DEVPSYCH Lesson 1: The Study of Human Development 2nd Semester: Midterms Human development: an ever evolving field HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ~ scientific study of processes of change and stability throughout the human life span. Developmental scientists or developmentalists ~ individuals engaged in the professional study of human development. > They answer questions like: Which characteristics are most likely to endure? > Which are likely to change, and why? STUDYING THE LIFE SPAN « Life Span Development ~ now considered by researchers to be from “womb to “tomb”, comprising the entire human life span from conception to death Development can be either positive or negative: Positive: becoming toilet trained or enrolling ina college course after retirement. Negative: once again wetting the bed after a traumatic event or isolating yourself after retirement For these reasons, events such as the timing of parenthood, maternal employment, and marital satisfaction are now studied as part of dev psych. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT TODAY Goals of human development: * Description ~ describe when most children say their first word or how large their vocabulary is ata certain age by observing large groups of children and establish norms or averages, for behavior at various ages. * Explanation - explain how children acquire language and why some children lear to speak later than usual © Prediction - predict the likelihood that a child may have serious speech problems. « Intervention - intervene in development by giving a child speech therapy. Development is messy. It is mutti-faceted and shaped by interacting arcs of influence tis best understood with input from a variety of theoretical and research orientation and is most appropriately studied using multiple disciplines. tis best understood with input from a variety of theoretical and research orientation and is most appropriately studied using multiple disciplines.BASIC CONCEPT OF THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Emerging and Young ~ ages 20 to 40 Middle Adulthood — ages 40 to 65 Late Adulthood — age 65 and over '* Domains of Development - These domains, though separate, are interrelated. * Influences on Development What makes each person unique? ‘Students of development are interested in the universal processes of development experienced by all normal human beings and they also study individual differences. > Psychosoci - emotions, personality, and social relationships. > Physical - growth of the body and brain, sensory capacities, motor skills and health > Individual differences - differences in characteristics, influences, or developmental outcomes. > Cognitive - learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. Each person has a unique developmental trajectory — an individual path to follow. « Periods of the Lifespan Division of the life span into periods is a social ‘construction. Challenge: identify the universal influences on development and then apply those to understanding individual differences in developmental trajectories. > Social construction - aconcept or practice that may appear natural and obvious tothose who accert it, but that in reality, it is an invention of a particular culture or society. © Heredity, environment and maturation ‘Some influences on development originate primarily with heredity — inborn traits ‘or characteristics inherited from the biological parents. Childhood in varied forms across cultures: US: children have relative freedom. Children in colonial times do adultlike tasks such as knitting socks and spinning wool. Other influences come largely from the environment — totality of nonhereditary ‘or experiential influences on development. Inuit parents in Canadian Arctic believe that young children are not yet capable of thought and reason so they are lenient when children cry or become anary. Which of these factors has more impact on development? Nature vs Nurture historically generated Parents on the Pacific Island of Tonga regularly intense debate. beat 3-5 year olds because crying is attributed 10 wilifulness. “Mahal ko or mahal ako?" > Prenatal Period — conception to birth. Infancy and toddlerhood — Birth to age 3 Early childhood — ages 3 to 6 > Middle childhood — ages 6 to 11 Adolescence — ages 11 to about 20 Contemporary theorists and researchers are more interested in finding ways to explain how nature and nurture work. together than in arguing about which factor is more important.To get a callus, you have to have callus-making genes of some sort, but the environmental input of repeated friction on your skin is also required or a calllus would never form, Many typical changes of infancy and early childhood, such as the abilities to walk and talk, are fed to maturation (unfolding of a natural sequence of physical and behavioral changes) of the body and brain. Only when deviation from the average is extreme should we consider development exceptionally advanced or delayed To understand development, we need to look at the inherited characteristics that give each person a startin life. We also need to consider the many environmental factors that affect development such as family, neighborhood, socio economic status, racelethnicity, and culture. We need to understand which developments are primarily maturational and which are not; which influences affect many or most people at a certain age and how timing can accentuate the impact of certain influences. CONTEXTS OF DEVELOPMENT > Human beings are social being * Family > Nuclear Family ~ household unit consisting of one or two parents and their children, whether biological, adopted, or stepchildren. - Increased incidence of divorce also has affected the nuclear family. > Extended family ~ multigenerational kinship network of parents, children, and other relatives, ‘sometimes living together in an extended family household Today, the extended family household have become more common in recent years. Why? > Both men and women are marrying at later ages, thus, remaining at home for longer than was previously typical. > Immigrant populations since 1970 are more likely than native-born families to ‘seek out multigenerational homes for reasons of practicality as well as preference. > Latinos, African Americans, and Asians are all more likely to live in multigenerational families than are whites > People ave living longer and elderly parents may sometime benefit from inclusion in their children’ households * Socioeconomic status and neighborhood > Socioeconomic Status — combination of economic and social factors describing an individual or family, including income, education and occupation. > Poverty, if itis long-lasting, can be harmful to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial well-being of children and families. > Poor children are more likely than other children to have emotional or behavioral problems, and their cognitive potential and school performance suffer more. > Harm caused by poverty may be indirect: its impact is on parents’ emotional state and parenting practices and on the home environment they create. Composition of a neighborhood affects children as well. Living in a poor neighborhood with large numbers of unemployed people makes it less likely that effective social support will be availableStill, positive development can occur despite serious risk factors: > Pulitzer Prize — winning author Maya Angelou > Country singer — Shania Twain > Former US president — Abraham Lincoln Affiuence doesn't necessarily protect children from risk. Some children in affluent families face pressure to achieve and are often left on their own by busy parents. They have high rates of substance abuse, anxiety and depression Although poor families are often less positive about their neighborhood and feels less safe > Parents report being just as close with their children, > They attend church with families just as often. > They feel as safe at home and school. > They eat meals together as a family more often than wealthier families. © Culture and Race | Ethnicity > Culture - a society’s or group’s total way of life including customs, traditions, beliefs, values, language, and physical products — all learned behavior, passed on from parents to children. > Ethnic group ~ a group united by ancestry, race, religion, language, or national origins, which contribute to a sense of shared identity and shared attitudes, beliefs and values. Ethnic and cultural pattems affect development by their influence on the composition of a household, its economic and social resources, the way its members act toward one another, the foods they eat, the games children play, the way they learn, how well they do in school, the ‘occupations adults engage in, and the vay the family members think and perceive the world > Race ~ historically and popularly viewed as an identifiable biological category. There is no clear scientific consensus on its definition, and it is impossible to measure reliably. > Ethnic gloss ~ overgeneralization about an ethnic or cultural group that obscures cifferences within the group. = Historical context - Historical context is the time in which people live. - Atone time, developmentalists paid litte attention to it ~ As early longitudinal studies of childhood extended into the adult years, investigators began to focus on how certain experiences, tied to time and place, affect the course of people’s lives. Hence, historical context is now an important part of the study of development. ‘* Normative and non-normative influences > Normative influences ~ biological or environmental events that affect many or most people in a society in similar ways and events that touch only certain individuals. > Normative age-graded influences -highly similar for people in a particular age group. The timing of biological events is fairly predictable within a normal range. Eg. people don't experience puberty at age 35 ‘or menopause at 12 > Nonnormative influences - are unusual events that have a major impact on individual lives because they disturb the expected sequence of the life cycle.They are either typical events that happen at an atypical time of life (death of a parent when a child is young) or atypical events (surviving a plane crash). ‘Some of these influences are largely beyond a person's control and may present rare ‘opportunities or severe challenges that the person perceives as tuming paints. On the other hand, people sometimes help create their own nonnormative life events. E.g. deciding to have a baby in their mid-‘ffties or taking up a risky hobby such as skydiving Normative age-graded, normative history-graded and nonnormative influences contribute to the complexity of human development as well as to the challenges people experience in trying to build their lives. Timing o periods fluences: critical or sen: > Imprinting ~ instinctive form of leaming in which, during a critical period in early development, a young animal forms an attachment to the first moving objectit sees, usually the mother. It was believed to be automatic and irreversible. In a well-known study, Konrad Lorenz, an Austrian zoologist, showed that newly hatched ducklings vill instinctively follow the first moving object they see, whether it is a member of their species or not. > Critical period — specific time when a given event, or its absence, has a specific impact ‘on development Ifa woman receives X-ray, takes certain drugs, or contracts certain diseases at certain times during pregnancy, the fetus may show specif ill effects, depending on the nature of the insult, its timing, and characteristics of the fetus itself. If amuscle problem interfering with the ability to focus both eyes on the same object is not corrected within a critical period early in childhood, depth perception will not develop. However, the concept of critical periods in humans is controversial. Because many aspects of development, even in the physical domain, have been found to show plasticity — modifiability of a performance, it may be more useful to think about sensitive periods — times in development when a person is particularly open to certain kinds of experiences ‘THE LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT APPROACH * Developments Lifelong - Each period of the lifespan is affected by What nappened before and will affect What is to come. Each period has unique characteristics and value each ‘* Development is Multidimensional - Itoccurs along multiple interacting dimensions — biological, psychological, and social — each of which may develop at varying rates, * Relative Influences Of Biology And Culture Shift Over The Life Span ~ Biological abilities, such as sensory acuity and muscular strength and coordination, weaken with age, but cultural supports, such as education, relationships, and technologically age-friendly environments, may help compensate. ‘* Development involves changing resource allocations - Individuals choose to invest their resources of time, energy, talent, money and social support in varying ways. - Resources may be used for growth, for maintenance or recovery, or for dealing with loss.- Childhood and young adulthood — growth = Old Age — regulation of loss - Midlife — allocation is more balanced * Development Shows Plasticity - Many abilities such as memory, strength, and ‘endurance, can be improved significantly with training and practice, even late in life. ~ However, even in children, plasticity has limits that depend in part on the various influences on development. ~ One of the tasks of developmental research is to discover to what extent particular kinds of development can be modified at various ages. * DEVELOPMENT is influenced by the historical and cultural context - Human beings not only influence but also are influenced by their historical-cuttural contextDEVPSYCH Lesson 2: Theory and Research 2nd Semester: Midterms BASIC THEORETICAL ISSUES «Theory ~ coherent set of logically related concepts thet seeks to organize, explain, and predict data slaw - statement based on repeated experimental observations that describes some phenomenon of nature; proof that something happens and how but not WHY. ‘© Hypotheses — possible explanations for phenomena, used to predict the outcome of Research IS DEVELOPMENT ACTIVE OR REACTIVE? ‘* John Locke: - Ayoung child is a tabula rasa — a “blank slate” — upon which society writes © Reactive ~ children grasp experiences and this input molds them over time. © Active - people create experiences and are motivated to learn about the worid around them, MECHANISTIC MODEL & ORGANISMIC MODEL * Mechanistic Model - Model that views human development as a series of predictable responses to stimuli * Organismic Model ~ model that views human development as internally initiated by an active organism and as occurring in a sequence of qualitatively different stages. Children are active, growing organisms. IS DEVELOPMENT CONTINUOUS OR DISCONTINUOUS? © Continuous - development is gradual and incremental mechanistic. * Discontinuous - development is abrupt or uneven; stages organismic © Quantitative ~ changes in height, weight. * Qualitative ~ change in kind, structure, or organization, not just in number, the way that children think, behave, and perceive the world as they mature. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE © Psychoanalytic - focuses on unconscious emotions and drives, © Learning - studies observable behavior. © Cognitive - analyzes thought processes © Contextual - emphasizes the impact of the historical, social and cultural context. '* Evolutionary/Sociobiological - considers evolutionary and biological underpinnings of behaviorPSYCHOANALYTIC: © Sigmund Freud Hypothetical parts of personality: >Id - operates under the pleasure principle — the drive to seek immediate satisfaction of their needs and desires. > Ego ~ operates under the reality principle — represents reason, develops gradually during the first year or so of life. > Superego ~ morality principle; includes the conscience and incorporates socially approved “shoulds” and “should nots” into the child's value system. The superego is highly demanding; if its standards are not met, a child may feel guilty and anxious, > The ego - mediates between the impulses of the id and the demands of the superego. PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT — an unvarying sequence of stages of childhood personality development in which gratification shifts from the mouth to the anus and then to the genitals. Freud consider the first 3 stages to be crucial for personality development. If children receive too little or too much gratification in any of these stages, they are at risk of fixation. > Fixation — arrest in development that can show up in adult personality. SIGHUND FREUD: PSYCHOANALYTIC DEVELOPHENT See esto out i a:tmonts sows tps ate Prtewot ote ange ccna wa Bode Syees Caimi gaia on Strourgsyergiecsset (pmvcnmee gn ag Frowarei ALE SBR Ceo tes bet ditto tater oh remem rec remaeo ema Ry a Sep darwesnc massa sata © Erik Erikson PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES (ERISON) eee tata co ates reece Yenystinoe irae inn ame alton ‘reese Gye Sayan Oe cesno ‘artnet Ecragino Gener aa Sino LEARNING ~ Learning perspective maintains that development results from learning — a long-lasting change in behavior based on experience or adaptation to the environment. > Two important learning theories are: > Behaviorism > Social Learning Theory BEHAVIORISM ~ Leaming theory that emphasizes the predictable role of environment in causing observable behaviors. ~ Behaviorists consider development as reactive and continuous. - It focuses on associative leaming — a mental link is formed between 2 events. > Two kinds of associative learning: > Classical Conditioning > Operant Conditioning Leaming based on associating a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus that does elicit the response. * Ivan Paviov ~ devised experiments in which dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a bell that rang at feeding time. Response (salivation) to a stimulus (bell) is evoked after repeated association with a stmulus that normally elicits the response (food),CLASSICAL CONDITIONING + John B. Watson ~ claimed that he could mold any infant in any way he chose. He taught an 11-month-old baby known as “Little Albert” to fear furry white objects «Albert was exposed to a loud noise when he started to stroke the rat. The noise frightened him, and he began to cry. After repeated pairings of the rat with the loud noise, Albert whimpered with fear when he saw the rat. Albert has also started showing fear responses to White rabbits and cats, and beards of elderly men. © The study demonstrated that fear could be conditioned. «Classical conditioning occurs throughout life. '* Food likes and dislikes may be a result of conditioned learning. + Fear responses to objects like a car ora dog may be the result of an accident or a bad experience. OPERANT CONDITIONING - Learning based on association of behavior with its consequences. + BF. Skinner ~ argued that an organism will tend to repeat a response that has been reinforced by desirable consequences and will suppress a response that has been punished. «Reinforcement - the process by which a behavior is strengthened, increasing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. + Punishment - the process by which a behavior is weakened, decreasing the likelihood of repetition. BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION THERAPY ~ A form of operant conditioning used to eliminate undesirable behavior, such as. temper tantrums, or to instill desirable behavior, such as putting away toys after Play. Example: Every time a child puts toys away, she or he gets a reward, such as praise or a treat or new toy. SOCIAL LEARNING (SOCIAL COGNITIVE) THEORY © Albert Bandura ~ suggests that the impetus for development is bidirectional ‘Reciprocal Determinism - the person acts on the world as the world acts on the person. * Observational Learning = modeling; people learn appropriate social behavior chiefly by observing and imitating models — that is, by watching other people. * Self-efficacy ~ the confidence that a person has what it takes to succeed; sense of one’s capability to master challenges and achieve goals. COGNITIVE © Cognitive Stage Theory: Piaget's theory ~ that children’s cognitive development advances in a series of four stages involving qualitatively distinct types of mental operations. ‘* Organization - Piaget's term for the creation of categories or systems of knowledge. * Schemes - Piaget's term for organized patterns of thought and behavior use in situations.SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY * Sociocultural theory ~ is Lev Semenovich Wygoisky's theory of how contextual factors affect children’s development ‘® Zone of proximal development ~ Vygotsky's term for the difference between what a child can do alone and what the child can do with help. © Scaffolding - temporary support to help a child master a task. THE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH ‘© Approach to the study of cognitive development by observing and analyzing the mental processes involved in perceiving and handling information. «Individual is the processor of information same as computer which takes in info and follows a program to produce an output. E.g. Eye receives visual information and codes info into electric neural activity to brain > stored -> coded. Memory, perception and attention Output: read what is on the printed page BIOECOLOGICAL THEORY Proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner. '* Bioecological theory ~ Bronfenbrenner's approach to understanding processes and contexts of human development that identifies five levels of environmental influence. * Microsystem ~ everyday environment of home, school, work, or neighborhood, including face to face relationships with spouse, children, parents, friends, classmates, teachers, employers or colleagues © Mesosystem - interlocking of various microsystems. * Exosystem - interactions between a microsystem and an outside system or institution. EVOLUTIONARY/SOCIOBIOLOGICAL = Itis the view of human development that focuses on evolutionary and biological bases of behavior. * Evolved mechanisms - behaviors that developed to solve problems in adapting to an earlier environment. * Ethology - study of distinctive adaptive behaviors of species of animals that have evolved to increase survival of the species. A SHIFTING BALANCE «Theories shift and change. «Influences are bidirectional: people change their world as it changes them * Amanager who offers constructive iticism and emotional support to his subordinates is likely to elicit greater efforts to produce. Improved productivity is likely to encourage him to keep using this managerial style RESEARCH METHODS ‘© Quantitative research - research that deals with objectively measurable data. How much? How many? * Qualitative research - Tesearch that focuses on nonnumerical data, such as subjective experiences, feelings or beliefs, understand the story of the event how and why of behavior.SCIENTIFIC METHOD ‘© Identification of a problem «Formulation of hypotheses © Collection of data «Statistical analysis of the data «Formation of tentative conclusion «Dissemination of findings SAMPLING « Population ~ group to whom the findings may apply. © Sample ~ a smaller group within the population, «+ Random selection ~ selection of a sample in such a way that each person in a population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen. FORMS OF DATA COLLECTION «Self -Reports > Diary or Log ~ simplest form of setf-report ~ Diaries, journals, interviews, or questionnaires: parental self-reports commonly used in studying young children. > Visual representation techniques ~ participants are asked to draw or paint or to provide maps or graphs that illuminate their experience. ‘© Observation > Naturalistic Observation ~ research method in which behavior is studied in natural settings without intervention or manipulation > Laboratory Observation ~ research method in which all participants are observed under the same controlled conditions. > Observer bias ~ researcher's tendency to interpret data to fit expectations or to emphasize some aspects and minimize others BEHAVIORAL AND PERFORMANCE, MEASURES * Participants are tested on abiities, skils, knowledge, competencies, or physical responses, Tests can be meaningful and useful only if they are both valid and reliable Valid -the tests measure the abilities they claim to measure. Reliable - the results are reasonably consistent from one time to another. Operational definition ~ definition stated solely in terms of the operations or procedures used to produce or measure a phenomenon. BASIC RESEARCH STUDY + Case Study - In-depth study of single individual + Ethnographic Study ~ Indepth study of a culture or subculture © Correlational Study - Attempt to find positive or negative relationship between variables, © Experiment = Controlled procedure in which an experimenter controls the independent variable to determine its effect on the dependent variable; may be conducted in the laboratory or field Pros & Cons ™ sear a Gaasuy Ruby vice oa er hers oer peo pach yet et ayes coh eam didintn tesa ener foe Corustay tarp eon Cansei erate Soe ee [Scene tata eh tg ea al at eatcachowetyoce deren met spon oeIMPORTANT TERMS « Random assignment ~ assignment of participants to groups in such ‘a way that each person has an equal chance of being placed in any group. Independent variable - in an experiment, the condition aver which the experimenter has direct control. Dependent variable ~ in an experiment, the condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable. Experimental group - in an experiment, the group receiving the treatment under study. Control group ~ in an experiment, a group of people similar to those in the experimental group, who do not receive the treatment under stucy. Placebo ~ an inert substance that has no known effects, DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS Type Main Characteristics ‘te sare time, Crosesechond betzare colt on pec of erent pes ot y Longtudne, Det recollected on soe person or persons ier x aperiedof Hine Senuentol —_pelaare collected on sucesshe cross-sectional or Lorgitudnl amples ates Dag ™ Cravadiod Cds demas ine pon ih ea rae og ot ene pou a eu ct sito haber dda cogent ne-vamy opee ri egal pantera oye estat nl gle ode he ide See Cnaltaablensainandegsarrat legit tis ETHICS OF RESEARCH * Beneficence = obligation to maximize potential benefits to participants and to minimize potential harm. +» Respect ~ respect for participants’ autonomy and protection of those unable to exercise their own judgment. = Justice - inclusion of diverse groups together with sensitivity to any special impact the research may have on them.DEVPSYCH Lesson 3: Forming a New Life 2nd Semester: Midterms HOW FERTILIZATION TAKES PLACE © Fertilization - union of sperm and ovum to produce a zygote, also called conception. © Zygote ~ one-celled organism resulting from fertilization. * Ovulation - rupture of a mature follicle in either ovary and expulsion of its ovum. WHAT CAUSES MULTIPLE BIRTHS? * Dizygotic Twins - fraternal twins; Twins conceived by the union of two different ova (or a single ovum that has spit) with two different sperm cells; they are no more alike genetically than any other siblings © Monozygotic twins = identical twins; twins resulting from the division of single zygote after fertilization; they are genetically similar. Is it possible to have twins with different fathers? MECHANISM OF HEREDITY * Heredity ~ genetic transmission of heritable characters, from parents to offspring THE GENETIC CODE © The stuff of heredity is chemical called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The double-helix structure of a DNA molecule resembles a long, spiraling ladder whose steps are made of pairs of chemical units called bases. ‘* The bases — adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). © Genetic code ~ sequence of bases within the DNA molecule; governs the formation of proteins that determine the structure and functions of living cells, THE GENETIC CODE © Mitosis ~ aprocess by which the non-sex cells divide in half over and over again, WHERE the DNA replicates itself, so that each newly formed cell has the same DNA structure as all the others. * Mutations ~ permanent alterations in genes or chromosomes that may produce harmful characteristics, WHAT DETERMINES SEX? '* Autosomes - in humans, the 22 pairs of chromosomes not related to sexual expression. * Gonosomes - 23rd pair of chromosomes that determines sex. XX in the normal female and XY in the normal male ‘© Sex chromosomes are either X chromosomes or Y chromosomes. PATTERNS OF GENETIC TRANSIMISSION * Alleles - 2or more alternative forms of a gene that ‘occupy the same position on paired chromosomes and affect the same trait.© Homozygous ~ possessing two identical alleles fora trait © Heterozygous ~ possessing differing alleles for a trait. i Wt it ae ——— Dominant inheritance - pattem of inheritance in which, when a child receives different alleles, only the dominant one expressed Recessive inheritance - pattem of inheritance in which a child receives identical alleles, resulting in expression of a nondominant trait. * Polygenic inheritance ~ pattem of inheritance in which multiple genes at different sites on chromosomes affect a complex trait ‘* Although single genes often determine abnormal waits, there is no single gene that by itself significa accounts for individual differences in any complex normal behavior. * Phenotype - observable characteristics of a person. © Genotype ~ genetic makeup of a person containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics. ‘* Multifactorial transmission - combination of genetic and environmental factors to produce certain complex traits. Epigenesis ~ mechanism that tums genes on or off and determines functions of body cells. GENETIC AND CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES * Incomplete Dominance ~ pattern of inheritance in which a child receives two different alleles, resulting in partial expression of a trait. * Sex-linked inheritance ~ pattern of inheritance in which certain characteristics carried on the X chromosome inherited from the mother are transmitted differently to her male and female offspring. DOWN SYNDROME «The most common chromosomal aonormaiity, accounts for about 40 percent of all cases of moderate-to- severe mental retardation ‘The concition is also called trisomy 21 because it is characterized in more than 90 percent of cases by an extra 21st chromosome. «The most obvious physical characteristic associated with the disorder is a downward-sloping skin fold at the inner comers of the eye. GENETIC COUNSELING AND TESTING * Genetic Counseling ~ clinical service that advises prospective patents of their probable risk of having children with hereditary defects. «© Karyotype - photograph that shows the chromosomes when they are separated and aligned for cell division NATURE AND NURTURE Influences of Heredity and Environment * Studying Heredity and Environment > Behavioral Genetics - quantitative study of relative hereditary and environmental influences on behavior.> Heritability - statistical estimate of contribution of heredity individual differences in a specific trait within given population: expressed as a percentage ranging from 0.0 to 1.0: the higher the numbe the greater the heritability of a trait. > Concordant - term describing tendency of twins to share th ‘same trait or disorder. * How Heredity and Environment Work Together > Reaction range ~ potential variability, depending on environmental conditions, in the expression hereditary trait > Canalization - limitation on variance of expression of certa inherited characteristics. > Genotype-environment interaction - the portion of phenotypic variation that result from the reactions of genetically different individuals to similar environmental condition GENOTYPE - ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION/ GENOTYPE - ENVIRONMENT COVARIANCE, - Tendency of certain genetic and environmental influences to reinforce each other > Passive Correlations: Parents who provide the genes that predispose a child toward a trait, also tend to provide an environment that encourages development of that trait. > Reactive or Evocative correlations: Children v differing genetic makeups evoke different reactic from others. > Active correlations: As children get older and have more freedom to choose their own activitie: and environments, they actively select or create experiences consistent with their genetic tendencies. > Niche picking - tendency of a person, especially after early childhood, to seek out environments compatit with his or her genotype. * WHAT MAKES SIBLINGS SO DIFFERENT > Although 2 children in the same family may bear a siriking physical resemblance, siblings can differ greatly in intellect and in personality. > One reason may be genetic differences which lead children to need different kinds of stimulation or to respond differently to a similar home environment. > Nonshared Environment effects — the unique environment in which each child grows up, consisting of distinctive influences or influences that affect one child differently, than another. SOME CHARACTERISTICS INFLUENCE BY HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT * Obesity - extreme overweight in relation to age, sex, height, and body type as defined by having a body mass index at or above the 95th percentile. ~ Obesity is measured by body mass index, or BMI (comparison of weight to height) Children between the 85th and 95th percentiles are classified as overweight, and those above the 95th percentile as obese. ~ The risk of obesity is 2 to 3 times higher for a child with a family history of obesity, especially severe obesity. Therefore, we might reasonably conclude that obesity involves genetic contributions. « Intelligence Heredity exerts a strong influence on general intelligence and to a lesser extent, on specific abilities such as memory, verbal ability and spatial ability «Intelligence is a polygenic trait, itis influenced by the additive effects of large number of genes working together. ‘* Adopied children’ IQs are consistently closer to the IQs of their biological mothers than to those of their adoptive parents and siblings, and monozygotic twins are more alike in intelligence than dizygotic twins.© Temperament, Personality & Schizophrenia > Heritability of personality traits appears to be between 40 and 50 percent and there is little evidence of shared environmental influence. > Temperament ~ characteristic disposition or style of approachir and reacting to situations. > Schizophrenia - mental disorder marked by loss of contact with reality, symptoms include hallucinations and delusions «Prenatal Development > Gestation - period of development between conception < birth. > Gestational Age ~ age of an unborn baby, usually dated from th first day of an expectant mother's last mensti cycle. > Early signs and symptoms of Pregnancy 9 Tender, swollen breasts or nipple; Fatigue, ne to take exira naps; Slight bleeding, or crampir Food cravings; nausea with or without vomitin frequent urination; frequent, mild headaches constipation; mood swings; faintness and dizziness; and raised basal body temperature ‘* Stages of Prenatal Development Both before and after birth, development proceed according to two fundamental principles: > The cephalocaudal principle - from Latin, meaning ‘head to tail” dictates the development proceeds from the head to the lower part of the trunk. > the proximodistal principle ~ from Latin, meaning “near to far,” developmer proceeds irom parts near the center of the bo to outer 4. Germinal Stage - first 2 weeks of prenatal development, characterized by rapid cell division, blastocy formation and implantation in the wall of the uterus. > implantation — attachment of the blastocyst to the uterine wall, occuring at about day 6. > The embryonic disk - thickened cell mass from which the embryo begins to develop. This mass will differentiate into three layers. 1. The ectoderm, the upper layer, will become the outer layer of skin, the nails, har, teeth, sensory organs, and the nervous system. including the brain and spinal cord 2. The endoderm, the inner layer, will become the digestive system, liver, pancreas, salivary glands, and respiratory system. 3. The mesoderm, the middle layer, will develop and differentiate into the inner layer of skin, muscles, skeleton, and excretory and circulatory systems. > The amniotic sac - isa fluid-filled membrane that encases the developing embryo, protecting it and giving it room to move and grow. > The placenta ~ allows oxygen, nourishment,and wastes to pass between mother and embryo. Itis connected to the embryo by the umbilical cord. > Nutrients from the mother pass from her blood to the embryonic blood vessels, which carry them, via the umbilical cord, to the 1 2. Embryonic Stage - second stage of gestation (2 to 8 weeks), characterized by rapid growth and development of major body systems and organs, 3. Fetal Stage - final stage of gestation (from 8 weeks to birth), characterized by increased differentiation of body parts and greatly enlarged body size.ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ‘« Material Factors > Because the prenatal environment is the mother body, virtually everything that influences her well-being, from her diet to her moods, may alter her unborn child's environment and affect its growth. > Teratogen — is an environmental agent, such as virus, a drug or radiation, that can interfere with normal prenatal development > An event, substance, or process may be teratogenic for some fetuses but have little or no effect on others. Sometimes, vulnerability may depend on a gene either in the fetus or in the mother. « Nutrition and Maternal Weight > Pregnant women typically need 300 to 500 additional calories a day, including estra protei > Women of normal weight and body build who gain 16 to 40 pounds are less likely to have bir complications or to bear babies whose weight birth is dangerously low or overly high. > Folic acid — or folate - derived ftom fresh fruits and vegetables deficiency causes anencephaly and spina bifida ‘+ Malnutrition ~ Malnourished women who take caloric dietary supplements while pregnant tend to have bigger, healthier, more active and more visually alert infants and women with low zinc levels who take daily zinc supplements are less likely have babies with low birth weight and small he circumference. ‘« Physical activity and Strenuous Work > The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (2002) recommends that women in low-risk pregnancies be guided by their own abilities and stamina. > The safest course seems to be for pregnant women to exercise moderately, not pushing themselves and not raising their heart above 150 and as with any exercise, to taper off at the end of session rather than stop abruptly. © Drug Intake > Thalidomide ~ tranquilizer which alleviates morning sickness but was banned after it was found to have caused stunted or missing limbs, severe facial deformities, and defective organs in some 12,000 babies. This drug sensitized medical professionals and the public to the potential dangers of taking drugs while pregnant. > Alcohol - prenatal alcohol exposure is the most ‘common cause of mental retardation and the leading cause of birth defects in the United States, > Fetal alcohol syndrome ~ combination of mental, motor and developmental abnormalities affecting the offspring of some women who drink heavily during pregnancy. > Nicotine - maternal smoking during pregnancy has been identified as the single most important factor in low birth weight in developed countries. > Women who smoke during pregnancy are more than 1 ¥% times as likely as nonsmokers to bear low-birth-weight babies. Even light smoking is associated with a greater risk of low birth weight. > Caffeine ~ 4 or more cups of coffee a day during pregnancy may increase the risk of sudden death in infancy. > Heavy marijuang use can lead to birth defects, low birth weight, withdrawal like symptoms, and increased risk of attention disorders and learning problems later in life.© Maternal Ilinesses > Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome - viral disease that undermines effective functioning of the immune system. > Rubella ~ German measles; if contracted by a woman before her 11th week of pregnancy, is almos certain to cause deafness and heart defects her baby, > Toxoplasmosis ~ can cause fetal brain damage, severely impaired eyesight or blindness, seizures, miscarriage, stillbirth, or death of the baby. ‘© Maternal Anxiety, Stress and Disorder > Moderate maternal anxiety may even spur ‘organization of the developing brain. A mother's self-reported stress and anxiety during pregnancy has been associated with more active and irritable temperament in newboms, > Chronic stress can result in preterm delivery, perhaps through the action of elevated levels stress hormones. > Children of mothers who had been depressed during pregnancy showed elevated levels of violent and antisocial behavior. ‘* Maternal Age > The risk of miscarriage or stillbirth reaches 90 percent for women age 45 or older. > Women 30 to 35 are more likely to suffer complications due to diabetes, high blood pressure, or severe bleeding There is also higher risk of premature delivery, retarded fet. growth, birth defects, and chromosomal abil such as Down Syndrome. > Adolescent mothers tend to have premature or underweight babies — perhaps because a young gir'’s still-growing body consumes vital nutrients the fetus needs. > Outside Environmental Hazards Pregnant women who regularly breathe air that contains, high levels of combustion-related particles are more likely to bear infants who are premature or undersized > Infants exposed prenatally even to low levels of lead, especially during the third trimester, tend to show IQ deficits during childhood. «Environmental Influences Paternal Factors > Aman’s exposure to lead, marijuana, or tobacco smoke, large amounts of alcohol or radiation, pesticides, or high ozone levels may result in abnormal or poor quality sperm > Apregnant woman's exposure to the father’s secondhand smoke has been linked with low birth weight, infant respiratory infections, sudden infant death and cancer in childhood and adulthood > Older fathers may be a significant source of birth defects due to damaged or deteriorated sperm ‘* Monitoring and Promoting Prenatal Development > Early, high-quality prenatal care, which includes educational, social and nutritional services, can help prevent maternal or infant death and other birth complications. > Itcan provide first time mothers with information about pregnancy, childbirth and infant care. > Poor women who get prenatal care benefit by being put in touch with other needed services, and they are more likely to get medical care for their infants after birth. «Disparities in Prenatal Care > Historically, rates of low birth weight and premature birth continue to rise. Why? 3 Increasing number of multiple births. > The benefits of prenatal care are not evenly distributed> Ethnic disparity in fetal and post birth mortality. ‘+ Prenatal Assesment Techniques eer Urscand Hips Mrs pont meme, ene (wompar, wate ten rman meus every eres 00 alterna [ne , ‘mode'sebmen ede aie peu. yee Ieecapitwed Dent mapa Ente Tos dermal det afea. wc Stevebysoy Gude unig ard = tse beh feerey chine isang, ret, Tesugial pbs ep Gage | selaked Aiden Smenbeagy oan tbuer woceingin des msl clos dag te splauece expo aag. abnonopy, Tay ining sopeis Cae Bens Rie ‘siipy memes meas echoes mpi | ‘amen ieee fom ‘tows aoc Conan deni reels ‘stechoneata evs dad Amlcemst Ssape lamas Msi Cadena mally : Iswiicownanie dues andcramgrticor nt feces seen ruta cam re fian peered ttle. perenne ele 8 cess sme igs 8 a ne fein tors Cael dap secied Coroner Teas fam inike ay dapavsePinh sees, Seu SSmpiee v3) chose es (prtion et’ Gankeprtrmal en 10 atom =a fooagee Tae ‘Tring tts) ily warren in wea sears) ra a Freee Ke ee ae eee eed Jad TEA” nia Sehppeteliom ie eae teeter nb waieat ew Umial—-Neclegied by Mowsietaees fl DNA Fea sor Seda meme imng_ mscige ie Srving___Incred mobo eset fot dso adept (Gookconsi Yousef wnbal micion dengetemanies | Solan, a ey Mamnat’ — Asomlcfths sy dees Wonton No kone Sowie — pomette sneer sae, Fis re friars bed cn espenbiie abe. nhs ‘Sette aps” in rit orien al ps Sic Sem The need for Preconception Care > Preconception Care should include the following: > Physical examinations and the taking of medical and family histories > Vaccinations for rubella and hepatitis B > Risk screening for genetic disorders and infectious disease such as STDs. > Counseling women to avoid smoking and alcohol, maintain a healthy body weight, and take folic acid supplements. > Good preconception and prenatal care can give every child the best possible chance for entering the world in good condition to meet the challenges of life outside the womb.