0% found this document useful (0 votes)
38 viewsProject Work On Permutation and Combination Full
Uploaded by
priyattam094Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
38 viewsProject Work On Permutation and Combination Full
Uploaded by
priyattam094Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 24
1. Introduction :-
The concept of a set was rather elementary one that had
been used implicitly since the beginning of mathematics,
dating back to the ideas of Aristotle. No one had realized that
set theory had nontrivial content. Before Cantor, there were
only finite sets (which are easy to understand) and “the
infinite ” (which was considered a topic for philosophical,
rather than mathematical discussion). By Proving that there
are (infinitely) many possible sizes for infinite sets, Cantor
established that set theory was not trivial and it needed to
be studied. Set theory has come to play the role of a
foundational theory in modern mathematics, in the sense
that it interprets propositions about mathematical objects
for example, numbers and functions. From all the traditional
areas of mathematics such as algebra, analysis and topology
in a single theory and provides a standard set of axioms to
prove or disprove them. The basic concepts of set theory are
now used throughout mathematics. In one of his earliest
Papers, proved that the set of real numbers is “more
numerous” than the set 0
2. Basic Definitions :-
A map f between sets S1 and S2 is called a bijection if f is one-
to-one and onto. In other words © If f(a) = f(b) then a = b. This holds for all a, b € $1.
* For each b € S2, there is some a in $1 such that f(a) =b.
We write S1 ~ S2 if there is a bijection f : S1 > $2. We say that
$1 and S2 are equivalent or have the same cardinality if S1 ~
$2. This notion of equivalence has several basic properties:
1.S ~ S for any set S. The identity map serves as a bijection
from S to itself.
2. If S1 ~ $2 then S2 ~ S1. If f: S1 > S2 is a bijection then the
inverse map f -1 is a bijection from S2 to S1.
3. If S1 ~ $2 and S2 ~ $3 then S1 ~ S3. This boils down to the
fact that the composition of two bijections is also a bijection.
These three properties make ~ into an equivalence relation.
Let N = {1, 2, 3...} denote the natural numbers. A set S is called
countable is S ~ T for some T CN. Here is a basic result about
countable sets. Lemma 1.1 If S is both countable and infinite, then there is a
bijection between S and N itself.
Proof: For any s € S, we let f(s) denote the value of k such that
s is the kth smallest element of S. This map is well defined for
any s, because there are only finitely many natural numbers
between 1 ands. It is impossible for two different elements of S
to both be the kth smallest element of S. Hence f is one-to-one.
Also, since S is infinite, f is onto.
Lemma 1.2 If S is countable and S’ CS, then Sis also
countable.
Proof: Since S is countable, there is a bijection f :S > N. But
then f(S’) = N' is a subset of N, and fis a bijection between S‘
and N’.
Aset is called uncountable if it is not countable. One of the
things | will do below is show the existence of uncountable sets
. Lemma 1.3 If S‘ CS and S’ is uncountable, then so is S.
Proof: This is an immediate consequence of the previous
result. If S is countable, then so is S‘. But S’ is uncountable. So,
Sis uncountable as well.
2 .Examples of Countable Sets:-
Finite sets are countable sets. In this section, I’ll concentrate
on examples of countably infinite sets .2.1 The Integers :-
The integers Z form a countable set. A bijection from Z to N is
given by f(k) + 2k if k 2 0 and f({k) = 2(-k) + 1 if k < 0. So, f maps
0, 1, 2, 3... to 0, 2, 4, 6... and f maps -1, -2, -3, -4... to 1, 3, 5,
Teves
2.2 The Rational Numbers
I'll give a different argument than the one | gave in class. Let Lq
denote the finite list of all rational numbers between -q and q
that have denominator at most q. There are at most q(2q + 1)
elements of Lq. We can make the list L1, L2, L3, ... and throw
out repeaters. This makes a list of all the rational numbers. As
above, we define f(p/q) to be the value of k such that p/q is the
kth fraction on our list.
2.4 Countable Unions of Countable Sets
Lemma 2.1 Suppose that S1, $2, ... C T are disjoint countable
sets. Then S = Si Si is a countable set. Proof: There are
bijections fi : Si > N for each i. Let Lk denote the set of
elements s € S such that s lies in some Si for i < k, and fi(s) < k.
Note that Lk is a finite set. It has at most k 2 members. The list
L1, L2, L3... contains every element of S. Weeding out
repeaters, as above, we see that we have listed all the elements of S. Hence S is countable. The same result holds even if the
sets Si are not disjoint. In the general case, we would define
apply the above argument to the sets S$‘1,S’2.... The point is
that S ‘iis countable, the various S’ sets are disjoint, and Si Si=
SiS’i.
3. Examples of Uncountable Sets:-
3.1 The Set of Binary Sequences
Let S denote the set of infinite binary sequences. Here is
Cantor’s famous proof that S is an uncountable set. Suppose
that f : S > Nis a bijection. We form a new binary sequence A
by declaring that the nth digit of A is the opposite of the nth
digit of f -1 (n). The idea here is that f -1 (n) is some binary
sequence and we can look at its nth digit and reverse it.
Supposedly, there is some N such that f(A) = N. But then the
Nth digit of A = f -1(N) is the opposite of the Nth digit of A, and
this is a contradiction.
3.2 The Real Numbers
Let R denote the reals. Let R’ denote the set of real numbers,
between 0 and 1, having decimal expansions that only involve
3s and 7s. (This set R’ is an example of what is called a Cantor
set.) There is a bijection between R’ and the set S of infinite
binary sequences. For instance, the sequence 0101001... is mapped to .3737337.... Hence R’ is uncountable. But then
Lemma 1.3 says that R is uncountable as well
3.3 The Transcendental Numbers
A real number x is called transcendental if x is not an algebraic
number. Let A denote the set of algebraic numbers and let T
denote the set of transcendental numbers. Note that R= A UT
and A is countable. If T were countable then R would be the
union of two countable sets. Since R is uncountable, R is not the
union of two countable sets. Hence T is uncountable.
The upshot of this argument is that there are many more
transcendental numbers than algebraic numbers.
3.4 Tail Ends of Binary Sequences
Let T denote the set of binary sequences. We say that two
binary sequences A1 and A2 are equivalent if they have the
same tail end. For instance 1001111... and 111111... are
equivalent
Lemma 3.1
For any binary sequence A, there are only countably many
binary sequences equivalent to A.
Proof: Let Ln denote the set of sequences that differ from A
only in the first n digits. Then Ln is a finite set with at most 2n
elements. Now we list L1, L2, L3.... This gives a list of all the binary sequences equivalent to A. The rest of the proof is as
above.
Say that a tail end is the collection of sequences all equivalent
to a given one. Note that T is the union of tail ends. Each tail
end it a countable set, and T is uncountable. Hence, there are
uncountably many tail ends, by Lemma 2.1
1.1 Definition of terms :-
Definition 1.1. A set is a collection of well define objects, called
the elements or members of the set.
For the purpose of this work; these objects are mathematical
objects such as numbers or sets of numbers.
Thus, sets A, B are equal, written as A = B if, a € A if and only if
a €B. Itis convenient to define the empty set, denoted by @, as
the set with no elements, where the set of natural numbers
denoted as N, the set of integers denoted as Z, the set of
rational numbers denoted as Q, e.t.c are all examples of sets.
Definition 1.2. The union of sets A and B, is the set which
consists of elements that are either in A or B or both. The set
notation for the operation of union is U. Thus A union B is
written as A U B. In set theoretical notation, AU B={x:xEA
or x € Bor x € both A and B} Definition 1.3. The intersection of two sets A and B; is the set
which consists of elements that are in A as well as in B. The set
notation for the operation of intersection is nN. AM B means; A
intersection B. In set theoretical notation, the set AN B={x:x
€Aandxe€B}
Di ion 1.4. A set A is a subset of a set B, written as AC Bor
BDA, if every element of A belongs to B
- Definition 1.5. Two sets A and B are said to be equal, if Aisa
subset of B and B is a subset of A. Thus the elements of set A
are the same as the elements of set B, if the sets A and B are
equal.
Definition 1.6. The Cartesian products of n sets X1 xX2 x: - -xXn
is the set of ordered n-tuples, X1 x X2 x+ ++ x Xn ={ (x1, x2,...,
xn) : xi € Xi }, where (x1, x2,..., xn) = (y1, y2,..., yn) => xi=
yiVi=1,2,---n
Definition 1.7. The power set P(X) of a set X is the set of all
subsets of X
For example, if A= { 1, 2 } then P(A) = {6,{1},{2},{1,2}}.
The power set of a finite set with x elements has 2x elements.
Also the power set of an infinite set, such as N, consists of all
finite and infinite subsets and it is infinite. Definition 1.8. A set X is said to be finite, if X is empty (i.e X =
) or there is a bijection f :X 7 {1, 2,...n}; forsomeneEN.
Otherwise it is called infinite
Definition 1.9. A function f : X 7 Y between sets X, Y assigns
to each x € X a unique element f(x) € Y.
A function can also be called maps, mapping or
transformations. The set X on which f is defined is called the
domain of f and the set Y in which it takes its values is called the
codomain. Also the range of f denoted as ranf is the set of all
possible values of f(x) as x runs through the domain X of f; and
it is generally a subset of the codomain Y
. We write f : x > f(x) to indicate that f is the function that maps
x to f(x). For example, the identity function idx : X > X ona set
X is the function idx : x 7 x that maps every element to itself.
Functions are classified in numerous ways, however we shall
concentrate on some classifications which are important for the
purpose of our work,
. Definition 1.10.
A function f : X 7+ Y is injective (or one to one) if f(x1) = f(x2)
=> x1 =x2
We call an injective function an injection. For example, the
functions f, g, h : R 7 R given by f(x) = x, g(x) = x 3 and h(x) =e
x are all injective. Proof:
We show that the functions defined above are all injectives.
First, we show that f(x) = x, x € R is injective. Let f(x1) = f(x2) Vx
ER, since f(x) = x we have that x1 = x2. Therefore f(x1) = f(x2)
==> x1 = x2. Hence f is injective. Second, we show that g(x1) =
g(x2) is injective. Let g(x1) = g(x2) V x € R, since g(x) = x 3 we
have that x 3 1 =x 32 == x1 =x2. Therefore g(x1) = g(x2) =>
x1 = x2, hence g is injective.
Finally, let h(x1) = h(x2) V x € R, since h(x) = e x we have that e
x1 =e x2 ==> x1 = x2 . Therefore h(x1) = h(x2) ==> x1 = x2, hence
h is injective.
While the functions p, q, r: R 7 R given by p(x) = 1, q(x) =x2,
and r(x) = sin x are not injective since p(0) = p(1) but 0 = 1, q(-1)
= q(1) but -1 = 1, and r(0) = r(m) but O=n.
Definition 1.11. A function f : X > Y is surjective (or onto) if for
each y € Y we can find x € X: f(x) =y
. A surjective function is called a surjetion. For example, the
functions f, g, h : R > R given by f(x) = x, g(x) =x 3, h(x) =ex2
sin(x) are all surjective
- Proof:
We show that the functions defined above are all surjectives. First, we show that f(x) = x, x € R is surjective. It is clear that V x
€RAXER: f(x) =x. Second, we show that g(x) = x3, x € Ris
surjective. It is also clear that Vx 3 €RAx ER: g(x) =x3.
Finally, we show that h(x) = e x 2 sin x, x € R is surjective. It is
easy to see that Vex 2sinx €RAxER:h(x)=ex2sinx
While the functions p, q, r: R 7> R given by p(x) = 1, q(x) =e x
and r(x) = arctan(x) are not surjective
« Proof:
We prove that the above functions are not surjectives. Let p(x)
=1,x € R. Observe that @ x € R: p(x) =2 but2ER.
Second, let q(x) = ex, x € R. Observe that @ x € R : q(x) =O but
OER.
Finally, let r(x) = arctan(x), x € R. Observe that @ x E R: r(x) =
90 but 90 ER.
Definition 1.12. A function f : X 7> Y is bijective (or a one to
one correspondence) if it is both injective and surjective
. A bijective function is called a bijection. For example, the
identity function idx : X 7> X defined as idx(x) = x, the function
f:R 7 R defined as g(x) = x 3 are all bijective
. Proof: We prove that the above functions are bijectives. In the
above examples we have shown that idx(x) = x and g(x) =x 3 are both injective and surjective, therefore the functions are
bijectives.
Definition 1.13. let f :X 7 Y be a bijection. we define f-1:Y
> X by the rule f -1 (y) = x <= f(x) = y; we call this the inverse
function of f
. Definition 1.14. The composition of function f : X > Y andg: Y
> Zis the function g ° f : X 7> Z define by (g ° f)(x) = g(f(x))
The order of application of the function in a composition is
crucial and is read from right to left. Remark 1.1. f -1 ° f = idx
and f° f-1=idy
Compostions: The composition of bijection is a bijection.
Injection: the restriction of an injection to a subset of its
domain is still an injection
Inverse functions: The inverse function of a bijection is a
bijection.
Definition 1.15. A set X is said to be indexed by a set | or
equivalently, X is an indexed set if there is an onto function f :
7 X. We then write X = { xi: | € | }, where xi = f(i).
For example, { 1, 4,9,16,...}={n2:n€N }. The set X itself is
the range of the indexing function f.
Definition 1.17. A set X is said to have a cardinality or size n, if
there is a bijection f :X 7> {1, 2, 3,...,n} . Two sets A and B are said to have the same cardinality (or
equivalent) written as |A| = |B| or A ~ B; if 3 a bijection from A
to B.
Proposition 1.1. Two sets having the same cardinality defines
an equivalence relation between sets.
Proof:
|A| = |A| (Reflexivity)
The identity map f(a) = a; V a € A is a bijection from A to itself.
If |A| = |B], then |B] = |A| (Symmetry)
Since |A| = |B| then 3 a bijection f : A 7 B, but the inverse
function f -1 : B7> Ais also a bijection (since the inverse
function of a bijection is a bijection). Implying that |B| = |A|.
Finally,
If [A] = |B] and |B] = |C| then |A| = |C| (Transitivity)
If |A| = |B] then 3 a bijection f : A 7> B, also if |B] = |A| then
3 a bijection g : B 7> C. But the composition of a bijection is
again a bijection, it therefore follows that g ° f : A 7> Cis again
a bijection. Implying that |A| = |C|
Definition 1.18. A set X is said to be countable if :
¢ X is finite or * there exists a bijection between X and the set of natural
numbers N.
2. Countability of Sets:-
In this section, we only focus on the study of the major
theorems in respect to countability of sets. The following are
some of the theorems:
2.1 Theorems
Theorem 2.1. Any subset of N is countable
Proof:
Without loss of generality, assume that A is an infinite subset
of N. Define a function f : N 7 A as follows let f(1) be the
smallest element of A (in the usual ordering of N). This exists by
wellordering principle, since A = @. Then let f(2) be the smallest
element in A\{ f(1) }. Note that this set is also non-empty (since
A, being infinite, cannot be equal to { f(1) }), so the well
ordering principle applies again. In general, given { f(1), f(2),...
, f(n) }, we let f(n + 1) be the smallest element in A\{ f(1), f(2), . .
., {(n) } (which is a non-empty subset of N). This defines the
function f inductively; f is injective, since from the construction
we have : f(1) < f(2) < f(3) <-++ a-1 (since a - 1 = f(N) in this set). Thus f(N + 1) >
a, but since a € A\{ f(1), f(2), ..., f(n) } we can’t have f(N +1) >
a thus f(N + 1) = a, contradicting a /€ f(N).
Corollary 2.1. If B is countable and A c B, (A=), then Ais
countable
Proof:
If B is finite, A is clearly finite. If B is countably infinite, there is
a bijection f : B > N. Then f(A) CN, so by theorem 2.1; f(A) is
either finite or countably infinite. Since A ~ f(A) (given that f is
injective), it follows that A is countable.
Corollary 2.2. If A is uncountable and A C B, then B is
uncountable.
Proof:
Suppose for contradiction that B is countable
, Case 1: If B is finite, then A C B is a contradiction (since A is
uncountable).
Case 2: If B is infinitely countable, then 3 a bijection f :B > N,
it follows that f : A > f(A) is also a bijection. But f(A) ¢ f(B) = N
==> f(A) CN, therefore f(A) is countable. Since there is a
bijection from A to f(A) it holds that |A| = |f(A)|, which is alsoa contradiction. (since an uncountable set can never be
equivalent with countable set)
+Corollary 2.3. The intersection of finitely many countable sets
is countable
Proof:
Let Ai, i= 1, 2,...,nbe countable sets for each i; then On i=1
Ai C Ai for eachi=1, 2,...,n. but, Ai,i=1,2,...,n.is
countable for each i. Hence, by theorem 2.1; Nn i=1 Ai, i = 1, 2, .
..,n. is countable.
Theorem 2.2. If f : X 7 Y is injective and Y is countable; then X
is countable
Proof:
If X is finite, then we have nothing to prove. So let X be infinite,
now X is equivalent to f(X) (since f is injective), where f(X) is the
range of f. So f(X) is infinite. Also f(x) & Y , therefore Y is
infinite. By hypothesis Y is countable so Y is countably infinite.
By corollary 2.1 f(X) is countable. Since X ~ f(X). Hence X is
countable. See also [14]
Proposition 2.1. Let X be a non-empty set. Then the following
are equivalent
1. Xis countable
2. There exists a surjective function f : N 7 X 3. There exists an injective function g : X 7> N
Proof:
(1) == (2). If X is countably infinite, then 3 a bijection f : N7>
X; then (2) follows. If X is finite; then there is a bijection h : { 1, .
.-,}7- X for some n € N. Then the function f : N 7 X
defined by
fli) ={ h(i); iflsisn
h(n); ifi>n
is a surjection.
we show that the above function is surjective. Leti € {1,2,3,..
.,N}, then f(i) = h(i), but by hypothesis h:{1,...,n}>Xisa
bijection. It therefore follows that h(i) is a surjection and so is
f(i); since f(i) = h(i).
Next, leti€ {n+1,n+2,n+3,...,n+j,...},j€N then f(i) =
h(n).
Without loss of generality,h:{1,...,n}— Xis bijective =>
h(1) = k1, h(2) = k2, h(3) = k3, ..., h(n-1) = kn-1, h(n) = kn.
Where {k1, k2, k3,..., kn }€X, ki ER for eachi € { 1, 2, 3,...
nh
So that |X| =n. From definition of f, f(i) = kn for each i > n ==> f(n+1) = kn,
f(n+2) =kn,..., f(ntj) =kn,...
This implies that the function f has the same codomain as h,
which is X. but X = ranh = ranf ==> the ranf is the same as the
coodomain. Hence f is a surjection.
(2) == (3). let f: N 7 X be surjective. We claim that there is an
injection g : X 7 N., Given x € X, the preimage f -1 ({x })=@
(since f is surjective). By well-ordering principle, this set has a
smallest element, we let g(x) be this smallest element (i.e g(x) =
minf -1 ({ x }) ). gis injective since for two elements x = x‘ € X
the preimages f -1 ({ x }) and f -1 ({ x’ }) are disjoint (i.e f -1 ({
x}) Nf -1 ({x'}) =O) == g(x) = minf -1 ({ x }) = minf -1 ({ x’ })
= g(x’) and hence their smallest elements are distinct.
(3) == (1). Let g : X 7> N be an injective, we show that X is
countable
. Since g : X 7> g(X) is a bijection and g(X) C N, hence X is
countable
Corollary 2.4. If the function f : X > Y is surjective and X is
countable then Y is countable
Proof:
By hypothesis, f is surjective. Therefore f has right-inverse g : Y
> X, that is f ° g(y) = y Vy EY. The function g is injective since it has a left - inverse f, so by theorem 2.2 and from our
hypothesis that X is countable we conclude that Y is countable.
Theorem 2.5. There is no surjection from a set A to P(A)
- Proof:
Consider any function f : A 7 P(A) and let B={a €A | a/E€ f(a)
}. We claim that there is no b € A: f(b) = B. Indeed, assume f(b)
= B for some b € A, then either b € B hence b /E f(b) whichis a
contradiction or b /€ B = f(b) implying that b € B which is again
a contradiction. Hence the map f is not surjective as claimed
3. Applications of Theorems on Sets
In these section, we will show the applications of the theorems
studied in the previous section.
3.1 Examples
Example 3.1. Every finite set is countable
Proof:
This follows from the definition of countable sets
Example 3.2. The set of all integers Z is countable
Proof:
Let f: N 7+ Z be define as: f(n) = {n 2; if nis even
1-n 2; ifnis odd
See also [13]
It suffice to show that f(n) define above is a bijection. We
progress as follows: Observe that
f(n1) = f(n2) => n1 2 =n22 Vn1, n2 even. So n1 = n2. Hence
f(n1) = f(n2) => n1 =n2 Vn even. Also let f(n1) = f(n2) ==> 1-n1
2=1-n22;Vn1,n2 odd => 1-n1=1-n2=>n1=n2. Hence
f(n1) = f(n2) ==> n1 = n2 Vn odd. Therefore, f is injective. Next,
Vn2,1-n2€Z,4n€N: f(n) =n 2 and f(n) = 1-n 2. Hence fis
surjective. In conclusion, f is a bijection, Implying that Z is
countable.
Example 3.3. The set of all rational numbers is countable
Proof:
Let the set of all rational numbers be denoted as Use i=1 Ai,
where Ai is the set of rational numbers which can be written
with denominator i. Let such sets be Ai={Oi,-1i,1i,-2i,2i
yee}, €{1, 2,...}, But each Ai is equivalent to the set of all
positive integers and by theorem 2.3, countable. See also [14]
Example 3.4. The set R of real numbers is uncountable
Proof: Suppose for contradiction that the set R is countable. Then R =
{ x1, x2, x3, x4, .. . }. Enclose each member xn of R in an open
interval In = (xn - 1 2n+1, xn + 1 2n+1 ) of length 1 2n (i.e L(In)
=xn+ 1 2n+1-xn- 12n+1=12n),n=1, 2, 3,...The sum of
the lengths of In’s is 12+122+123+---=121-12=1 (that
is sum to infinity of a geometric progression). But xn € RandR
= Use n { xn } © Use n In implies that the whole real line (whose
length is infinite) is contained in the union of intervals whose
lengths add up to 1. Which is a contradiction, hence R is
uncountable. See also [14]
Example 3.5. The set P(N) is uncountable
Proof:
By theorem 2.5 and corollary 2.4 we get that P(N) is
uncountable
. Example 3.6. The set N x N is countable
Proof:
By proposition 2.1; it suffices to construct an injective function
f:NxN7DN. Let f:NxN7N be define as f(a, b) = 2a3b.
Assume that 2a 3 b = 2x 3 y. If a< x then 3b = 2x-a 3 y .The left
side of this equality is an odd number whereas the right side of
the equation is an even number, which implies that x = a and 3b
= 3y. Hence b =y, therefore f is injective. Therfore by theorem
2.2, the set N x N is countable. Example 3.7. The set of real numbers in [0, 1] is uncountable.
Proof:
Let the set of all real numbers in [0, 1] be countable, that is { x:
O
