JACK OJANGO

BSCSF/MG/1552/09/21
COSF 324
2024
WIRELESS NETWORKS AND MOBILE COMPUTING

CAT 1
a) Difference between Wireless LAN and Wired LAN:

Wireless LAN (WLAN):

- Utilizes wireless communication technologies such as Wi-Fi to connect devices within a local
area network.
- Data transmission occurs over radio frequency waves rather than physical cables.
- Provides flexibility and mobility as devices can connect to the network without being tethered to
a specific location.
- Requires access points (APs) to transmit and receive data wirelessly.
- Susceptible to interference and signal degradation due to environmental factors.

Wired LAN:
- Relies on physical cables, such as Ethernet cables, to connect devices within a local area network.
- Offers faster and more reliable data transmission compared to wireless LANs.
- Generally more secure as physical access to the network infrastructure is required.
- Provides consistent performance as it is not affected by interference or signal attenuation.
- Requires infrastructure setup including switches, routers, and cabling.

b) Wireless LAN Categories:

1. WPAN (Wireless Personal Area Network):

- Typically covers a very short range, typically within a few meters.
- Designed for connecting devices like smartphones, smartwatches, and Bluetooth peripherals.
- Low power consumption to preserve battery life in devices.
- Utilizes technologies such as Bluetooth and Zigbee.

2. WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network):

- Covers a larger area, typically within a building or campus.
- Provides connectivity to laptops, smartphones, tablets, and other wireless devices.
- Higher data rates compared to WPANs.
- Main technology used is Wi-Fi.

3. WMAN (Wireless Metropolitan Area Network):

- Covers larger geographical areas such as a city or town.
- Provides connectivity to multiple WLANs and internet access to users in the coverage area.
- Technologies such as WiMAX and LTE are commonly used.
- Higher bandwidth and longer range compared to WLANs.

4. WWAN (Wireless Wide Area Network):

- Covers a wide geographical area such as a country or continent.
- Provides long-range wireless connectivity for mobile devices.
- Includes technologies such as 3G, 4G LTE, and 5G.
- Offers high-speed internet access and mobility across large distances.

c) Wi-Fi vs. WLAN:

- Wi-Fi refers specifically to wireless networking technology based on IEEE 802.11 standards for
WLANs.
- WLAN is a broader term encompassing any wireless local area network, which may or may not
use Wi-Fi technology.

d) Challenges Faced by Enterprise WLAN:

1. Security: Ensuring data confidentiality, integrity, and availability in wireless transmissions,
protecting against unauthorized access, eavesdropping, and data breaches.
2. Interference and Congestion: Dealing with interference from other wireless networks, devices,
or environmental factors, and managing network congestion especially in densely populated areas.
3. Scalability: Supporting a growing number of devices and users while maintaining network
performance and reliability.
4. Roaming and Handover: Ensuring seamless roaming for mobile devices between access points
without service interruption or loss of connectivity.

e) Features of Next-Generation Enterprise WLAN Solution:

1. High Performance: Supporting high data rates, low latency, and reliable connectivity for
demanding applications and devices.
2. Advanced Security: Implementing robust security mechanisms such as WPA3, 802.1X
authentication, and intrusion detection/prevention systems.
3. Centralized Management: Providing centralized management and configuration for easier
deployment, monitoring, and maintenance of WLAN infrastructure.
4. Integration with Emerging Technologies: Supporting integration with emerging technologies
such as IoT devices, cloud services, and AI-driven analytics for enhanced network functionality
and efficiency.

f) Radio Types:
i. Single-Radio: APs equipped with a single radio interface for transmitting and receiving data on
a specific frequency band.
ii. Dual-Radio: APs equipped with two radio interfaces, typically operating on different frequency
bands simultaneously to provide better coverage, capacity, and flexibility.
iii. Three-Radio APs: APs equipped with three radio interfaces, allowing for concurrent operation
on multiple frequency bands, enabling features like dual 5GHz operation or dedicated scanning
and monitoring radios.

g) Frame Types Defined in 802.11:

1. Management Frames: Used for network management tasks such as authentication, association,
disassociation, and beaconing.
2. Control Frames: Used for controlling the access to the wireless medium, including frame
acknowledgement, request to send, and clear to send.
3. Data Frames: Used for carrying higher-layer data between devices connected to the WLAN,
including user data and control information.

h) STA Access Stages:

1. Authentication: The STA authenticates itself with the AP using a defined authentication method
(e.g., Open System Authentication, 802.1X/EAP).
2. Association: Once authenticated, the STA associates itself with the AP by exchanging
association request and response frames, establishing a connection to the WLAN.

i) WLAN Roaming Types:

1. Layer 2 Roaming: Intra-controller roaming where the STA moves between APs connected to the
same WLAN controller without changing IP addresses.
2. Layer 3 Roaming: Inter-controller or inter-subnet roaming where the STA moves between APs
connected to different controllers or subnets, requiring IP address reassignment.

j) Role of BSS and AP:

- Basic Service Set (BSS): A BSS is a group of stations (STAs) that communicate with each other.
It consists of one AP and one or more associated STAs.
- AP Role in BSS: The AP acts as the central point for managing communication within the BSS,
coordinating access to the wireless medium, authenticating and associating STAs, and forwarding
traffic between wireless and wired networks.

CAT 2
a) Frequency and its Significance in Wave Transmission:

Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time. In the context of
waves, it refers to the number of cycles of a wave that occur in a second. It is usually measured in
Hertz (Hz), where one Hertz represents one cycle per second.

Diagram:
```
| |
| /\ |
| / \ |
| / \ |
| / \ |
| / \ |
| / \ |
| / \ |
| / \ |
|________/________________\___________| Time
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
High Medium Low Very Low
Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency
```

Significance of Frequency:
- Power Transmission: Higher frequency waves typically carry more energy, leading to greater
power transmission capability. This is particularly relevant in wireless communication where
higher frequency signals can carry more data.
- Radiation Capacity: The size of the frequency determines the radiation characteristics of the
wave. Higher frequency waves tend to radiate in a more directional manner, while lower frequency
waves propagate more widely.
- Attenuation: The frequency of a wave affects its ability to penetrate obstacles and travel over
distance. Higher frequency waves experience more attenuation or signal loss over distance and
through obstacles compared to lower frequency waves.

b) Modulation Types:

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM):

- In AM, the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in proportion to the waveform being
transmitted.
- The frequency and phase of the carrier wave remain constant.
- AM is susceptible to noise and interference but is relatively simple to implement.
- Commonly used in broadcasting applications such as AM radio.

2. Frequency Modulation (FM):

- In FM, the frequency of the carrier wave is varied in proportion to the waveform being
transmitted.
- The amplitude and phase of the carrier wave remain constant.
- FM is less susceptible to noise compared to AM and provides better sound quality.
- Widely used in radio broadcasting, especially for music and voice transmission.

3. Phase Modulation (PM):

- In PM, the phase of the carrier wave is varied in proportion to the waveform being transmitted.
- The amplitude and frequency of the carrier wave remain constant.
- PM is similar to FM but modulates the phase instead of frequency.
- Used in certain digital communication systems and data transmission applications.

c) Overlapping vs. Non-Overlapping Channels:

Overlapping Channels:
- Overlapping channels are those that share some frequency spectrum with adjacent channels.
- In wireless networks, overlapping channels can lead to interference between neighboring access
points (APs) operating on adjacent channels.
- Overlapping channels are typically used in environments with high-density deployments where
channel reuse is necessary despite the risk of interference.

Non-Overlapping Channels:
- Non-overlapping channels are those that do not share frequency spectrum with adjacent channels.
- In wireless networks, non-overlapping channels minimize interference between neighboring APs,
providing better overall network performance.
- Non-overlapping channels are commonly used in environments with lower density deployments
where interference mitigation is prioritized.

d) Authentication Mechanisms in WLAN:

i. Shared Key Authentication:

- Shared Key Authentication requires both the access point (AP) and the client station to possess a
shared secret key.
- The AP sends a challenge text to the client, which the client encrypts using the shared key and
sends back.
- If the AP can decrypt the challenge correctly, it authenticates the client. Otherwise, authentication
fails.
- Shared Key Authentication is vulnerable to security threats such as eavesdropping and key
compromise.

ii. Open System Authentication:

- Open System Authentication allows any client station to associate with the AP without requiring
authentication.
- While Open System Authentication does not provide security for the authentication process itself,
it is often used in conjunction with other security mechanisms such as WPA2 or WPA3.
- This authentication method is commonly used in public Wi-Fi hotspots and open networks where
accessibility is prioritized over security.
e)

Released Theoretical
Standard 2.4 GHz 5 GHz Implementation Rate
in Rate

Up to
Up to 600 Up to 600
802.11n 2009 600 Varies, typically 150-300 Mbps
Mbps Mbps
Mbps
 Released Theoretical
Standard 2.4 GHz 5 GHz Implementation Rate
in Rate

Up to Up to Varies, typically 433 Mbps (1 spatial

802.11ac Up to 1.3
2013 450 1300 stream) to 867 Mbps (2 spatial
Wave 1 Gbps
Mbps Mbps streams)

Up to Up to Varies, typically 866 Mbps (1 spatial

802.11ac Up to 3.47
2015 450 1300 stream) to 1733 Mbps (2 spatial
Wave 2 Gbps
Mbps Mbps streams)

Up to Up to
Up to 9.6
802.11ax 2019 600 9600 Varies, typically 1.2 Gbps to 4.8 Gbps
Gbps
Mbps Mbps

f) Carrier Sense Methods in WLANs:

1. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA):

- CSMA/CA is a method used in WLANs to avoid collisions by sensing the carrier before
transmitting data.
- Before sending data, a station listens to the wireless medium to check if it's idle.
- If the medium is busy, the station waits for a random backoff time before attempting transmission
again.
- CSMA/CA is used in IEEE 802.11 WLANs to ensure fair access to the wireless medium and
reduce collisions.

2. Virtual Carrier Sensing:

- Virtual Carrier Sensing is a method used to detect the presence of hidden nodes in a WLAN.
- In this method, stations exchange control messages such as Request to Send (RTS) and Clear to
Send (CTS) to reserve the medium before transmitting data.
- Before sending data, a station sends an RTS frame to the receiver. If the receiver responds with
a CTS frame, it indicates that the medium is clear for transmission.
- Virtual Carrier Sensing helps to mitigate collisions caused by hidden node problems and improves
overall network performance.
g) 802.11 RTS/CTS Collision Avoidance:

Station A Access Point Station B

|-----------------------------------> RTS Frame
| |
|<---------------------------------- CTS Frame |
| |
|<------------------------------- Data Frame ---------------------->|

• Station A sends an RTS (Request to Send) frame to the Access Point (AP) indicating its
intention to send data to Station B.
• The AP responds with a CTS (Clear to Send) frame back to Station A to grant permission
for data transmission.
• Upon receiving the CTS frame, Station A sends the actual Data Frame containing the data
intended for Station B.
• Station B receives the Data Frame sent by Station A after the CTS frame.

- Request to Send (RTS):

- Station A sends an RTS frame to the Access Point (AP) requesting permission to send data to
Station B.
- The RTS frame contains the duration for which the channel will be reserved for the transmission.

- Clear to Send (CTS):

- If the AP determines that the channel is clear for transmission, it responds with a CTS frame
addressed to Station A.
- The CTS frame confirms that Station A can proceed with data transmission.
- Station B hears the CTS frame and defers its transmission until the channel is free.

- Collision Avoidance:
 - By using RTS/CTS, stations A and B announce their intention to send data, avoiding collisions
due to hidden nodes.
- Stations within the range of the AP also defer their transmissions during the duration indicated
in the RTS/CTS frames, reducing the likelihood of collisions.

h) Fat AP vs. AC + Fit AP WLAN Architectures:

Fat AP:
- In a Fat AP WLAN architecture, access points (APs) handle both control and data forwarding
functions locally.
- APs are responsible for managing client connections, authentication, encryption, and traffic
routing within the WLAN.
- This architecture can lead to scalability and management challenges, especially in large
deployments.

AC + Fit AP:
- In an AC (Access Controller) + Fit AP WLAN architecture, access points are lightweight and
offload control functions to a centralized controller.
- The AC manages configuration, security policies, and traffic optimization, while Fit APs
primarily handle data forwarding.
- This architecture offers centralized management, easier scalability, and better network
optimization compared to Fat AP architectures.

i) SSID vs. BSSID:

- SSID (Service Set Identifier):
- SSID is a unique identifier that distinguishes one WLAN from another.
- It's a human-readable name assigned to a wireless network.
- Clients use SSIDs to identify and connect to specific wireless networks.

- BSSID (Basic Service Set Identifier):

- BSSID is the MAC address of an access point (AP) in a wireless network.
 - It uniquely identifies each AP within a WLAN.
- BSSIDs are used by client devices to identify and associate with specific APs.

Roles in a Wireless Network:

- SSID is used by clients to identify and select the wireless network they want to connect to.
- BSSID is used by clients to identify and associate with a specific AP within the selected wireless
network.