published by the Institute of
independent clauses that are related into a Electrical and Electronics Engineers [IEEE])”
single sentence (e.g. “The doctor saw the patient  To quote text that has been altered from the
immediately; the slightest delay would’ve proven original—e.g. “She accused the hospital [staff]
fatal.”) of wrongdoing.”
They can also be used to separate items on a list that  To show incorrect text in a quote through the
contain commas themselves (e.g. “On this tour we’ll use of the latin term sic—e.g. “She accused
visit Belgrade, Serbia; Minsk, Belarus; and Bucharest, they [sic] of wrongdoing.”
Romania.”)  To show the phonetic pronunciation of a word
—e.g. “Kazakh or Qazaqşa [qɑˈzɑqʃɑ] is a
Semi-colons create a kind of pause that is longer than
branch of the Turkic language that’s spoken in
the pause of a comma but shorter than the pause of a
Kazakhstan.”
period at the end of a sentence.
11) Curly Brackets: used to show a list of equal

9) Double Quotation Marks: choices (e.g.” Choose a color: {red, green, yellow,

 To make words or phrases within sentences blue}”)

stand out (e.g. The best approach is to “ease”

into the spot slowly) 12) Angle Brackets: has very little use in written

 To highlight a quotation (e.g. I wonder where language and it’s mainly used to write code in

the expression “Money doesn’t grow on trees” computer languages. Sometimes it’s used to show a

comes from.) placeholder text (e.g. “Enter your account ID: <your

 To show dialogue in literary works (e.g. “Do I email address goes here>”)

enter the room now?” whispered Simon)

 To show titles of books, movies, essays, songs, 13) Hyphen: used to join words together.

headlines, etc. (e.g. “The Art of Living”) For example, you should:

8) Single Quotation Marks: used in a small number  Hyphenate multiple words that are grouped

of special circumstances, specifically: together as a single modifier to a noun (e.g.

 When there’s a quotation within a quotation “This is a best-in-show category.”)

(e.g. The sign read: “To swim in the  Hyphenate multiple words indicating a period

‘Restricted Area’ you must always wear an of time that are used together as a modifier to

approved flotation device”) a noun (e.g. “That thirty-year-old man is

 To denote technical terms in specialized fields looking for work.”)

(e.g. “The ‘villi’ are responsible for the  Hyphenate numerical fractions when spelled

absorption of nutrients in the small intestine.”) out (e.g. “Two-thirds, three-quarters, etc.”)
  Hyphenate family relationships (e.g. “She’s  To denote abbreviated years (e.g. “She was
John’s great-grandmother,” “Peter is Susan’s born in ‘82”)
brother-in-law”)  To denote certain plurals (e.g. “He was born in
 Hyphenate compound words to eliminate the 60’s”)
confusion (e.g. “You should re-sign this 19) The Ellipsis:
check.” instead of “You should resign this  To add a pause in speech (e.g. “I think so… do
check.”) you?”)
14) Em Dash: used to create a break in a sentence in  Or to show an omission (e.g. “… as I was
order to add more context. They can be used as a pair, saying the worst is finally behind us.”)
just like commas, or as a single occurrence. 20) The Asterisk:
Here are some examples:  To refer readers to a footnote (e.g. “This
 Use of single em dash: “This is a good information was obtained from the 10K
example of the use of em dashes—the longest report*”)
in the dash family.”  To denote an inappropriate word (e.g. “The
 Use of pair of em dashes: “This is a good Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck”)
example of the use of em dashes—a useful  To denote a disclaimer (e.g. “Restrictions
punctuation mark—to illustrate a sentence apply*”)
break.” IN CONCLUSION
15) En Dash: used mainly to show ranges of figures Punctuation marks are symbols used to add clarity
(e.g. “$200–$500”) and when the first part of a and order to written language.
compound adjective is an open compound (e.g. “He’s a Now that you have a clear understanding of the
New York–based photographer.”) different types of punctuation marks and how to use
16) Slash: them properly, you’ll be able to craft sentences
 To denote numerical fractions and dates (e.g. and paragraphs that’ll enhance the reading
“2/3” and “10/11/19”) comprehension of your audience.
 To denote an option (e.g. “and/or, “his/her,”
etc.) References:

 To denote prose, such as lines in poetry or *https://intranet.missouriwestern.edu/cas/wp-content/

uploads/sites/17/2019/01/Basic-Rules-of-
song lyrics (e.g. “Imagine there’s no
Punctuation.pdf
countries/It isn’t hard to do/Nothing to kill or
*https://write.siu.edu/_common/documents/handouts/
die for/And no religion, too.”)
notes-on-punctuation.pdf
 To denote abbreviations (e.g. “c/o for: in care *https://cascadiaauthorservices.com/list-of-
of,” “n/a for: not applicable”) punctuation-marks-pdf/
17) Backslash: This punctuation mark is used strictly
to code computer languages and has no use in written
language.
18) The Apostrophe: This punctuation mark is used:
 To denote possessive forms (e.g. “John’s
baseball bat”)
 To denote contracted forms (e.g. “don’t”)