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 From Latin words: Crude Oil (%) Natural Gas (%)

 Petra (Greek: Petros) meaning
“rock” Carbon 84-47 65-80
 Oleum means “oil”
Hydrogen 11-14 1-25
 Essentially made up of carbon
(C) and hydrogen (H) Sulfur 0.06-2 0-0.2
 At normal temperatures may
Nitrogen 0.1-2 1-15
be in the form of:
 Liquid (crude oil) Oxygen 0.1-2 0
 Gas (natural gas)
 Solid (tar and bitumen)

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 The difference between crude oil and natural gas is the
size of the hydrocarbon molecule.
 Under surface temperature and pressure, any hydrocarbon
molecule that has one, two, three and four carbon atoms
occurs as gas.
 Natural gas is a mixture of the four short hydrocarbon
molecules.
 Any hydrocarbon that has five or more carbon atoms
occurs as liquid.
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 Physically hydrocarbons grades from gases, via liquids and
plastic substances to solids.

 Hydrocarbon gases includes:

 Dry gas- Methane- has condensates
 Wet Gas- Ethane, Propane, Butane etc. – no condensates

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 Condensates are hydrocarbons that are gaseous in subsurface
but condense to liquid when they are cooled at the surface.
 Liquid Hydrocarbons are termed oil, crude oil, or just crude to
differentiate them from refined petroleum products.
 The plastic hydrocarbons include asphalt, and related
substances.
 Solid hydrocarbons include coal and kerogen.
 Gas hydrates are ice crystals with peculiarly structured atomic
lattices, which contain molecules of methane and other gases.

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 Color: varies from green, Composition by Weight
yellow, black or brown Element Percent Range, %

 Sulfur content: Carbon 83 to 85

 Sweet crude oil – with little Hydrocarbon 10 to 14
sulfur content
Nitrogen 0.1 to 2
 Ex. Matinloc and Cadlao Oil
Oxygen 0.05 to 1.5
 Sour crude oil – with high
sulfur content Sulfur 0.05 to 6
Metals < 0.1

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 4 types of Hydrocarbon Molecules (Hydrocarbon Series)
 1. Paraffins
 2. Naphthenes or cycloparaffins
 3.Aromatics
 4.Asphaltics

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Organic Theory
Hydrocarbon were derived from the
geochemical conversion of organic matter and
material in time through the agents of
temperature and pressure.

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 Stage 1 Stage 2

Deposition of plant and animal remains Burial, pressure and temperature changes

(marine or terrestrial) (HC kitchen and maturity)

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 Stage 3
Stage 4
Migration: controlled by lithology, structure Entrapment (timing) and accumulation in reservoir
rock (porous and permeable)

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Petroleum System – a concept that encompasses all of the disparate
elements and processes of petroleum geology

Elements of Petroleum System

1.Source Rocks (shale, marl, carbonate) – sedimentary rock
containing organic material, which under heat, time, and pressure
was transformed to liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons
2.Migration – movement of generated hydrocarbons from the source
rock to the reservoir rock in a trap through conduits

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Elements of Petroleum System
3.Reservoir Rocks (sandstone, limestone/dolomite, fractured rocks) – any
rock that has sufficient porosity and permeability to permit the storage and
accumulation of crude oil or natural gas under adequate trap conditions, and
to yield the hydrocarbons at satisfactory flow rate upon production
4.Cap Rocks/Seals (chalks, shale, clays, etc.) – an impervious or
impermeable bed capping the reservoir rocks in a trap
5.Trap – any barrier to upward movement of oil and gas, allowing either or
both to accumulate
6.Timing – relationship between the time of trap formation and time of
hydrocarbon generation and migration

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 Hydrocarbons are generated when large volumes of microscopic plant and animal
material are deposited in marine, deltaic, or lacustrine (lake) environments.
 The microscopic plant and animal material generally is deposited with fine clastic
(silt and/or clay) sediments. During burial the sediments protect the organic
material by creating an anoxic (oxygen depleted) environment. This allows the
organic material to accumulate rather than be destroyed by aerobic organisms
such as bacteria.
 Over time, the organic remains are altered and transformed into gas and oil by the
high temperatures and increased pressure of deep burial. This process can take
tens of thousands of years to occur. The amount of petroleum generated is a
function of the thickness of the accumulated sediments and organic material, the
burial of these materials, and time.
 Organically rich, black-colored shales deposited in a quiet marine, oxygen
depleted environment are considered to be the best source rocks.

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Tiny sea plants and Over million of years, the Today, we drill down
animals died and were remains were buried through layers of sand,
buried on the ocean floor. deeper and deeper. The silt, and rock to reach the
Over time, they were enormous heat and rock formations that
covered by layers of silt pressure turned them into contain oil and gas
and sand.
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12/12/2020
Kerogen/Bitumens
Crude Oil
Asphalt
Natural Gas
Condensates

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 is that part of the organic matter in a rock that is insoluble in common organic solvents.
 It owes its insolubility to its large molecular size and heat is required to break it down.
 As kerogen thermally matures and increases in carbon content, it changes form an
immature light greenish-yellow color to an overmature black, which is representative of a
progressively higher coal rank. Different types of kerogen can be identified, each with
different concentrations of the five primary elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and sulphur, and each with a different potential for generating petroleum.
 Kerogen is of no commercial significance except where it is so abundant (greater than
10%) as to occur in oil shales. It is, however, of great geological importance because it is
the substance that generates hydrocarbon oil and gas. A source rock must contain
significant amounts of kerogen.

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 Typical
Predominant HC
Type Composition Hydrogen depositional
potential
environment
I Oil prone Algae Abundant Lacustrine
II Oil and gas prone Herbaceous Moderate Marine
III Gas prone Woody (coaly) Small Terrestial
IV Neither (mostly None Terrestial (?)
vitrinite) or inert
material

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 Maceral Group Macerals Organic Precursors Kerogen Type

Alginite 1 Fresh water Algae I

Alginite 2 Marine Algae II
Liptinite (Hydrogen
Exinite Spores, Pollen II
Rich)
Cutinite Leaf Cuticle II
Resinite Resin Tree Sap II

Vitrinite(Oxygen- Vitrinite,
Woody Tissue III
Rich) Pseudovitrinite

Reworked and/or
Inertinite(Carbon- Semi Fusinite,
Oxidized Material, IV
Rich) Fusinite, Sclerotonite
Charcoal
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 The organic content of a rock that is extractable
with organic solvents
 Bitumen forms largely as a result of the breaking of
chemical bonds in kerogen as temperature rises.
 Bitumen becomes petroleum at some point during
migration

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 Crude oil is a mixture of many hydrocarbons that are liquid at
surface temperatures and pressures, and are soluble in normal
petroleum solvents. It can vary in type and amount of hydrocarbons
as well as which impurities it may contain.
 Crude oil may be classified chemically (e.g. paraffinic, naphthenic)
or by its density. This is expressed as specific gravity or as API
(American Petroleum Institute) gravity according to the formula:

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 The lower the specific gravity, the higher the API gravity, for
example, a fluid with a specific gravity of 1.0 g cm –3 has an API
value of 10 degrees. Heavy oils are those with API gravities of less
than 20 (sp. gr. >0.93). These oils have frequently suffered chemical
alteration as a result of microbial attack (biodegradation) and other
effects. Not only are heavy oils less valuable commercially, but they
are considerably more difficult to extract. API gravities of 20 to 40
degrees (sp. gr. 0.83 to 0.93) indicate normal oils. Oils of API gravity
greater than 40 degrees (sp. gr. < 0.83) are light.

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 Asphalt is a dark colored solid to semi-solid form of petroleum (at
surface temperatures and pressures) that consists of heavy
hydrocarbons and bitumens. It can occur naturally or as a residue in
the refining of some petroleums. It generally contains appreciable
amounts of sulphur, oxygen, and nitrogen and unlike kerogen,
asphalt is soluble in normal petroleum solvents. It is produced by
the partial maturation of kerogen or by the degradation of mature
crude oil. Asphalt is particularly suitable for making high-quality
gasoline and roofing and paving materials

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 There are two basic types of natural gas, biogenic gas
and thermogenic gas.
 Biogenic gas is a natural gas formed solely as a result of
bacterial activity in the early stages of diagenesis, meaning
it forms at low temperatures, at overburden depths of less
than 3000 feet, and under anaerobic conditions often
associated with high rates of marine sediment
accumulation.
 20% of the worlds known natural gas is biogenic.

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 Thermogenic gas is a natural gas resulting from the thermal alteration of
kerogen due to an increase in overburden pressure and temperature.
 The major hydocarbon gases are: methane (CH4 ), ethane (C2H6),
propane (C3H8), and butane (C4H10).
 The terms sweet and sour gas are used in the field to designate gases that
are low or high, respectively, in hydrogen sulfide.
 Natural gas, as it comes from the well, is also classified as dry gas or wet
gas, according to the amount of natural gas liquid vapors it contains. A dry
gas contains less than 0.1 gallon natural gas liquid vapors per 1,000 cubic
feet, and a wet gas 0.3 or more liquid vapors per 1,000 cubic feet.

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 Is a stratigraphic interval that contains organic material that
generates hydrocarbons when buried within the subsurface at
certain thermal condition
 Fine-grained rocks, usually dark in color because of its organic
content
 Example: Shale, siltstone, claystone, carbonate, and coal

 Total Organic Carbon (TOC) – the amount of organic carbon in a

geological formation, particularly the source rock for a petroleum
play

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Source Rocks Total Organic Carbon
Rock Total Organic Range Remarks
Content <0.5 % TOC Lean to poor source
Shale Average 2.2% TOC rock; oxidized facies
Calcareous Shale Average 1.9% TOC with poor kerogen
quality
Carbonate Average 0.7% TOC
Coal High TOC 0.5 to 1.0% TOC Fair source rock
Immature Coal 60 – 62% 1.0 to 2.0% TOC Moderate source
Partly Mature Coal 70% rock
Mature Coal 80% 2.0 to 5.0% TOC Good source rock
Anthracite 90% >5.0% TOC Excellent/ rich
source rock
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 Is the expulsion of the generated
hydrocarbon (oil and gas) out of the
source rock through permeable zones or
carrier beds towards a suitable reservoir
and trap
 Primary Migration – from source rocks to
reservoir
 Secondary Migration – movement of
petroleum through porous and permeable
layers to the trap
 Lateral – carrier beds
 Vertical – faults
 Tertiary Migration – movement of petroleum
from one trap to another trap or to a seep

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Sandstone – 25% to 40% primary Limestone/Dolomite/Chalk – 10% to
porosity 50% primary porosity

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 Is a rock geometry or structure capable of
confining hydrocarbon
 Types of Trap (Mechanism)
 Structural
 Stratigraphic
 Combination

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 Structural – accumulate oil and gas due to their general shape or
configuration
 Stratigraphic – more subtle, and owe their origin to abrupt changes
in the composition and other characteristics of sedimentary rocks
 Combination – in nature, we may also find combinations of these
trapping mechanisms, sometimes giving rise to multiple target
horizons at a single prospect location

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 Structural traps – anticlines,
folds, fault or extensional
structures

 Stratigraphic traps – reef build

up, stacked sand bars, stacked
sand channels, mud or salt
diapir

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 Impermeable rock unit
capable of holding back
trap column of
hydrocarbon

 Ex. Shale, Evaporite,

Dense Carbonate

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 Impermeable rock unit
capable of holding back trap
column of hydrocarbon

 Ex. Shale, Evaporite,

Dense Carbonate

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 Shale (65%)
 Dominant seal
 Evaporites (33%)
 Efficient seal
 Often seals of carbonate
reservoirs
 Dense carbonates (2%)

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 Proper timing in the development of:
 Source rock and oil generation
 Available reservoir rock
 Trap and seal (cap rock) in place during oil
migration and accumulation

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 Density difference among oil, gas and water.
Natural gas – lightest;
Water – heaviest;
Oil – accumulate in between water and natural gas

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The petroleum industry, also known as the oil industry or the oil patch, includes the
global processes :
of exploration, extraction, refining, transporting (often by oil tankers and pipelines), and
marketing of petroleum products.

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 Petroleum Value Chain

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 A depression formed by tectonic processes, flanked by
topographically high areas that shed thin detritus into thin
depression
 Areas where petroleum can be found

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 An oil and gas field is a field, or vast reservoir, that contains both oil and natural
gas.
 Can be offshore and onshore

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 The Middle East has dominated the world of oil for half a century.
 the top five most important oil fields in the world:
1. Ghawar (Saudi Arabia)
2. Burgan (Kuwait)
3. Safaniya (Saudi Arabia)
4. Rumaila (Iraq)
5. West Qurna-2 (Iraq)

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Ghawar Oil Field (Saudi Arabia)
- The legendary Ghawar field has been churning out oil since the early
1950s, allowing Saudi Arabia to claim the mantle as the world’s
largest oil producer and the only country with sufficient spare
capacity to act as a swing producer.

- Holding an estimated 70 billion barrels of remaining reserves

- Some oil analysts believe that Ghawar passed its peak perhaps a
decade ago, but Saudi Arabia’s infamous lack of transparency keeps
everyone guessing. Nevertheless, it remains the world’s largest oil
field, both in terms of reserves and production. It continues to
produce 5 million barrels per day (bpd).
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Ghawar Oil Field (Saudi Arabia)

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Burgan (Kuwait)-

The field holds an estimated 66 to

72 billion barrels of reserves,
which accounts for more than
half of Kuwait’s total, and it
produces between 1.1 and 1.3
million bpd.

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Safaniya (Saudi Arabia)

The Safaniya field is the world’s largest offshore oil field. Located in the Persian
Gulf, the Safaniya field is thought to hold more than 50 billion barrels of oil.

It is Saudi Arabia’s second largest producing field behind Ghawar, churning out 1.5
million bpd. Like Saudi Arabia’s other fields, Safaniya is very mature as it has been
producing for nearly 60 years, but Saudi Aramco is working hard to extend its
operating life.

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Rumaila (Iraq) - Iraq’s largest oil field is the Rumaila, which holds an
estimated 17.8 billion barrels of oil.

West Qurna-2 (Iraq)- is Iraq’s second largest, holding nearly 13 billion barrels of
oil reserves.

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The South Pars/North Dome field is a natural-gas condensate field located in the Persian
Gulf. It is by far the world's largest natural gas field, with ownership of the field shared
between Iran and Qatar.

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1. Ilocos Trough 11. Recto Bank Basin

2. Cagayan Basin 12. Southwest Palawan Basin

3. West Luzon Basin 13. East Palawan Basin

4. Central Luzon Basin 14. Sulu Sea Basin

5. Bicol Shelf 15. Cotabato Basin

6. Northwest Palawan Basin 16. Agusan-Davao Basin

7. Mindoro-Cuyo Platform
8. West Masbate-Iloilo Basin
9. Southeast Luzon Basin
10. Visayan Basin
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Fore arc Basin
Limited Hydrocarbon Potential
Low geothermal gradient
Scarcity of good clastic reservoir
Back Arc Basin
Moderate to High geothermal gradient
Typified by volcano-clastic reservoirs
Rift Basin
Insufficient Trap Size
High Geothermal Gradient
Inadequate development of source rocks

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 Fore- Arc Basins Back- Arc Basins Rift

Ilocos Trough
Central Luzon Basin Visayan Basin
NW Palawan
West Luzon SE Luzon
Mindoro- Cuyo
West Masbate-Iloilo Cagayan Basin
SW Palawan
Agusan-Davao Cotabato
Recto Bank
Bicol Shelf Sulu Sea
Most Prospective Prospective Frontier
East Palawan
NW Palawan Agusan-Davao

Cagayan Basin East Palawan Ilocos Trough

Mindoro- Cuyo SE Luzon West Luzon

SW Palawan Cotabato West Masbate-Iloilo

Central Luzon Basin Sulu Sea Bicol Shelf

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 Toledo-1
 1st recorded petroleum well, 1896
 Drilled in Cebu by Smith & Bell

 Pag-asa-1
 1st well drilled offshore, 1971
 Drilled by Oriental Petroleum Pag-asa-1
 Over 573 wells drilled until 2014, ~38
discovery wells
 Over 533,222 line-kms of 2D and 21,311
sq-km of 3D seismic data were acquired Toledo-1
from 1941 to 2014

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 San Antonio
~ 4 BCF
 Nido (1976) (NW Palawan)
 1st commercial oil production
 Started production February 1979 NW Palawan
~ 42 MMBL
 West Linapacan (NW Palawan)
 1st deepwater oilfield development
~ 2,800 BCF
 Started production May 1992
 San Antonio (1984) (Cagayan)
 1st commercial gas production
 Started production March 1994
 Malampaya (1992)
 Birth of the Philippine gas industry
 1st gas delivery in October 2001
 1st commercial gas sales January 2002

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  22 Active Service Contracts
 3 SCs recommended in PECR-5
 6 SCs in onshore areas
 16 SCs in offshore areas
 7 years initial exploration period
divided into number of sub-
phases, extendible for 3 years
 25 years production stage
 50 years maximum number of
years
 7 SCs under production stage
 15 SCs under exploration phase

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 Carbonate Reservoirs
 Nido (1979-2015)= 19.17 MMBO
 Cadlao (1981-1991)= 11.23 MMBO
 Matinloc (1982-1991, 1995-2015)= 12.44 MMBO
 Tara (1987-1990) = 0.22 MMBO
 North Matinloc (1988-1991, 1998-2000) = 2.26 MMBO
 West Linapacan (1992-1996)= 8.53 MMBO
 San Antonio (1994-2008) = 3.54 BCFG
 Libertad (2012-2015) = 0.20 BCFG
 Malampaya (2001-2015) = 1,663 BCFG /
66.97 MMBC & 1.93 MMBO

 Clastic Reservoir
 Galoc (1988, 2008-2015)= 17.16 MMBO

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 Initial exploration activity to determine lithology, geologic
structures, and other pertinent geologic information. This includes
collection of rock, soil, hydrocarbon samples for corresponding
laboratory analyses.

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 Exploration Geophysics
 Geophysical Methods
 Onshore Seismic Survey
 Offshore Seismic Survey
 Seismic Data Processing
 Seismic Data Interpretation
 Reserves Computation

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Exploration Geophysics – an applied branch of
geophysics, which uses physical methods (such as seismic,
gravitational, magnetic, electrical, and electromagnetic) at
the surface of the Earth to measure the physical properties
of the subsurface.
- It is often used to detect or infer the presence and position
of economically useful geological deposits, such as ore
minerals, fossil fuels and other hydrocarbons; geothermal;
and groundwater reservoir.

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Geophysical Methods
1.Magnetic and Gravity – used to determine the geometry and depth
of covered geological structures including uplifts, subsiding basins,
faults, folds, igneous intrusions and salt diapirs due to their unique
density and magnetic susceptibility signatures compared to the
surrounding rocks.
2.Seismic – used to map the subsurface distribution of stratigraphy
and its structure which can be used to delineate potential
hydrocarbon accumulations.

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 Seismic Survey – a technique similar to an ultrasound that is used to
develop images of the rock layers below ground.
 Types of Seismic Survey
 2D reflection seismic surveying – both the sound source and the sound detectors
(numbering up to a hundred or more per shot) are moved along a straight line.
 3D reflection seismic surveying – the sound detectors (numbering up to a thousand or
more) are spread out over an area and the source is moved from location to location
through the area.
 4D reflection seismic surveying – the exact repetition of a 3D survey at two or more
time intervals. The primary application of 4D is mapping the movement of fluid interfaces
in producing oil and gas reservoirs.

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  Shot holes are drilled to penetrate the weathered zone.
 An explosive charge, usually dynamite, is loaded into the shot
holes and detonated, sending sound waves into the sub-strata
which are variably reflected back to the surface.

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Sound waves reflected
from the sub-surface
are picked up by an
array of geophones
which are laid out on the
ground along a seismic
line and connected to
recording instruments
through a seismic
cable.

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Marine seismic vessels tow arrays of air guns, the seismic source and streamers
containing hydrophones a few meters below the surface of the water.
The tail buoy helps the crew locate the end of the streamers.

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An energy pulse (from an air explosion or an
electric discharge) is sent to the subsurface
layers and reflected waves are picked up by
hydrophones contained in a streamer being
towed by the survey vessel.

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The air guns are activated periodically, such as every 25m (about 10 seconds), and
the resulting sound waves travels into the Earth and is reflected back by the
underlying rock layers to a hydrophone and relayed to the recording vessel.

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 The goal of geophysical data
processing is to increase the signal to
noise ratio.
 Noise is also recorded during data
acquisition due to the environment,
instrumentation and other factors.
 The processing outputs are used by
geophysicists or explorationists in
their interpretation work; paper plots
for manual interpretation or digital
data for workstation interpretation.

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 Petroleum Engineering & related disciplines
 Reservoir Engineering: Reservoir Rock & Fluid Properties
 Drilling Engineering: Exploration Drilling
 Development Planning
 Petroleum Economics
 Production Engineering
 Health, Safety, Security, and Environment Concerns

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 Petroleum Engineering – a field of engineering concerned with the
activities related to the production of hydrocarbons, which can be
either crude oil or natural gas.
 Petroleum Engineering requires a good knowledge of other related
disciplines:
GeophysicsPetroleum Geology
Drilling Engineering*Reservoir Engineering*
Well EngineeringProduction Engineering*
Economics*

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 Reservoir Engineering – a branch of petroleum engineering that
applies scientific principles to the drainage problems arising during
the development and production of oil and gas reservoirs so as to
obtain a high economic recovery.
 Drilling Engineering – a subset of petroleum engineering
responsible for the design and implementation of procedures to drill
wells as safely and economically as possible.
 Petroleum Production Engineering - a subset of petroleum
engineering that deals with design and selection of subsurface
equipment to product oil and gas well fluids.

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 Reservoir Rock Properties
 Porosity
 Permeability
 Types of Reservoir
 Types of Reservoir Drive Mechanism

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 Porosity - % or fraction of void to the bulk volume of a
material (5-30%)
 Factors affecting porosity:
 Grain Size – well rounded sediments has no effect
 Sorting – well sorted, high porosity
 Grain Shape – irregular shape, high porosity
 Primary – porosity due to sedimentation
 Secondary – porosity after sedimentation process
(fracturing and recrystallization)

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 Permeability – measure of the ease with which fluids can
flow through a rock.
 Depends on how well the pore spaces within the rock are
interconnected.
 Unit of measure is darcy, after a French Scientist, Henry
Philibert Gaspard Darcy (1856)

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 Types of Petroleum Reservoir
 Oil Reservoir – it contains mainly of oil or without free gas (gas cap)
 Gas Reservoir – mainly gas

 Petroleum Reservoirs are classified in five (5) fluid categories:

 Dry Gas and Wet Gas – consist mainly of light and intermediate hydrocarbons
(N2, CO2, H2S, C1 to C2)
 Gas Condensate – contains significant amount of C5 + components
 Volatile Oil – GOR is about 2,500 scf/STB, FVF – 3
 Black Oil – lower GOR

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 Recovery Method
 Primary – using the natural energy of the reservoir as a drive
 Secondary – aided or driven by the injection of water or gas from
the surface
 Tertiary or EOR – techniques applied to reservoirs in order to
improve flagging production
 Infill Recovery – drilling cheap production holes between existing
wells to ensure that the whole reservoir has been fully depleted of
its oil.

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 Drive Mechanism (Primary Recovery) – natural energy
of the reservoir used to transport hydrocarbons towards
and out of the production wells
 Types of Drive Mechanism
 Solution Gas Drive
 Gas Cap Drive
 Water Drive
 Gravity Drainage
 Combination of Mixed Drive

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 Gas Cap Drive Water Drive

Solution Gas Drive Combination / Mixed Drive

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 Secondary Recovery – (35% recovery of OOIP from
primary and secondary)
 Water Flooding – injection of water at the base of reservoir to
maintain pressure and displace oil towards the wells
 Gas Injection – same as water flooding to maintain gas cap
pressure

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 Tertiary Recovery or Enhanced Oil Recovery – most
expensive
 Thermal – uses heat to improve oil recovery by reducing the
viscosity of heavy oils and vaporizing lighter oils. Most
efficient EOR
 Chemical – uses chemicals (polymers) added to water in the
injected fluid of a waterflood
 Miscible Gas – uses a fluid that is miscible with the oil. CO2,
N2, HC gases

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 Reservoir Fluid Properties
 Formation Volume Factor
 Solution Gas-Oil-Ratio
 Liquid Specific Gravity
 API Specific Gravity
 Gas Specific Gravity
 Bubble Point Pressure
 Saturated Dew Point Pressure

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 Bubble Point Pressure – the pressure at which gas begins to break
out of an under saturated oil and form a free gas phase in the matrix
or a gas cap
 Solution Gas-Oil-Ratio – the amount of gas dissolved in the stock
tank oil when brought to a specific pressure and temperature.
Denoted mathematically as Rs (SCF/STB).
 Formation Volume Factor – the ratio of a phase volume (water, oil,
gas, or gas plus oil) at reservoir conditions, relative to the volume of
a surface phase (water, oil, or gas) at standard conditions resulting
when the reservoir material is brought to the surface. Denoted
mathematically as Bw (bbl/STB), Bo (bbl/STB), Bg (ft3/SCF), and Bt
(bbl/STB).
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 Types of Well
 Well Classification
 Rig Types (Offshore/Onshore)
 Drilling Operations
 Data Gathering

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 Wildcat Well – a well in a previously undrilled area
 Exploratory Well – a wildcat or well in a new area with unknown
producing potential
 Appraisal Well – additional well drilled after discovery to confirm
the size of the hydrocarbon deposit
 Confirmation or Delineation Well – a secondary well, after the
discovery well, drilled to help determine field extent, volume and
production rate.
 Confirmation Well – well or wells drilled to prove the formation or
resources discovered in the initial or discovery well
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 Development Well – drilled after the discovery and appraisal wells
to develop the hydrocarbon production potential of the field
 Production Well – a well that produces hydrocarbon in commercial
quantities
 Injection Well – a well either specifically drilled, or more likely, a
poor producer that is converted to inject fluids to stabilize the
decline in pressure on a producing zone
 Stratigraphic Well – a well drilled to determine the stratigraphy of an
area

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  Vertical Well – drilled
vertically into the subsurface
 Deviated Well – intentionally
drilled at an angle from the
vertical (>10º)
 Horizontal Well – drilled by
deviation drilling and tracks
the dip of a subsurface
reservoir (80º – >90º)

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 Jack-up – for
water depth of
< 350 ft

Source: COSL

Source: Seadrill

Semi-submersible – for water

depth of about 6,000 ft

Drillship – for water depth of

lee ann joy
Source: bayanDrilling
Maersk 13,000 ft 12/12/2020
 Source:
lee ann joy bayan DESCO Rig 30 Source: Petroleum Engineering 12/12/2020
Drilling Mud/Fluid – a mud/fluid that is
circulated in the well during drilling
Uses:
Clean the rock fragments form beneath the bit and
carry them to the surface
Exert sufficient hydrostatic pressure against
subsurface formations to prevent formation fluids
from flowing into the well
Keep the newly drilled borehole open until steel
casing can be cemented in the hole
Source: Nodigequipment
Cool and lubricate the rotating drill string and bit

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  Uses:
 Run and cemented to keep the hole open
 To stabilize the sides of the well
 To prevent fluids from zones other than the producing
zones from entering the well
 Type of Casing:
 Conductor Casing
 Intermediate Casing
 Production Casing or Liner

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Source: Oil and Gas Journal
Cementing – the
process of mixing a
slurry of cement, cement
additives and water, and
pumping it down through
casing to critical points
in the annulus around the
casing or in the open-
hole below the casing
string

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 Cements are used universally in well completion operations to fill
the annular space between the casing and the open hole
 The principal functions of the primary cementing process are:
 To bond and support the casing
 To restrict fluid movement between formation
 To protect the casing from corrosion
 To protect the casing from shock loads when drilling deeper
 To seal off lost circulation of thief zones

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  An operation where a cylindrical rock sample
is taken from the hole
 Types include conventional, diamond,
wireline or sidewall coring
 Usually taken from pay zones or zones of
interest (expensive!)
 Uses:
 In the evaluation of the well
 To test the porosity and permeability
 For post engineering studies important in reservoir
analysis

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 The evaluation of a well using a sonde run into a well on a wireline.
Used to gather data on the formation encountered in the hole
 Data include:
 Formation or reservoir thickness
 Hydrocarbon presence
 Petrophysical properties
 Porosity

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 Determination of the presence of
hydrocarbon through the
continuous recording, monitoring,
analysis and evaluation of the rock
cuttings and gas or oil that evolves
from the hole
 Mudlog – the record and evaluation
of gas & oil shows, lithology of
formation drilled, and drilling
parameters in a well

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Process of shooting holes or perforations in
casing or liner, cement, and production
formation to complete or re-complete a well

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 Uses:
 To determine the ability of a formation to produce reservoir fluids
 To provide information about formation permeability, extent of wellbore
damage or stimulation, reservoir pressure, and reservoir boundaries
 Types:
 Pressure Build-up Test
 Pressure Drawdown Test
 Isochronal Test
 Modified Isochronal Test
 Interference Test
 Drill Stem Test (DST)

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 Types of Well Testing
 Pressure Build-up Test – conducted by producing a well at constant rate for
some time, shutting the well in, allowing the pressure to build-up in the well
bore, and recording the pressure in the well bore as a function of time
 Pressure Drawdown Test – conducted by producing a well, starting ideally
with uniform pressure in the reservoir. Rate and pressure are recorded as
functions of time. A well (or reservoir) which is static, stable and shut-in is
opened to flow at at constant rate and the bottom hole pressure is monitored
with time
 Isochronal Test – conducted by flowing a well at a fixed rate, then shutting it in
until the pressure builds up to an unchanging value. The well is flowed at a
second rate for the same length of time, followed by another shut-in. If possible,
the final flow period should be long enough to achieve stabilized flow. In
obtaining data in this testing program, it is essential to record flowing bottom-
hole pressure, as a function of time at each flow rate
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 Types of Well Testing
 Modified Isochronal Test – shut-in periods of the same duration as the flow periods are
used, and the final shut-in BHP before the beginning of a new flow period is used as an
approximation to average pressure in the test analysis procedure
 Interference Test – conducted by producing from or injecting into at least one well (the
active well) and by observing the pressure response in at least one other well (the
observation well). It monitors pressure changes at a distance from the well that produced
the initial transient
 Drill Stem Test (DST) – a temporary completion of a well.
The DST tool is an arrangement of packers and valves
placed on the end of the drillpipe. This arrangement can
be used to isolate a zone of interest and to let it produced
in to the drillpipe or drill stem. A fluid sample is obtained
in the test, thus, the test can tell us the types of fluids the
well will produce if it is completed in the tested formation
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 Criteria for Development
 Reservoir Development Plan (Drive Mechanism, Maximum
Production Rate, Recovery Factor, Depletion Options)
 Production Profile (Number of wells, Production Period, Lead
Time, Plateau Production before decline, Decline Rate, Production
Rate per well, Cut-off Rate)
 Drilling Operations (Rig Types, Well Classification)
 Completion Design (Open-hole Completion, Perforated
Completion, Multi-zone Completion / Zone Isolations)

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 Process and Field Facilities
 Deepwater Development Systems (FPSO, FPS, SPAR)
 Field Facilities (CGS, FPSO, WHP, FSU, OGP)
 Pipelines (Routing, Landfall Sites)

 Development Options
 Deepwater Oil and/or Gas Discovery
 Shallower Oil and Gas Discovery

 Other Considerations
 Market (Domestic Refinery, Exported)

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  Development Wells
 Producer
 Injector

 Well Completion

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 Subsea Systems
 Wellhead
 Christmas Tree
 Manifold
 Flowlines, Umbilicals
Source: Pinterest

Deepwater
Subsea
Manifold

Source: Cameron

Source: Offshore Technology Source: Cameron Subsea Wellhead

lee ann joy bayan Christmas Tree 12/12/2020
Source: Cameron
 Onshore Wellhead

Source: Oceanpm

Source: Petroleum Engineering

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 FPSO

Offshore Production
Platform

Oil Tanker
Offshore Production
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Platforms
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Malampaya Shallow Water Platform Malampaya Depletion Compression
(SWP) installed in March 2001 Platform (DCP) connected by a bridge to
SWP installed in 2015

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