INTODUCTION AND REPORT

The global climate is the interconnected system of the sun, earth, and oceans, wind, rain, and snow,
forests, deserts, and savannas, as well as everything people do. The climate of a place, say, New York,
can be described by its rainfall, fluctuating temperatures throughout the year, and so on.

The Climate System

A description of the global climate includes how, for example, rising Pacific temperatures feed
typhoons, which blow harder, drop more rain, and cause more damage, but also shift global ocean
currents that melt Antarctica ice, slowly raising sea levels until New York is submerged.
This systemic interconnectedness is what makes global climate change so essential and challenging.

Climate change adaptation

Reduced carbon emissions are no longer sufficient to halt the effects of climate change. Many
countries are recognising that it is past time to begin preparing for a warming future. With this
designation, UNEP provides technical assistance to governments and assists them in obtaining
funding to improve climate resilience. UNEP promotes a wide range of alternatives, including nature-
based solutions, National Adaptation Plans, early warning climate services, climate-resilient
livelihoods, and much more, through initiatives all around the world.
"In response to observed or expected changes in climate and associated extreme weather events,
adaptation to climate change occurs through adjustments to reduce vulnerability or enhance
resilience." Physical, ecological, and human systems all adapt. It entails changes in social and
environmental processes, as well as perceptions of climate risk, practises, and policies.practises and
functions to mitigate potential harm or capitalise on new opportunities."

Mitigation and Adaptation to Climate Change Emissions of

greenhouse gases and their measurement
The efforts done to limit greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to climate change are referred to as
climate change mitigation. These initiatives may involve, among other things, enhancing energy
efficiency, supporting the use of renewable energy sources, improving in a number of ways, including
direct measurements from monitoring stations and estimations based on emission variables and
activity data. Carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) are the most often
measured greenhouse gases. These gases are frequently stated in terms of their carbon dioxide
equivalent (CO2e), which highlights their potential for warming in comparison to CO2.
Accurate greenhouse gas emissions assessment is critical for understanding the scope of the problem
and assessing the efficiency of mitigation and adaptation options. It can also assist policymakers in
developing laws and regulations that encourage emission reductions and support efforts to mitigate
and adapt to climate change.
A review of climate change ,mitigation and adaptation . By- S.Vijaya Venkata raman and S.Iniyan
There is new and stronger evidence that the majority of the warming observed over the last 50 years is
attributable to human activities," the Third Assessment Report of the IPCC, which was released in
2001, states. Therefore, although not entirely, humans can ameliorate climate change and GHG
emissions to a certain extent. Following is a review of the climate change, mitigation, and adaptation
issues.
1) There are data that demonstrate how climate change affects several biosphere elements, including
air, water, plants, animals, and people. If these facts are ignored, disasters may result. A change in the
hydrological cycle, consequences for fluvial geomorphology, implications for air quality, increased
dominance of cyanobacteria in water bodies, repercussions on drinking water quality, and negative
effects on animals are all caused by climate change
2)The discussion on the world's most pressing issue, global warming, including the global warming
potential (GWP) and its effects on the economy, Fisheries, which affect the marine economy, the wool
sector, which primarily depends on feed, water resources, land carrying capacity, and animal health,
tourism, which will have a negative impact on the GDP by 0.3-0.5% in 2050, and agriculture
depending on temperature rise are all impacted by climate change. availability and water quality.
3)In addition to direct effects like heat stress and flooding, climate change may also have large
indirect effects like changes in disease transmission and hunger as a result of increased competition
for agricultural and water resources. It alters the epidemiology of infectious diseases, and as the globe
heats, vector-borne diseases will become more prevalent. It also has an effect on summertime
mortality due to ill health, especially among the elderly.
4)One of the most efficient mitigation strategies is carbon sequestration, which is further defined by
its subtypes in agricultural soils, forests, and the ocean and geological system. Future study should
focus on providing adequate long-term monitoring and maintenance of the carbon sequestration sites
via bonding processes.
5)The Kyoto Protocol included the clean development mechanism (CDM), one of the most
recommended and promising technologies for mitigation. The necessity of the hour is for CDM to be
implemented immediately and cheaply. It is essential to provide funding for GHG reduction projects
in poor nations if we are to combat the issue of global climate change.

METHODOLOGY STUDY
We have taken a secondary data . It is the a survey on climate change by ISPOS . Known as the
"ISPOS CLIMATE CHANGE REPORT" Its findings are as follows
1)46% of the people believed that climate change is entirely or mainly caused by human activity
2)33% believed that it was partly caused by natural activities and partly by human activities
3)11% believed that it was mainly caused by natural processes
4) 4% believed that there is no such thing as climate change
5) 6% Answered dont know
The subjects are becoming more and more convinced that humans are responsible for climate change.
Nearly half (46%) of the respondents now think human action is the only or primary driver of climate
change. A growing percentage of us (14%) think that people alone are to blame for climate change.
Overall, 86% of people think that humans are somehow responsible for climate change. The
narrative surrounding climate change in earlier decades includes the negative implications of climate
change on future generations. Calls for action were frequently framed in terms of preventing "our
children's children" from having to clean up the mess left by the current population's failure to slow
down climate change. However, there seems to be a rising belief that the effects of climate change
have already materialised.

Body analysis and findings

Overall, climate change mitigation efforts can have significant

positive impacts on the environment, the economy, and society,
and are essential for promoting long-term sustainability and
resilience.
Climate change adaptation, refers to the efforts made to adapt to the impacts of climate change that
are already occurring or are expected to occur. Overall, climate change mitigation efforts can
have significant positive impacts on the environment, the economy, and society, and are
essential for promoting long-term sustainability and resilience.
cted to occur in the future. These impacts can include rising sea levels, more frequent and severe
weather events, and changes in precipitation patterns. Adaptation strategies aim to help individuals,
communities, and organizations prepare for and respond to t Overall, climate change mitigation
efforts can have significant positive impacts on the environment, the economy, and society,
and are essential for promoting long-term sustainability and resilience.
hese impacts. Overall, climate change mitigation efforts can have significant positive impacts
on the environment, the economy, and society, and are essential for promoting long-term
sustainability and resilience.
Overall, climate change mitigation efforts can have significant positive impacts on the
environment, the economy, and society, and are essential for promoting long-term
sustainability and resilience.
Greenhouse gas emissions can be measured in a variety of ways, including through direct
measurements from monitoring stations an Overall, climate change mitigation efforts can have
significant positive impacts on the environment, the economy, and society, and are essential
for promoting long-term sustainability and resilience.

Through estimates based on emissions factors and activity data the most common greenhouse
gases measured include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O).
These gases are often reported in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e), which
reflects their warming potential relative to CO2.

Accurate measurement of greenhouse gas emissions is important for understanding the extent
of the problem and for evaluating the effectiveness of mitigation and adaptation strategies. It
can also help policymakers develop policies and regulations that encourage emission
reductions and support climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts.
Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Climate-related
disasters and reduction
Climate change is causing an increase in the frequency and severity of climate-related disasters, such
as floods, droughts, storms, and wildfires. Climate-related disasters can have devastating impacts on
communities, including loss of life, property damage, and disruptions to livelihoods.
Climate change mitigation strategies, such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions, can help to slow
down the rate of climate change and reduce the frequency and severity of climate-related disasters
over the long term. However, these efforts will take time to have an impact, and some level of
climate-related disasters is inevitable.
Therefore, climate change adaptation strategies are also necessary to reduce the impacts of climate-
related disasters on communities. Adaptation strategies can include measures such as:
1. Building infrastructure and homes that are more resilient to extreme weather events, such as
floods, storms, and wildfires.
2. Developing early warning systems and emergency response plans to help communities
prepare for and respond to climate-related disasters.
3. Protecting and restoring natural ecosystems, such as wetlands and forests, which can help to
reduce the impacts of floods and other extreme weather events.
4. Encouraging diversification of livelihoods and income sources, to reduce vulnerability to
climate-related disasters.
Effective adaptation strategies require a collaborative approach involving government, civil society,
and private sector organizations. By combining climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts, we
can work towards a more resilient and sustainable future for all.

(The data in above figure is much more accurate and precise then the current data)
Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: Risk and
vulnerability assessment and visualization
Risk and vulnerability assessment is a key component of climate change adaptation planning. It
involves identifying the potential impacts of climate change on a community or region and assessing
the level of risk and vulnerability that they face.
Risk assessment involves identifying the hazards that a community or region is likely to face, such as
floods, droughts, or heatwaves. Vulnerability assessment involves examining the exposure, sensitivity,
and adaptive capacity of the community or region to those hazards. This can include looking at factors
such as infrastructure, socio-economic conditions, and access to resources.
Visualization tools can be helpful in presenting the results of risk and vulnerability assessments in a
way that is easily understood by stakeholders. For example, maps can be used to show areas that are
at high risk of flooding or wildfires, or graphs can be used to show changes in temperature or
precipitation patterns over time.
Some examples of visualization tools that can be used in climate change risk and vulnerability
assessments include:
1. Geographic Information Systems (GIS): GIS can be used to create maps that show the
distribution of climate hazards and vulnerabilities, as well as the location of critical
infrastructure and resources.
2. Climate models: Climate models can be used to simulate future climate scenarios and predict
the potential impacts of climate change on a particular region or community.
3. Data dashboards: Data dashboards can be used to present information on climate hazards,
vulnerabilities, and adaptation strategies in a user-friendly format, allowing stakeholders to
easily access and interact with the data.
4. Scenario planning exercises: Scenario planning exercises can be used to explore different
possible futures and how they might impact a community or region, helping stakeholders to
identify potential adaptation strategies.
By using risk and vulnerability assessments and visualization tools, communities and regions can
better understand the potential impacts of climate change and develop effective adaptation strategies
to reduce their vulnerability and increase their resilience.

Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: Impacts of climate

change on health and well-being
Climate change has numerous impacts on human health and well-being, both directly and indirectly.
Some of the most significant impacts include:
1. Heat-related illness: As global temperatures continue to rise, the number of heatwaves and
extreme heat events is also increasing, which can lead to heat-related illnesses such as heat
exhaustion and heatstroke.
2. Vector-borne diseases: Climate change is also affecting the distribution and abundance of
disease-carrying insects, such as mosquitoes and ticks, which can increase the risk of diseases
like malaria, dengue fever, and Lyme disease.
3. Air pollution: Climate change can exacerbate air pollution, which can have serious impacts on
respiratory health and increase the risk of heart disease and stroke.
 4. Extreme weather events: Climate change is also increasing the frequency and severity of
extreme weather events such as hurricanes, floods, and wildfires, which can have significant
impacts on mental health and well-being.
5. Food insecurity: Climate change is affecting global food production and availability, which
can lead to food shortages and malnutrition, particularly in vulnerable populations.
6. Water-related diseases: Climate change can also affect the quality and availability of water
resources, increasing the risk of water-related diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever.
Adaptation strategies can help to mitigate some of these impacts by increasing resilience to extreme
weather events, improving access to healthcare, and promoting sustainable agricultural practices.
Mitigation strategies, such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions, can help to slow down the rate of
climate change and reduce the severity of these impacts over the long term. It is important that
policymakers, public health officials, and communities work together to address the impacts of
climate change on human health and well-being.

Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: Ecosystem services

and carbon sequestration
Ecosystem services are the benefits that humans derive from natural ecosystems, such as food
production, water regulation, and climate regulation. These services are essential for human well-
being, but they are increasingly threatened by climate change. Climate change can affect ecosystems
in numerous ways, such as altering temperature and precipitation patterns, changing the frequency and
severity of natural disturbances like wildfires, and causing the loss of biodiversity.
Carbon sequestration is the process by which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere and
stored in natural ecosystems, such as forests, wetlands, and grasslands. Natural ecosystems are
important carbon sinks, as they absorb and store large amounts of carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.
Climate change mitigation strategies can help to protect and enhance ecosystem services and carbon
sequestration by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and supporting sustainable land use practices.
For example:
1. Protecting and restoring natural ecosystems: Protecting and restoring natural ecosystems can
help to maintain biodiversity, provide habitat for wildlife, and support ecosystem services
such as water regulation and carbon sequestration.
2. Sustainable land use practices: Sustainable land use practices, such as agroforestry and
conservation agriculture, can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance carbon
sequestration in soils.
3. Reducing deforestation: Deforestation is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, as
forests are important carbon sinks. Reducing deforestation and promoting forest restoration
can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance carbon sequestration.
4. Supporting renewable energy: Supporting the transition to renewable energy sources, such as
wind and solar power, can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the impacts
of climate change on ecosystems.
By protecting and enhancing ecosystem services and carbon sequestration, we can work towards a
more sustainable and resilient future for all.
Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: Sustainable
transport and climate change mitigation and adaptation
Transportation is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, with the majority coming
from the burning of fossil fuels in cars, trucks, and airplanes. As such, sustainable transport strategies
are crucial for mitigating the impacts of climate change.
Sustainable transport refers to a range of strategies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote
more sustainable forms of transportation. These strategies can include:
1. Public transportation: Encouraging the use of public transportation, such as buses, trains, and
subways, can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from personal vehicles.
2. Active transportation: Promoting active transportation, such as walking and cycling, can
reduce greenhouse gas emissions while also providing health benefits.
3. Electrification: Switching to electric vehicles (EVs) can significantly reduce greenhouse gas
emissions from transportation, as EVs do not emit greenhouse gases from their tailpipes.
4. Low-carbon fuels: Using low-carbon fuels, such as biofuels or hydrogen, can help to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions from transportation.
In addition to mitigating the impacts of climate change, sustainable transport strategies can also help
to increase the resilience of communities and reduce vulnerability to extreme weather events. For
example, investing in public transportation can provide a reliable and safe transportation option
during extreme weather events like hurricanes and floods.
Adaptation strategies for sustainable transport can include:
1. Infrastructure improvements: Making infrastructure improvements, such as adding bike lanes
and pedestrian walkways, can help to improve the safety and accessibility of active
transportation options.
2. Emergency planning: Developing emergency transportation plans can help to ensure that
communities have reliable transportation options during extreme weather events and other
emergencies.
3. Transit-oriented development: Encouraging transit-oriented development, which involves
building housing and commercial developments around public transportation hubs, can help
to reduce reliance on personal vehicles and promote sustainable transportation options.
By promoting sustainable transport strategies, we can work towards reducing greenhouse gas
emissions, increasing resilience, and promoting more sustainable and liveable communities.

Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: Sustainable building

and construction
The building and construction sector is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, with
emissions coming from the production of building materials, energy consumption during building
operation, and building demolition and disposal. Sustainable building and construction strategies are
crucial for mitigating the impacts of climate change.

Sustainable building and construction strategies can include:

1. Energy-efficient design: Designing buildings to be more energy-efficient can significantly reduce

greenhouse gas emissions from building operation. This can include using energy-efficient
 lighting, heating, and cooling systems, as well as designing buildings to maximize natural light
and ventilation.
2. Low-carbon building materials: Choosing low-carbon building materials, such as recycled
materials or materials with a low carbon footprint, can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
from building production.
3. Sustainable building certifications: Building certifications, such as LEED (Leadership in Energy
and Environmental Design) or BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental
Assessment Method), can help to ensure that buildings are designed and constructed in a
sustainable manner.
4. Building retrofits: Retrofitting existing buildings with energy-efficient technologies, such as
insulation and weatherization, can help to reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas
emissions from building operation.

Adaptation strategies for sustainable building and construction can include:

1. Resilient building design: Designing buildings to be more resilient to extreme weather events,
such as hurricanes and floods, can help to reduce vulnerability and increase resilience.
2. Green infrastructure: Incorporating green infrastructure, such as green roofs and rain gardens, into
building design can help to reduce the impacts of extreme weather events and improve the
resilience of buildings and communities.
3. Building code updates: Updating building codes to incorporate climate-resilient design standards
can help to ensure that new buildings are designed to withstand the impacts of climate change.

By promoting sustainable building and construction strategies, we can work towards reducing greenhouse
gas emissions, increasing resilience, and promoting more sustainable and liveable communities.

Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: Industry

decarbonization and economic growth
Industry decarbonization refers to the process of reducing greenhouse gas emissions from industrial
activities, such as manufacturing and energy production. This process is essential for mitigating the
impacts of climate change while still promoting economic growth.
Decarbonization strategies for industry can include:
1. Energy efficiency improvements: Improving energy efficiency in industrial processes can
reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.
2. Renewable energy adoption: Switching to renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind
power, can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from industrial energy consumption.
3. Low-carbon fuels: Using low-carbon fuels, such as biofuels or hydrogen, can help to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions from industrial activities that rely on fossil fuels.
4. Carbon capture, utilization, and storage: Capturing carbon dioxide emissions from industrial
activities and storing them underground or using them for other purposes can help to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions.
Adaptation strategies for industry can include:
1. Resilient infrastructure: Building infrastructure that is resilient to extreme weather events,
such as flooding and heat waves, can help to reduce vulnerability and increase resilience.
2. Supply chain resilience: Ensuring the resilience of supply chains, including raw materials and
transportation, can help to reduce the impacts of climate change on industrial activities.
3. Circular economy: Adopting circular economy principles, which involve reducing waste and
reusing materials, can help to reduce the environmental impacts of industrial activities.
While some industries may face short-term costs associated with decarbonization, the long-term
benefits can include increased energy efficiency, cost savings, and improved brand reputation.
Additionally, the transition to a low-carbon economy can create new economic opportunities, such as
the growth of renewable energy industries and the development of new low-carbon technologies.
Overall, industry decarbonization is essential for mitigating the impacts of climate change while still
promoting economic growth and ensuring the long-term sustainability of our economy and planet.

Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: Renewable and clean

energy potential and implementation
Renewable and clean energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal power, have enormous
potential to mitigate the impacts of climate change while providing reliable and affordable energy. Here are
some potential implementation strategies:

1. Increase renewable energy capacity: Governments can encourage the growth of renewable
energy capacity by offering incentives for investment, such as feed-in tariffs, tax credits, and
grants.
2. Net-zero emissions targets: Governments can set ambitious net-zero emissions targets and
implement policies to encourage the deployment of renewable energy technologies.
3. Renewable portfolio standards: Governments can establish renewable portfolio standards,
which require a certain percentage of electricity generation to come from renewable sources.
4. Distributed generation: Promoting distributed generation, where energy is generated and
consumed locally, can reduce the need for long-distance transmission and distribution lines.
5. Energy storage: Developing energy storage technologies, such as batteries and pumped hydro
storage, can help to address the intermittent nature of some renewable energy sources and
increase the reliability of renewable energy systems.
Adaptation strategies for renewable and clean energy can include:
1. Resilient infrastructure: Building infrastructure that is resilient to extreme weather events,
such as flooding and hurricanes, can help to reduce vulnerability and increase resilience.
2. Microgrid systems: Implementing microgrid systems, which can operate independently from
the main power grid, can increase the resilience of renewable energy systems.
3. Demand response programs: Implementing demand response programs, which encourage
consumers to reduce energy consumption during times of high demand, can help to manage
energy supply during extreme weather events.
By promoting the deployment of renewable and clean energy sources, we can work towards reducing
greenhouse gas emissions, increasing energy security, and promoting sustainable economic growth.
Additionally, the transition to renewable energy sources can create new economic opportunities, such
as the growth of renewable energy industries and the development of new technologies.

Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: Environmental,

economic and social benefits of climate change mitigation
There are many benefits of climate change mitigation efforts, including environmental, economic, and
social benefits. Here are some examples:
Environmental benefits:
 1. Reduced greenhouse gas emissions: Mitigation efforts can help to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, which contribute to climate change and its associated environmental impacts, such
as sea level rise, extreme weather events, and ocean acidification.
2. Improved air quality: Many mitigation strategies, such as transitioning to cleaner energy
sources and reducing transportation emissions, can also improve air quality, which can have
positive impacts on human health and the environment.
3. Preservation of ecosystems: Mitigation efforts can help to preserve ecosystems and protect
biodiversity by reducing habitat loss and degradation caused by climate change.
Economic benefits:
1. Job creation: Many mitigation efforts, such as the deployment of renewable energy
technologies, can create new job opportunities in emerging industries.
2. Cost savings: Energy efficiency improvements and the deployment of renewable energy
technologies can result in cost savings over the long-term by reducing energy consumption
and reducing the need for fossil fuel imports.
3. Increased competitiveness: Companies that implement climate change mitigation strategies,
such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions or adopting sustainable practices, can increase
their competitiveness by attracting customers who value sustainability and reducing
regulatory risks.
Social benefits:
1. Improved health: Mitigation efforts can improve public health by reducing air pollution and
exposure to extreme weather events, which can have negative impacts on physical and mental
health.
2. Increased social equity: Climate change disproportionately affects vulnerable populations,
such as low-incom Overall, climate change mitigation efforts can have significant positive
impacts on the environment, the economy, and society, and are essential for promoting long-
term sustainability and resilience.
3. E-communities and communities of color. Mitigation efforts can help to reduce these
disparities by promoting social equity and ensuring that all communities have access to the
benefits of a low-carbon economy.
4. Enhanced quality of life: A low-carbon economy can promote a higher quality of life by
reducing environmental stressors, improving health outcomes, and promoting sustainable
practices that support social well-being.
Overall, climate change mitigation efforts can have significant positive impacts on the environment,
the economy, and society, and are essential for promoting long-term sustainability and resilience.
Climate change mitigation and adaptation are crucial strategies for addressing the impacts of climate
change on the environment, society, and economy. Mitigation involves reducing greenhouse gas
emissions to limit the magnitude and rate of climate change, while adaptation involves adjusting
systems and behaviors to cope with the impacts of climate change that are already happening or are
anticipated to occur.
While these strategies are necessary, there are limitations to their effectiveness. Climate change is a
global problem that requires a coordinated effort among all nations, and without international
cooperation, mitigation efforts may be insufficient to avoid catastrophic impacts. Additionally, the
costs of implementing mitigation and adaptation measures can be significant, particularly for
developing countries and vulnerable communities.
Furthermore, there is a risk that focusing too heavily on mitigation could lead to neglecting
adaptation, particularly in developing countries where the impacts of climate change are likely to be
the most severe. Adaptation efforts are also not foolproof and can face challenges such as insufficient
funding and a lack of infrastructure.
In conclusion, climate change mitigation and adaptation are critical strategies for addressing the
impacts of climate change, but they are not without limitations. A comprehensive approach that
balances both strategies, as well as international cooperation and adequate funding, is needed to
effectively address this global challenge.

Future scope of climate change

Increasing greenhouse gas concentrations will have many effects
If our annual emissions of billions of tonnes of carbon dioxide do not significantly decline, the
concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere will continue to rise. Higher concentrations are
anticipated to:
raise the global mean temperature.
Influence the patterns and quantities of precipitation Lower the amount of ice, snow, and permafrost
cover.
Increase sea level to make the oceans more acidic.
the occurrence, severity, and/or duration of extreme events to rise.
Threats to human health become more prevalent when ecosystem traits change These changes will
have an effect on our infrastructure, ecosystems, food supply, water supplies, and even our own
health.
Future modifications will be influenced by numerous causes.
NRC Climate Stabilisation Targets Higher Concentrations of Greenhouse Gases
Natural factors that affect the climate, such as volcanic activity and variations in the sun's intensity, as
well as natural climate-related processes.
Future climate will be impacted by greenhouse gas emissions from the past and the present.
Numerous greenhouse gases are persistent in the atmosphere. As a result, even if emissions stopped
rising, atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases would keep rising and staying high for
hundreds of years. Furthermore, surface air temperatures would continue to rise even if concentrations
stabilised and the composition of the atmosphere remained constant (which would necessitate a
significant decrease in present greenhouse gas emissions). This is due to the fact that it takes several
decades for the oceans, which store heat, to fully adapt to rising greenhouse gas concentrations. Over
the coming decades to hundreds of years, the response of the ocean to rising temperatures and
greenhouse gas concentrations will continue to affect the climate.

Future temperature changes

Over the past several decades, we have already seen evidence of global warming. It is anticipated that
temperatures will continue to shift. Following are the main temperature-related changes that climate
models predict.
By 2100, average global temperatures are predicted to rise by 0.5°F to 8.6°F, with an increase of at
least 2.7°F likely under all but the scenario with the most dramatic greenhouse gas emission
reductions.The average global temperature is predicted to rise by at least twice as much in the next
100 years as it did in the previous 100, with the exception of the most drastic mitigation scenario
examined.
Over land than over oceans, ground-level air temperatures are anticipated to continue to rise more
quickly.
The worldwide average is predicted to rise in temperature less frequently in some regions of the
planet. Depending on the emissions scenario and climate model, an average temperature increase of
3°F to 12°F is predicted for the United States by the year 2100.A rise in global average temperatures
suggests that heat waves, or extreme heat events, would occur more frequently and with greater
intensity. In the entire country, especially at the end of the century, more days with high temperatures
above 90°F are anticipated. According to climate projections, by the years 2035–2064, July
temperatures in the United States that were among the warmest 5% between 1950 and 1979 will occur
at least 70% of the time.

Future precipitation and storm events

Changes are also anticipated to occur in precipitation patterns and storm occurrences, including
snowfall and rain. Some of these changes, meanwhile, are less clear than those related to temperature.
Precipitation and storm variations in the future will vary by season and place, according to
projections. Some places may have decreased precipitation, increased precipitation, or little to no
change. While storm paths are expected to move poleward, the amount of rain that falls during severe
precipitation events is predicted to rise in most places.The following variations in precipitation and
storms are predicted by climate models.
Through the end of the century, global average annual precipitation is anticipated to rise, although
regional variations in precipitation amount and severity will be significant.Precipitation occurrences'
average intensities are probably going to get worse. This will be especially noticeable in tropical and
high-latitude areas, which are also anticipated to have increases in precipitation overall. Tropical
cyclone-related winds are probably going to get stronger. Additionally, it's expected that tropical
storms will provide more precipitation overall.
It is anticipated that annual average precipitation will rise in certain places and fall in others.
Precipitation projections for two emission scenarios are shown in the image to the right.
The north is expected to experience increased precipitation, particularly in the winter and spring. It is
anticipated that the South, particularly the Southwest, will grow drier.Even in locations where total
precipitation is anticipated to decrease, heavy precipitation events are likely to occur more frequently.
Depending on the location, heavy downpours, which currently happen around once every 20 years,
are predicted to happen twice as frequently to five times more frequently by the year 2100. With the
exception of very northern regions, it is anticipated that a greater percentage of precipitation would
fall as rain rather than snow. As the ocean warms, storms in the Atlantic are anticipated to become
more intense. Climate models predict a rise in the frequency of Category 4 and Category 5 hurricanes
as well as higher hurricane rainfall rates.

Future ice, snowpack, and permafrost

Sea ice in the Arctic is already melting. Since roughly 1970, the amount of snow cover in the
Northern Hemisphere has declined. Over the past century, permafrost temperatures have risen in
Alaska and a large portion of the Arctic. Visit the Snow and Ice page under Indicators to learn more
about recent changes in snow and ice.
Sea ice is anticipated to continue to decrease, glaciers to continue to recede, snow cover to continue to
diminish, and permafrost to continue to thaw throughout the course of the next century. The following
describes potential changes to permafrost, snow, and ice.
Models predict that the area covered by Arctic sea ice at the end of summer (September) will decline
by 25% and see a 15% decrease in extent with every 2°F increase in global temperature. Note that the
sea level is not rising as a result of this decline.
It is anticipated that the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets' coastal portions would keep melting or
slipping into the sea. The ice sheets may considerably contribute to the rise in sea level if the rate of
this ice melting accelerates in the twenty-first century.
The size of glaciers is predicted to keep shrinking. It is anticipated that the pace of melting will keep
rising, which would cause the sea level to rise.

Future sea level change

In addition to expanding ocean water and melting mountain glaciers and ice caps, warming
temperatures also cause some of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets to melt or flow into the ocean.
Global sea levels have increased by around 7.5 inches since 1870. Forecasts for future sea level rise
vary by region, but it is anticipated that the global sea level will increase faster in the next century
than it did in the previous 50. The projected increase in sea level by 2100 ranges from 1 to 4 feet, with
an uncertainty range of 0.66 to 6.6 feet, according to studies.
Future relative sea level rise will be influenced by regional and local characteristics for particular
beaches around the world. For instance, relative sea level rise is influenced by changes in land
elevation brought on by subsidence (sinking) or uplift (rising). The following relative sea level rise
would result from a 2-foot rise in the global sea level by 2100, assuming that certain previous
geological factors continue:
At New York City, 2.3 feet
Hampton Roads, Virginia, has 2.9 feet.
At Galveston, Texas, 3.5 feet
1 foot near Neah Bay in the state of Washington
The closeness to melting ice sheets, local variations in currents, winds, salinity, and ocean
temperatures are all factors that affect relative sea level rise.

Future ocean acidification

Plankton, mollusks, shellfish, and corals are just a few of the marine organisms that are negatively
impacted by ocean acidification. There will be less calcium carbonate available as ocean acidification
progresses. Many marine animals use calcium carbonate as a fundamental structural component for
their skeletons and shells. It is predicted that coral calcification rates will decrease by more than 30%
if atmospheric CO2 concentrations double. By 2050, climate warming and ocean acidification might
reduce coral development by roughly 50% if CO2 concentrations climb at the current